Meanwhile no consistent purpose was shown in dealing with the Indian

problem. At one time the American policy was to concentrate all the

Indians on three great reservations, an expansion of the plan adopted

early in the 19th century which set aside the former "Indian country"

(afterwards restricted to the Indian Territory). The sentiment in regard

to great reservations, however, gradually weakened, till in 1878 it was

proposed to concentrate the Indians on smaller reservations; but the

entire reservation system became increasingly unpopular, and finally in

1887 Congress enacted the Land Severalty Law, paving the way for

abolition of the reservation and agency system; at the same time it

emphasized the government policy of gradually (the reservation system

was a preliminary step in the way of bringing the Indians more under

government control) bringing about the cessation of all "tribes" as

independent communities and securing their ultimate entrance upon

citizenship with the white population. This certainly was far removed

from the declaration of the Virginia Assembly in 1702 that "no Indian

could hold office, be a capable witness, or hunt over patented land";

and at this time also, "an Indian child was classed as a mulatto, and

Indians, like slaves, were liable to be taken on execution for the

payment of debt." As Miss Fletcher (_Handb. of Amer. Inds._, 1907, pt.

i. p. 501) notes, the ordinance of Congress passed in 1787 respecting

the duty of the United States to the Indian tribes, which was confirmed

by the act of 1789, was reaffirmed in the organizing acts of Alabama,

Colorado, Dakota, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,

Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon, Wisconsin and Wyoming.

The Land Severalty Law of 1887 (amended 1890) provided for the survey of

reservations and the allotment to each person of a tract ranging from 40

to 160 acres, the remainder being sold to white settlers. The process of

dividing the Indian lands into individual allotments and disposing of

the remainder for the benefit of the tribe or the nation has been very

successful in many cases. This policy has culminated in a recent

decision of the United States Supreme Court, by virtue of which all

Indians living upon their own allotments were declared to be citizens,

on the same terms and subject to the same laws as the whites.

During the period 1609-1664, from the visit of Hudson to the surrender

of New Amsterdam to the English, the Dutch exercised not a little

influence upon the aborigines of the present state of New York and

some of the regions adjoining. Hudson's harsh treatment of the natives

caused the Dutch trouble later on. Through their trading-post of Fort

Orange (now Albany) they came into contact with both Iroquoian and

Algonkian tribes, carrying on an extensive trade in furs with some of

them, including the New England Pequots. They sided with the Iroquois

against the northern Algonkian tribes, but also aided the Mohegans

against the Mohawks. Farther south they helped the Senecas against the

Munsees. Their quarrels with the English involved many of the Indian

tribes on one side or the other. They have been generally condemned

for their readiness to furnish the Indians with fire-arms and

intoxicating liquors, though some of these actions were doubtless

performed by individual traders and settlers only and cannot be

charged to a deliberate policy of the government. The modern title of

_Kora_, given by the Canadian Iroquois to the governor-general (also

to the king of England), is a corruption of _Corlaer_, the name of a

trusted Dutch manager of Rensselaerwyck (cf. the Iroquois name for the

French governor, _Onontio_ = Montmagny).

German influence among the American Indians north of Mexico has made

itself felt among the Eskimo (particularly in Labrador), the Delawares

and Mohegans, the Iroquois and the Cherokee, where the Moravian

missionaries did much good work. They influenced the Indians for peace

and good conduct during the great wars. In Labrador the dress,

habitations and beliefs of the Eskimo have been considerably modified.

It is said by some that Sequoyah, the inventor of the "Cherokee

alphabet," had for father a German settler.

The great influence of the Spaniards upon the American Indians has

been treated by Blackmar in his _Spanish Institutions in the

South-west_, and by Lummis, Bourke, Hodge and other authorities. The

results of Spanish contact and control are seen in the loan-words in

the various languages of the region, the consequences of the

introduction of domestic animals (horse, mule, sheep, goat, fowls),

the perfection of the arts involved in the utilization of wool, the

planting of wheat, the cultivation of peaches and other exotic fruits.

The difference between the Navaho and their close kinsmen the Apache

may be largely attributed to changes wrought by the coming of the

Spaniards. The "Mission Indians" of California represent another great

point of contact. In California thousands and thousands of Indians

were converted and brought under the control of the able and devoted

missionaries of the Catholic Church, only to become more or less

utterly helpless when Spanish domination ceased and the missions fell

into decay. Traces of Spanish influence may be found as far north as

the Saskatchewan, where personal names implying origin from a Mexican

captive occur; and there is not a little Spanish blood in some of the

tribes of the Great Plains, who often took with them from their border

raids, or acquired from other tribes, many white prisoners from

Mexico, &c.

In Alaska the influence of Russian sailors, traders and settlers

during the period of occupancy was considerable, as was also that of

the priests and missionaries of the Greek Church, but much of what was

thus imposed upon the aborigines has now been modified or is being

submerged by the more recent influences of the English-speaking

settlers, miners, &c., and the efforts of the American government to

educate and improve them. The influence of the Russians extended even

to California, as the name "Russian River" would indicate, and

Friederici (_Schiffahrt der Indianer_, 1907, p. 46) even thinks that

to them is due the sporadic occurrence in that region of skin-boats.

It was through the Russians that the Alaskan Eskimo received tobacco.

Some Russian words have crept into certain of the Indian languages. It

has been said that the Russian authorities from time to time

transported a few Indians over-sea to Kamchatka, &c.

The general question of the relations of the Europeans in North

America with the Indians has been treated by various authors, one of

the most recent being Friederici, whose _Indianer und Amerikaner_

(Brunswick, 1900) is perhaps a little too prejudiced.

Indian wars.

The contact between the races in North America has had its darker side,

seen in the numerous conflicts and "wars" that have marked the conquest

of the continent by the whites and the resistance of the weaker people

to the inevitable triumph of the stronger. The following sketch of the

warlike relations of various Indian stocks with the European colonists

and their descendants brings out the principal facts of historic

interest.

_Eskimoan._--The history of warfare between the European colonists

(and their descendants) and the North American aborigines begins with

the conflict of Eskimo and Northmen in Greenland, the last phase of

which, in the first half of the 15th century, ended in the destruction

of the European settlements and the loss of knowledge of the Eskimo to

the Old World till they were rediscovered by Frobisher in 1576 and

Davis in 1585. Then came a new series of small conflicts in which the

whites have been the chief aggressors--whalers, sealers and other

adventurers. In the extreme north-west the Aleuts were very harshly

treated by the Russians, and one of the most recent deeds of brutality

has been the reported extermination, by irresponsible whalers, of the

Eskimo of Southampton Island in Hudson's Bay.

_Algonkian and Iroquoian._--Southward, along the Atlantic coast, the

period of actual settlement by the whites in large numbers was

preceded by numerous conflicts with the Algonkian Indians in which all

too often the whites (adventurers, fishermen, &c.) were principally at

fault, the natives being sometimes carried off as slaves to Spain and

elsewhere in Europe. When Champlain, very shortly after the founding

of Quebec, decided to help his Algonkian neighbours against their

Iroquoian enemies, an alliance was entered upon which had much to do

with the final defeat of France in North America. The battle fought

and won by Champlain near Ticonderoga in 1609 made the Iroquois the

lasting antagonists of the French, and, since the former held a large

portion of what is now the state of New York, the latter were

effectually prevented from annihilating or destroying the English

colonies to the south. The Iroquois alliance with the English in New

York was preceded by one with the Dutch. Another result of the feud

between the Iroquois and the French was the destruction of the

confederacy of the Hurons, themselves a people of Iroquoian stock,

established in the region between Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, over

a large portion of what is now the province of Ontario, although the

antagonism between Hurons and Iroquois had existed even before the

coming of Cartier and the inevitable conflict had already begun. As an

outcome of Champlain's visit to the country of the Hurons in 1615 the

Jesuit missionaries had established themselves among these Indians and

for thirty-five years laboured with a devotion and sacrifice almost

unparalleled in the history of the continent. The struggle ended in

the campaign of 1648-1649, in which the Iroquois destroyed the Huron

settlements and practically exterminated the people, the French

priests in many cases having suffered martyrdom in the most cruel

fashion at the hands of the savage conquerors. Such of the Hurons as

succeeded in escaping took refuge in some of the safer French

settlements or found shelter among friendly Indian tribes farther

west. Some of these refugees have their descendants among the Hurons

of Lorette to-day and among the Wyandots of Oklahoma. The _Tionontati_

(Tobacco Nation) Hurons continued the struggle for some time longer, a

battle being fought in 1659 on the Ottawa above Montreal, in which the

Iroquois were victorious and the Huron chief slain. As late as

1747-1748 some of the Hurons, who had taken refuge in the west, under

Orontony, a wily and unscrupulous chief, who was offended at certain

actions of the French, entered into a conspiracy with many Algonkian

tribes of the region to destroy the French posts at Detroit, &c.,

which, however, proved unsuccessful, the plot being revealed through

the treachery of a Huron woman. A notable event in the French-Iroquois

wars was the attack on Montreal in 1689. After the coming of Frontenac

as governor of Canada the wars between the French and English involved

some of the Indian tribes more and more, on one side or the other, the

_Mohawks_ especially, who took part against the French, being famous

for their raids from the region of Ohio to far into New Brunswick.

During the French war and the American War of Independence the

Algonkian and Iroquoian Indians serving on both sides were in part or

wholly responsible for numerous massacres and other acts of barbarity,

though the whites sometimes showed themselves fully the equals of the

savages they condemned.

In New England the most notable conflicts were "the _Pequot_ war" of

1637-1638 and "King Philip's war" of 1675-1676, the latter resulting

in the overthrow of a powerful confederacy, which at one time

threatened the very existence of the colony, and the practical

extermination of the Indians concerned, after great havoc had been

wrought by them in the white settlements. New England also suffered

much from Indian "wars" instigated by the French, and at Caughnawaga

and other Iroquois settlements in French Canada there is much white

blood resulting from the adoption of captives taken away (e.g. at

Marlboro and Deerfield, Mass., in 1703-1704) in raids on New England

villages. Celebrated in the annals of war are the Algonkian chiefs

Tecumseh (Shawnee), who aided the British in the war of 1812, and

Pontiac (Ottawa), whose remarkable conspiracy of 1763 has been studied

by Parkman; of noted Iroquoian chiefs and warriors may be mentioned

Joseph Brant, who fought for the British in the War of Independence,

and Logan, ill-famed for his barbarities perpetrated against the

border settlements on the Ohio, 1775-1780, &c.

In Virginia the future of the English colony was not absolutely

assured much before 1620. From the founding of Jamestown in 1607 until

about 1616 the colony was in more or less danger of extinction by

starvation or destruction at the hands of the Indians. The most famous

and romantic of the Indian wars of Virginia was that in which Captain

John Smith was concerned in the days of Powhatan and Opechancanough,

when his rescue by Pocahontas is said to have taken place. Under

Opechancanough massacres of the English settlers took place in 1622

and 1644 in particular, while intermittent hostilities continued

between these dates, many hundreds of whites being slain by the

Powhatan Indians and their confederates of Algonkian stock. As a

result of wars with the English and also with other Indian tribes,

many of the Algonkian peoples of Virginia, like some of the Iroquoian

peoples farther south, were by the end of the 17th century greatly

reduced in numbers. In the Carolinian region the Iroquoian _Cherokee_

warred against the English colonists from 1759 until the War of

Independence, and continued their struggle then against the Americans

until 1794. After their forcible removal west of the Mississippi in

1838-1839 no serious hostilities occurred, with the exception of a

conflict between the whites and a portion of the Cherokee, who had

earlier moved into eastern Texas while that state was under the

Mexican régime. The _Tuscarora_ were in frequent conflict with the

English, particularly in the "Tuscarora war" of 1713-14.

Of Algonkian tribes farther west the _Cheyenne_ began conflicts with

the whites about 1840, made their first incursion into Mexico in 1853,

and between 1860 and 1878-1879, according to Mooney, "they were

prominent in border warfare ... and have probably lost more in

conflict with the whites than any other tribe of the plains in

proportion to their number." They participated in the "Sitting Bull

war" of 1876.

The _Chippewa_ of the north-western United States in the latter half

of the 18th century and till the close of the war of 1812 kept up

warfare with the border settlements, but have been generally peaceful

since 1815, when a treaty was made. The only serious outbreak among

the _Cree_, who have been generally friendly to the whites from the

period of first contact, occurred during the Riel "rebellion" of 1885,

but was soon settled. In the latter part of the 18th century (up to

the treaty of Greenville, 1795) the _Delawares_ took a prominent part

in opposing the advance of the whites. The _Kickapoos_ were concerned

in the Indian plot to destroy the fort at Detroit in 1712, and a

hundred years later they aided the English against the Americans; in

1832 numbers of them helped Black Hawk in his war against the whites.

The _Micmac_ were long hostile to the English, being prominent as aids

to the French in the New England wars, and it was not until about 1779

or long after the French cession that conflicts between these Indians

and the whites came to an end. The _Mississaguas_ fought with the

Iroquois against the French about 1750, having soon become friendly

with the English and remaining so. The _Ottawa_ were prominent in the

wars of the region about Detroit from 1750 till 1815. Pontiac, whose

"conspiracy" of 1763 is noted in American history, was an Ottawa

chief. The _Penobscot_, as friends of the French, continued their

attacks on the English settlements till about 1750. The _Sacs_ and

_Foxes_ appear early in the 18th century as antagonists of the French

(a rare thing among Algonkian peoples) and they were the instigators

of the nearly successful attack on Detroit in 1712. In the war of 1812

most of these Indians sided with the British. Black Hawk, the chief

figure in the "war" of 1831-1832, was a Sac and Fox chief, who

endeavoured to engage all the Indian tribes of the region in a general

alliance against the whites. The _Shawnees_ were prominent in the

border warfare of the Ohio region, and their famous chief Tecumseh

fought for the British in the war of 1812.

_Athabaskan._--The Athabaskan tribes of the far north, with the

exception of occasional disputes with the traders and settlers, have

generally been of a peaceful disposition, and "wars" with the whites

have not been recorded to any extent. The warlike members of this

stock have been the Apache and the Navaho. The Apache from the middle

of the 16th century have given evidence of their instinct for raids

and depredations on the frontiers of civilization. In recent times the

most noteworthy outbreaks were those under Cochise, Victorio,

Geronimo, Nana, Nakaidoklini, &c., between 1870 and 1886, in which

several hundred whites in Mexico and New Mexico were killed and much

property destroyed. As late as 1900 some of the hostile Apaches, who

had escaped to the mountains, made a raid on the Mormon settlers in

Chihuahua, Mexico. The Navaho, when New Mexico passed into the

possession of the United States in 1849, had long been in the habit of

committing depredations upon the white settlements and the Pueblos.

These "wars" continued till 1863, when "Kit" Carson completely

defeated them and the greater part of the tribe were made prisoners.

Since their release in 1867 they have thriven in peace, although

occasionally serious trouble has threatened, as, e.g., in November

1905.

_Caddoan._--The _Caddo_ proper were friendly to the French and helped

them against the Spaniards in the wars of the 18th century. After the

annexation of Texas the Indians were badly treated and some of them

made answer in kind; in 1855 a massacre of the Indians was proposed by

the whites. Since their forced march to Oklahoma in 1859 they have

been at peace. The _Arikara_ had a brief conflict with the United

States authorities in 1823, as a result of the killing of some

traders. In the wars of the 18th century the _Kichai_ adhered to the

cause of the French. The _Pawnee_ seem never to have warred against

the United States, in spite of much provocation at times.

_Californian Stocks._--Such "wars" as are recorded, for the most part

between the minor Californian stocks and the whites, have been largely

directly or indirectly instigated by the latter for various purposes

of gain. The Lutuamian stock is remarkable as furnishing both the

_Klamath_, who have always kept peace with the whites, and the

_Modoc_, who are well known through the "Modoc war" of 1872-73 under

the leadership of their chief, Kintpuash or "Captain Jack."

_Kiowan._--The Indians of the Kiowan stock joined with the Comanche,

Apache, &c., in the border wars in Texas and Mexico, and, according to

Mooney, "among all the prairie tribes they were noted as the most

predatory and bloodthirsty, and have probably killed more white men in

proportion to their numbers than any other." They have been on their

present reservation since 1868, and the only outbreak of importance

latterly occurred in 1874-75, when they joined with the Comanche,

Cheyenne, &c.

_Muskogian._--This stock has furnished some of the most warlike

Indians of the continent. The _Chickasaw_ were friendly to the

English, or rather hostile to the French, in the 18th century (war of

1736-40), and their action practically settled the question of the

extension of French power in this region. The _Choctaw_ aided the

French in the wars of the 18th century, and a few Indians of this

tribe participated in the "Creek War" of 1813-14. The _Creeks_ or

_Muskogees_ are famous on account of the terrible war of 1813-14 in

which they sustained overwhelming defeat. Earlier they were hostile to

the Spaniards in Florida, and during the 18th century were generally

friendly to the English, particularly in the "Apalachee war" of

1703-08, when they served under Governor Moore of Carolina. Another

Muskogian people, the _Seminole_, are remembered for the long and

bloody "Seminole War" in Florida, 1835-45, in which many atrocities

were committed.

_Sahaptian._--The Indians of this stock have been generally very

friendly to the whites, and the only notable "war" occurred in 1877,

when the _Nez Percés_, under their famous chief, Joseph, resisted

being confined to their reservation in Idaho. Joseph displayed

wonderful generalship; he defeated the American troops several times,

and finally executed a most remarkable retreat, over 1000 m., in an

attempt to reach Canadian territory. This was foiled within a short

distance of the boundary, and the entire force surrendered to Colonel

Miles on October 5, 1877.

_Shoshonian._--North of Mexico this great stock has developed several

warlike peoples. Trouble with the _Bannock_ occurred in 1877-78,

resulting from the encroachment of the whites at the time of the Nez

Percés war, the killing of several settlers, scarcity of food, &c. The

outbreak was ended by a campaign under General Howard in which many

Indians, men, women and children, were killed and some one thousand

taken prisoners. The _Comanche_, through a long period of more than

150 years after the Spanish occupation, kept up a continual series of

raids and depredations upon the settlements of the whites in Mexico,

&c. Their general friendly attitude towards Americans in later years

did not extend to the Texans, with whom for more than thirty years

they indulged in savage warfare. They often entered into warlike

alliance with the Apache, the Kiowa, &c. After the outbreak of 1874-75

they settled down for good. The leader in this "war" was Quana Parker,

a half-blood Comanche, who, after the matter was settled, accepted

broadly the new order of things and became "the most prominent and

influential figure among the three confederated tribes" (Mooney). The

_Paiute_, _Shoshonees_ (_Snakes_) and _Utes_ have figured in several

more or less temporary outbreaks since 1865.

_Siouan._--This great stock has had its celebrated antagonists of the

whites as well as its famous combatants of other Indian tribes. The

_Dakota_ (or _Sioux_) were unfriendly to the French for aiding their

enemies, the Chippewa, and after the fall of French power in America

in 1763, they allied themselves with the English and assisted them in

the War of Independence and the war of 1812, with few exceptions.

After the treaty of peace in 1815 various minor troubles occurred, but

in 1862 the Indians in Minnesota rose under Chief Little Crow and

committed terrible barbarities against the settlers, some 800 whites

being killed before the revolt was put down. The gold-fever of the

whites in Dakota, where the Indians had settled down, precipitated a

formidable outbreak in 1876 under the leadership of Sitting Bull,

Crazy Horse, Spotted Tail and other chiefs. The most notable event of

this "war" was the so-called "massacre" (properly cutting-off) of

General Custer and his cavalry at the battle of Little Bighorn on June

25, 1876. When the "Ghost Dance" was prevalent among so many Indian

tribes of the Plains in 1890-1891 another serious rising of the Sioux

took place, which was put down by General Miles. Sitting Bull was

killed (December 15, 1890); and resistance to an attempt to disarm a

large party of Indians at Wounded Knee Creek, near the Pine Ridge

Agency, resulted (December 29) in a deplorable massacre, in which many

women and children were killed. The story of these Sioux outbreaks and

the guiltiness of the whites with respect to them has been told

authoritatively by Mooney (_14th Ann. Rep. Bur. Ethnol._, 1892-1893).

At one time these troubles threatened to involve the Canadian Indians

of the region adjacent. The _Catawba_ of South Carolina, in the wars

of the 18th century, aided the English against the French, the

Tuscaroras (war of 1713-14) and the Lake tribes. They sided with the

Americans during the War of Independence. The _Osage_ were friendly

with the French early in the 18th century and fought with them against

the Sacs and Foxes at Detroit in 1714.

_Pueblos._--After the Spanish conquest of the Pueblos Indians of

Arizona and New Mexico the most remarkable effort of the natives to

throw off the foreign yoke was in the general revolt of 1680 under the

leadership of Popé of San Juan. At that time among the Moqui

(Shoshonian) the missionaries were killed, the churches laid in ruins,

&c., and similar events occurred elsewhere in the Pueblos region. For

this the Spaniards subsequently took ample vengeance. The Pueblos

Indians in general have never taken too kindly to the whites; and

to-day at the Moqui pueblo of Oraibi there exist a "Hostile" and a

"Friendly" faction, the first bitterly opposed to the Caucasian and

all his ways, the latter more liberal-minded, but Indian none the

less. An open rupture nearly took place in 1906.

In Canada, since the organization of the Dominion in 1867, Indian wars

have been unknown, and Indian outbreaks of any sort rare. In 1890 an

outbreak of the Kootenays was threatened, but it amounted to

nothing--the present writer traversed all parts of the Kootenay

country in 1891 in perfect safety. Occasional "risings" have been

reported from the Canadian North-West and British Columbia, but have

amounted to little or nothing. In the matter of war it should be noted

that some Indian stocks nave been essentially peaceful, and have

resorted to force only when driven beyond endurance or treated with

outrageous injustice. Again, within the same stock one tribe has shown

itself peaceable, another quite warlike (e.g. Klamath and Modoc, both

Lutuamian; the Hares and the Apache, both Athabaskan). Probably the

amount and extent of wars existing north of Mexico in Pre-Columbian

times were not as large as is generally stated. The introduction of

fire-arms, European-made weapons, the horse, &c., and the development

of ideas of property made possible through these, doubtless stimulated

intertribal disputes and increased the actual number of warlike

enterprises. Over a large portion of the continent "wars" were nearly

always initiated and carried out by a portion only of the tribe, which

often had its permanent "peace party."

Missions and Education.

The missionary labours of the various Christian churches among the North

American aborigines have been ably summarized by Mooney in the _Handbook

of American Indians North of Mexico_ (pt. i. 1907, pp. 874-909). Besides

the famous _Relation des Jésuites_ (ed. Thwaites, 1896-1901) there are

now special mission histories for the Baptists, Congregationalists,

Episcopalians, Lutherans, Mennonites, Methodists, Moravians, Mormons,

Presbyterians, Quakers, Roman Catholics (also the various orders, &c.),

who have all paid much attention to Christianizing and civilizing the

Indians. To-day "practically every tribe officially recognized within

the United States is under the missionary influence of some religious

denomination, workers of several denominations frequently labouring in

the same tribe." Something of the same sort might be said of the Indians

of Canada, whose religion (that of 76,319 out of 110,345 altogether

reported, is known) is given as follows in the _Report of the Department

of Indian Affairs_ for 1907: Roman Catholics 35,682; Anglicans 15,380;

Methodists 11,620; Presbyterians 1527; Baptists 1103; Congregationalists

18; and other denominations 597; besides 10,347 pagans. All the Indians

of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, are Catholics;

in Quebec there are but 678 Protestants (mostly Methodist); in Ontario

there are 6173 Catholics to 1030 Baptists, 4626 Methodists, 5306

Anglicans, 18 Congregationalists and 34 Presbyterians. The Indians of

British Columbia number 11,529 Catholics, 4304 Anglicans, 3277

Methodists and 431 Presbyterians; those of Manitoba, 1780 Catholics,

1685 Methodists, 382 Presbyterians and 3103 Anglicans; those of

Saskatchewan and Alberta 4249 Catholics, 1527 Methodists, 719

Presbyterians, 2549 Anglicans. In some of the tribes and settlements

both in Canada and in the United States missionary activities, the

influence of individual white men, &c., have led to a great diversity of

religious faith, sometimes within comparatively limited areas. Thus in

the Mistawasis band of Cree, belonging to the Carlton Agency, province

of Saskatchewan, numbering but 129, there are 6 Anglicans, 86

Presbyterians and 37 Catholics; in the Oak River band of Sioux in

Manitoba there are 60 Anglicans, 1 Presbyterian, 13 Methodists, 4

Catholics and 195 pagans out of a total of 273. Among the "Six Nations"

and the larger Indian peoples of Oklahoma all the leading Christian

sects, besides the Salvation Army, the Christian Scientists, the Mormons

and the "New Thought" movement are represented. There are also the

"Navaho New Faith," the "Shaker Church" of Washington, &c. The history

of missionary labours in North America among the aborigines contains

stories of disappointment and disaster as well as chronicles of success.

Some peoples, like the Timuquans, the Apalachee, the Pakawan tribes,

&c., have been converted only to disappear altogether; other great

attempts at colonization or "reduction," like the missions of Huronia

and California, succeeded for the time on a grand scale, but have fallen

victims sooner or later to the fortunes of war, the changes of politics,

or their own mechanism and its inherent weaknesses and defects. But the

thousands of good church-members, including many ministers of the

Gospel, in Canada and the United States, coming from scores of different

tribes and many distinct stocks, no less than the general good conduct

of so many Indian nations, are a remarkable tribute to the work done by

Catholic and Protestant missionaries alike all over the broad continent

from the Mexican border to the snows of Greenland and the islands of the

Arctic. The martyrdom of the Jesuits among the fierce Iroquois, the zeal

of Duncan at Metlakahtla, the fate of the Spanish friars in the Pueblos

rebellion of 1680 under Popé, the destruction of the Huron missions in

1641-1649 and of those of the Apalachee in 1703, the death of Whitman at

the hands of the Cayuse in 1847, are but a few of the notable events of

mission history. The following brief accounts of missionary labours

among one or two of the chief Indian stocks and in a few of the chief

areas of the continent will serve to indicate their general character.

_Californian Indians._--Beginning with the foundation by Father

Junipero Serra in 1769 of San Diego de Alcalá, and ending with that of

San Francisco Solano in 1823, there were established, from beyond San

Francisco Bay to the River Colorado, twenty-three missions of the

Catholic faith among the Indians of California, whose direct influence

lasted until the "secularization" of the missions and the expulsion of

the friars by the Mexican government in 1834. In that year the

missions counted 30,650 Indians and produced 122,500 bushels of wheat

and corn. They possessed also 424,000 cattle, 62,500 horses and mules,

321,900 sheep, goats, hogs, &c. The mission-buildings of brick and

stone contained besides religious houses and chapels, school-rooms and

workshops for instruction in arts and industries, and were surrounded

by orchards, vineyards and farms. Here Indians of diverse linguistic

stocks were "reduced" and "civilized," and their labour fully utilized

by the mission-fathers. But, in the words of Mooney (_Handb. of Amer.

Inds._ pt. i., 1907, p. 895), "Despite regular life, abundance of food

and proper clothing according to the season, the Indian withered away

under the restrictions of civilization supplemented by epidemic

diseases introduced by the military garrisons or the seal-hunters

along the coast. The death-rate was so enormous, in spite of apparent

material advancement, that it is probable that the former factor alone

would have brought about the extinction of the missions within a few

generations." Some of the missions had but a few hundred Indians,

some, however, as high as three thousand. Kroeber thinks that their

influence was "probably greater temporally than spiritually." After

the "secularization" of the missions decay soon set in, which the

American occupation of California later on did nothing to remedy, and

the native population rapidly decreased. When the supervision of the

missionaries no longer sustained them the Indians fell to pieces and

the practical results of seventy years of labour and devotion were

lost. In 1908 there remained of the "Mission Indians" less than 3000

individuals (belonging to the Shoshonian and Yuman stocks), whose

condition was none too satisfactory, the only human relics of the huge

attempt at the "reduction" of the Indian that was planned and carried

out in California.

_Iroquoian._--The French missions among the Hurons began in 1615-1616

with Father le Caron of the Recollect order; those of the Jesuits with

Father Breboeuf in 1626. These missions flourished, in spite of wars

and other adverse circumstances, till the invasion of the Huron

country in Ontario by the Iroquois in 1641 and again in 1649 brought

about their destruction and the dispersal of the Hurons who were not

slain or carried off as prisoners by the victors. Some took refuge

among neighbouring friendly tribes; others settled finally at Lorette

near Quebec, &c. The Wyandots, now in Oklahoma, are another fragment

of the scattered Hurons. The Hurons of Lorette numbered in 1908, 1

Anglican, 6 Presbyterians and 459 Catholics. The Wyandots of Oklahoma

are largely Protestants. The mission among the Mohawks of New York was

established in 1642 by Father Jogues (afterwards martyred by the

Indians), and in 1653 the church at Onondaga was built, while during

the next few years missions were organized among the Oneida, Cayuga

and Seneca, to cease during the warlike times of 1658-66, after which

they were again established among these tribes. The mission of St

François Xavier des Pré (La Prairie), out of which came the modern

Caughnawaga, was founded in 1669, and here gathered many Christian

Iroquois of various tribes--Mohawk especially. About this time the

Iroquois settlement on the Bay of Quinté, Ontario, was formed by

Christian Mohawks, Cayugas, &c. The Lake of the Two Mountains mission

dates from 1720, that of St Regis from 1756. Another mission at

Oswegatchie, founded in 1748, was abandoned in 1807. The Episcopal

missions among the Iroquois began early in the 18th century, the

Mohawks being the first tribe influenced, about 1700. The extension of

the work among the other Iroquoian tribes was aided by Sir William

Johnson in the last half of the century and by Chief Joseph Brant,

especially after the removal of those of the Iroquois who favoured the

British to Canada at the close of the War of Independence. In 1776 the

Congregationalists established a mission among the New York Oneida,

and later continued their labours also among the Oneida of Wisconsin.

The Congregational mission among the New York Seneca began in 1831. In

1791-1798, at the request of Chief Cornplanter, the Pennsylvania

Quakers established missions among the Oneida, Tuscarora and Seneca.

The Moravian missions among the New York Onondaga were established

under the Rev. David Zeisberger about 1745. The Methodist missions

among the Ontario Iroquois date from 1820. Of the "Six Nations"

Indians of the Grand river, Ontario, the Cayuga and Onondaga are still

"pagan," the others being Anglican, Methodist and other denominations,

including Seventh Day Adventists, Salvation Army, &c. Among the New

York Iroquois great variety of religious faith also exists, the

Presbyterians (largest), Methodists, Episcopalians and Baptists being

all represented. The Iroquois of Caughnawaga and St Regis are mainly

Catholic; at Caughnawaga there is, however, a Methodist school.

_Muskogian._--Several tribes of this stock came under the influence of

the missions established by the Spanish friars along the Atlantic

coast after the founding of St Augustine in 1565. The missionaries in

this region were chiefly Franciscans, who succeeded the Jesuits. They

were very successful among the Apalachee, but these Indians were

constantly subject to attack by the Yamasi, Creek, Catawba and other

savage peoples, and in 1703-1704 they were destroyed or taken captive,

and the missions came to an end. A few of the survivors were gathered

later at Pensacola for a time. In the early part of the 18th century

French missions were established among the Choctaw, Natchez, &c., and

the Jesuits laboured among the Alibamu from 1725 till their expulsion

in 1764. From 1735 to 1739 the Moravians (beginning under Spangenberg)

had a mission school among the Yamacraw, a Creek tribe near Savannah.

In 1831 a Presbyterian mission was established among the Choctaw on

the Yalabusha river in northern Mississippi, to which went in 1834 the

Rev. Cyrus Byington, the Eliot mission over which he presided there

and in the Indian Territory till 1868 being one of great importance.

After the removal of the Indians to the Indian Territory more missions

were established among the Choctaw, the Creek and the Seminole, &c.

The work was much interfered with by the Civil War of 1861-65, but the

mission work was afterwards reorganized. The Baptist missions among

the Choctaw began in 1832 and among the Creek in 1839. The "Choctaw

Academy," a high school, at Great Crossings, Kentucky, chiefly for

young men of the Choctaw and Creek nations, was founded in 1819 and

continued for twenty-four years. In 1835 a Methodist mission was

established among the Creek, but soon abandoned, to be reorganized

later on. Among the Indians of Oklahoma, the Catholic and Mormon

churches and practically all the Protestant denominations, including

the Salvation Army and the Christian Scientists, are now represented

by churches, schools, missions, &c. The missionaries among the

Muskogian tribes during the last half of the 18th century, as may be

seen from Pilling's _Bibliography of the Muskhogean Languages_ (1889),

furnished many able students of Indian tongues, whose researches have

been of great value in philology. This is true likewise of labourers

in the mission-field among the Algonkian, Iroquoian, Athabaskan,

Siouan and Salishan tribes and among the Eskimo. The celebrated "Eliot

Bible," the translation (1663) of the scriptures into the language of

the Algonkian Indians of Massachusetts, made by the Rev. John Eliot

(q.v.), is a monument of missionary endeavour and prescientific study

of the aboriginal tongues. In his work Eliot, like many other

missionaries, had the assistance of several Indians. The names of such

mission-workers as Egede, Kleinschmidt, Fabricius, Erdmann,

Kohlmeister, Bruyas, Zeisberger, Dencke, Rasles, Gravier, Mengarini,

Giorda, Worcester, Byington, Wright, Riggs, Dorsey, Williamson, Voth,

Eells, Pandosy, Veniaminov, Barnum, André, Mathevet, Thavenet, Cuoq,

Sagard, O'Meara, Jones, Wilson, Rand, Lacombe, Petitot, Maclean,

Hunter, Horden, Kirkby, Watkins, Tims, Evans, Morice, Hall, Harrison,

Legoff, Bompas, Peck, &c., are familiar to students of the aboriginal

tongues of America.

When in 1900 the withdrawal by the United States of government aid to

denominational schools occurred, it compelled some of the weaker

churches to give up such work altogether, and interfered much with the

activities of some of the stronger ones. According to the statistics

given by Mooney (_Handb. of Amer. Inds._, 1907, pt. i. p. 897) the

Catholic Church had in 1904 altogether, under the care of the Jesuits,

Franciscans and Benedictines, &c., and the sisters of the orders of St

Francis, St Anne, St Benedict, St Joseph, Mercy and Blessed Sacrament,

"178 Indian churches and chapels served by 152 priests; 71 boarding and

26 day schools with 109 teaching priests, 384 sisters and 138 other

religious or secular teachers and school assistants." The Catholic

mission work is helped by "the Preservation Society, the Marquette

League and by the liberality of Mother Katharine Drexel, founder of the

order of the Blessed Sacrament for negro and Indian mission work." The

corresponding statistics for the chief Protestant churches were as

follows:--

+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+

| Denomination. | Missions and | Missionaries. | Schools. |

| | Churches. | | |

+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+

| Baptist | 14 | 15 | 4 |

| Congregationalist| 10 | 12 | 5 |

| Episcopalian | 14 | 28 | 17 |

| Friends | 10 | 15 | 1 |

| Mennonite | 5 | 6 | 0 |

| Methodist | | 40 | 1 |

| Moravian | 3 | 3 | 0 |

| Presbyterian | 101 | 69 | 32 |

+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+

| Total | 157 | 188 | 60 |

+------------------+--------------+---------------+----------+

This is exclusive of Alaska, where Greek Orthodox (18 ministers in

1902), Roman Catholics (12 Jesuits and lay brothers and 11 sisters of

St Anne in 1903), Moravians (5 mission stations with 13 workers and 21

native assistants among the Eskimo in 1903), Episcopalians (31

workers, white and native, 13 churches, 1 boarding and 7 day schools

in 1903), Presbyterians (a dozen stations and several schools),

Baptists, Methodists (several stations), Swedish Evangelical (several

stations), Friends (several missions), Congregationalists (mission

school) and Lutherans (orphanage), all are labouring.

Before the advent of the whites the children of the North American

aborigines "had their own systems of education, through which the young

were instructed in their coming labours and obligations, embracing not

only the whole round of economic pursuits--hunting, fishing, handicraft,

agriculture and household work--but speech, fine art, customs,

etiquette, social obligations and tribal lore" (Mason). Parents,

grandparents, the elders of the tribe, "priests," &c., were teachers,

boys coming early under the instruction of their male relatives and

girls under that of their female relatives. Among some tribes special

"teachers" of some of the arts existed and with certain of the more

developed peoples, such as some of the Iroquoian and Siouan tribes, both

childhood and the period of puberty received special attention.

Playthings, toys and children's games were widespread. Imitation of the

arts and industries of their elders began early, and with not a few

tribes there were "secret societies," &c., for children and fraternities

of various sorts, which they were allowed to join, thus receiving early

initiation into social and religious ideas and responsibility in the

tribal unit. Corporal punishment was little in vogue, the Iroquois e.g.

condemning it as bad for the soul as well as the body. Appeals to the

feelings of pride, shame, self-esteem, &c., were commonly made. As the

treatment of the youth at puberty by the Omaha e.g. indicates, there was

among some tribes distinct recognition of individuality, and the young

Indian acquired his so-called "totem" or "guardian spirit" individually

and not tribally. In some tribes, however, the tribal consciousness

overpowered altogether children and youth. With the Indian, as with all

other young human beings, "unconscious absorption" played its important

rôle. Parental affection among some of the peoples north of Mexico

reached as high a degree as with the whites, and devices for aiding,

improving and amusing infants and children were innumerable. Some of the

"beauty makers," however, amounted to rather serious deformations,

though often no worse than those due to the corset, the use of uncouth

foot-wear, premature factory labour, &c., in civilized countries.

Interesting details of Indian child-life and education are to be found

in books like Eastman's _Indian Boyhood_ (1902), Jenks' _Childhood of

Jishib the Ojibwa_ (1900), Spencer's _Education of the Pueblo Child_

(1889), La Flesche's _The Middle Five_ (1901), Stevenson's _Religious

Education of the Zuñi Child_ (1887), and in the writings of Miss A. C.

Fletcher, J. O. Dorsey, J. Mooney, W. M. Beauchamp, &c., besides the

accounts of missionaries and travellers of the better sort.

Outside of missions proper there were many efforts made by the colonists

to educate the Indians. It is an interesting fact, emphasized by James

in his _English Institutions and the American Indian_ (1894), that

several institutions still existing, and now of large influence in the

educational world of the United States and Canada, had their origin in

whole or in part in the desire to Christianize and to educate the

aborigines, which object was mentioned in charters (e.g. Virginia in

1606 and again in 1621), &c. Sums of money were also left for the

purposes of educating Indian children and youth, many of whom were sent

over to England for that purpose, by colonists who adopted them (one

such was Sampson Occum, minister and author of the hymn, "Awaked by

Sinai's Awful Sound"). In 1618 Henrico College in Virginia was founded,

where Indian youth were taught religion, "civility" and a trade. It was

succeeded by the College of William and Mary (founded in 1691 with the

aid of a benefaction of Robert Boyle), where Indian youth were boarded

and received their education for many years. The great university of

Harvard has long outgrown "the Indian college at Cambridge," whose

single graduate Cheeshateaumuck, took his degree in 1665, but died

afterwards of consumption. But its original charter provided for all

things "that may conduce to the education of the English and Indian

youth of this country in knowledge and godliness." Since

Cheeshateaumuck's time, doubtless, there have been graduates of Harvard

who could boast of Indian blood in their veins (e.g. recently William

Jones, the ethnologist), but they have been few and far between.

Dartmouth College, at Hanover, New Hampshire, founded in 1754, really

grew out of Wheelock's Indian school at Lebanon, Connecticut--at this

period there were several such schools in New England, &c. In the royal

charter, granted to Dartmouth in 1769, is the provision "that there be a

College erected in our said Province of New Hampshire, by the name of

Dartmouth College, for the education and instruction of Youth of the

Indian Tribes in this Land, in reading, writing and all parts of

Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing and

christianizing children of pagans, as well as in all liberal Arts and

Sciences, and also of English Youth and any other." The college of New

Jersey long served as one of the institutions for the education of

Indian youth. A glimpse of Indians at Princeton is given by Collins

(_Princeton Univ. Bull._, 1902) in his account of the attempt to confer

an academic education, at the end of the 18th century, upon Thomas

Killbuck and his cousin, George Bright-eyes, son of a Delaware chief,

and a descendant of Taimenend, eponym of the political "Tammany." It

would seem that at this period the states and Congress were in the habit

of granting moneys for the education of individual Indians at various

institutions.

At the present time the most noteworthy institutions for the education

of the Indian in the United States are the Chilocco Indian Industrial

school, under government auspices, in Kay county, Oklahoma, near

Arkansas city, Kansas; the Carlisle school (government) at Carlisle,

Pa.; and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (private, but

subsidized by the government), at Hampton, Va.

The Chilocco school is, in many respects, a model institution for

Indian youth of both sexes, devoted to "agriculture and attendant

industries." It was opened in 1884 with 186 pupils, and in 1906 the

attendance was 685 out of an enrolment of 700. There are 35 buildings,

and the corps of instruction, &c., consists of "a superintendent, 51

principal employés and 20 minor Indian assistants." The Carlisle

school, "the first non-reservation school established by the

government," whose origin is due to "the efforts of General R. H.

Pratt, when a lieutenant in charge of Indian prisoners of war at St

Augustine, Florida, from May 11, 1875, to April 14, 1878," was opened

in November 1879 with 147 Indians, including 11 Florida prisoners; it

had in 1906 an enrolment of over 1000 pupils of both sexes, under both

white and Indian teachers, and an average attendance of 981. In 1906

there were in attendance members of 67 tribes, representing at least

22 distinct linguistic stocks. According to J. H. Dortch (_Handb. of

Amer. Inds._, 1907, pt. i. p. 207), "since the foundation of the

school nearly every tribe in the United States has had representatives

on its rolls." The following statistics, cited by Mr Dortch, indicate

both the success of the school in general and of the "outing system"

(pupils are allowed to work in temporary homes, but keeping in close

touch with the school), which "has come to be a distinctive feature

not only of the Carlisle school but of the Indian school service

generally":

Admitted during 25 years 5,170

Discharged during 25 years 4,210

On rolls during fiscal year 1904 1,087

Outings, fiscal year 1904 (girls 426, boys 498) 924

Outings during 21 years (girls 3214, boys 5118) 8,332

Students' earnings 1904 $34,970

Students' earnings during 15 years $352,951

The staff of the school consists of a superintendent, 75 instructors,

clerks, &c. It has graduated "a large number of pupils, many of whom

are filling responsible positions in the business world, and

especially in the Indian service, in which, during the fiscal year

1903, 101 were employed in various capacities from teachers to

labourers, drawing a total of $46,300 in salaries." The Carlisle

football team competes with the chief white colleges and universities.

The Hampton Institute was established in 1868 by General S. C.

Armstrong and trains both Negroes and Indians, having admitted the

latter since 1878. It is partly supported by the government of

Virginia and by the United States government, the latter paying $167 a

year for 120 Indian pupils, boys and girls (in 1906 there were in

attendance 112, of whom 57 were girls and 55 boys), belonging to 33

different tribes, representing 13 distinct linguistic stocks. The

following extract from the report of the principal for 1905-1906 is of

interest: "Fifteen catechists among the Sioux still hold their own.

There are two field-matrons and seven camp-school teachers, all coming

into close touch with the more ignorant of the people. Four are

physicians getting their living from their white patients and doing

more or less missionary work among their own people. William Jones has

his degrees of A.M. and Ph.D., and is doing valuable ethnological work

for the Carnegie Institution, Columbia University and the American

Museum of Natural History in New York. James Murie is assisting in

similar work for the Field Museum in Chicago. Hampton has but one

Indian lawyer. There are about 50 students holding positions pretty

steadily in government schools. About 40 boys have employment at

government agencies, 20 being employed as clerks and interpreters,

either at the agencies or at the schools. Ten boys are working in

machine shops at the north and three are in the navy. A fair

proportion are working on their farms; some have accumulated quite a

little stock, and five are prosperous cattlemen, seven boys have

stores of their own and make a good living from them." The Indian

Department has now adopted the policy of giving industrial training

and household economy the chief place in education, varying the

instruction to suit the environment in which the boy or girl is to

grow up and live and not mixing the needs of Alaska with those of

California, or those of Dakota with those of Florida.

In Canada the most notable institutions for the education of the Indians

are the Mohawk Institute at Brantford, Ontario; the Mount Elgin

Institute at Muncey, Ontario; the Brandon Industrial school at Brandon,

Manitoba; the Qu'Appelle Industrial school at Lebret, Saskatchewan.

The Mohawk Institute is the oldest, having been founded in 1831 by the

"New England Company," which began its work among the Canadian

Iroquois in 1822. It is undenominational, aided by a government grant,

and had in 1907 an average attendance of 106 out of an enrolment of

111 of both sexes. The Mount Elgin Industrial Institute was founded by

the Methodist Missionary Society in 1847, and had an attendance for

1907 of 104 of both sexes. The Brandon Industrial school, under

Methodist auspices, had in 1907 an attendance of 104 of both sexes.

The Qu'Appelle Industrial school, under Roman Catholic auspices, had

an average attendance of 210 of both sexes. All these schools receive

government aid. As in the United States, Indian teachers and

assistants are often employed when fitted for such labours.

The first appropriation by the Congress of the United States for the

general education of the Indians was made in 1819, when the sum of

$10,000 was assigned for that and closely allied purposes, and by 1825

there were 38 schools among the Indians receiving government aid, but

government schools proper date from 1873 (contract schools are four

years older), the order of their institution being day schools,

reservation boarding schools, then non-reservation boarding schools. In

1900 the contract schools were practically abandoned and the Indian

appropriation devoted to government schools altogether. Latterly some

departure from this policy has occurred, following a decision of the

Supreme Court. In less than a century the expenditure for Indian

education increased from an annual outlay of $10,000 to one of about

$5,000,000, to which must be added the expenditures from private

sources, which are considerable.

Exclusive of Alaska, there were in the United States in 1906, according

to the report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 324 Indian schools

(government 261, mission 48, contract 15), with an enrolment of 30,929

and an average attendance of 25,492 pupils, costing the government

annually $3,115,953. Of the government schools 25 were non-reservation

and 90 reservation boarding schools, and 146 day schools; of the mission

schools 45 boarding and 3 day; of the contract schools 8 boarding and 6

public. The schools of a denominational character belonged as follows:

29 to the Catholic Church, 5 to the Presbyterian, 4 to the Protestant

Episcopal, 2 to the Congregational, 2 to the Lutheran, and 1 each to the

Evangelical Lutheran, Reformed Presbyterian, Methodist, Christian

Reformed and Baptist. Besides there were in all 446 public schools on or

near reservations which Indians could attend.

In Canada, according to the report of the Department of Indian Affairs

for 1907, there was a total of 303 Indian schools (day 226, boarding 55,

industrial 22), of which 45 were undenominational, 91 Church of England,

106 Roman Catholic, 44 Methodist and 1 Salvation Army. The total

enrolment of pupils was 9618, with an average attendance of 6138. In

several cases Indians attend white schools, not being counted in these

statistics. The total amount appropriated for Indian schools during the

year 1906-1907 was $356,277.

Indian talent and capacity.

The intelligence of the American Indians north of Mexico ranges from a

minimum with the lowest of the Athabaskan tribes of extreme

north-western Canada and the lowest of the Shoshonian tribes of the

south-western United States to a maximum with the highest developed

members of the Muskogian and Iroquoian stocks (both the Cherokee branch

and the Iroquois proper). It must be remembered, however, that the

possibilities of improvement by change of environment are very great, as

is shown by the fact that the Hupa of California and the Navaho of

Arizona and New Mexico (also the cruel and cunning Apaches) belong to

the Athabaskan family, while the Shoshonian includes many of the

"civilized nations" of ancient Mexico and, in particular, the famous

Aztecs. One way of judging of the intellectual character of the various

stocks of North American aborigines is from the "great men" they have

produced during the historical periods of contact with the whites. Many

of these stocks have, of course, not had occasion for the development of

great men, their small numbers, their isolation, their lack of

historical experience, their long residence in an unfavourable

environment, their perpetual and unrestricted democracy, &c., are some

of the sufficient explanations for this state of affairs, as they would

be in any other part of the world. The Eskimoan, Athabaskan, Koluschan,

Wakashan (and other tribes of the North Pacific coast), Salishan and

Shoshonian (except in Mexico) stocks, together with the numerous small

or unimportant stocks of the Oregon-California and Gulf-Atlantic

regions, have not produced any great men, although members of many

tribes have been individually of not a little service to the intruding

race in pioneer times and since then, or have been highly esteemed by

them on account of their abilities or character, &c. Here might be

mentioned perhaps Sacajawea (see _Out West_, xxiii. 223), the Indian

woman who acted as guide and helper of the Lewis and Clark expedition

and saved the journals at the risk of her life (she has now a statue

erected to her memory in Seattle); Louise Sighouin, the Sahaptian

convert of whom the missionary de Smet thought so much; Catherine

Tekatawitha, the "Iroquois saint," &c.

The following list will serve to indicate some of the "great men" of the

Indian race north of Mexico and the stocks to which they have belonged;

in it are included also some products of the contact of the two

cultures:--

1. _Algonkian._--In politics and in oratory, as well as in combat,

this stock has produced notable characters, the conflict with the

whites and the Iroquois doubtless serving to stimulate native genius.

Among Algonkian notables may be mentioned "King Philip" and Powhatan;

Pontiac and Tecumseh; Black Hawk; Sampson Occum; George Copway;

Francis Assickinack, &c.

2. _Athabaskan._--The possibilities of this stock have been recently

illustrated by the Apaches, who, on the one hand, have produced

Geronimo, the chief who from 1877 to 1886 gave the United States

authorities such trouble, and, on the other, Dr Carlos Montezuma, a

full-blood Indian, who, after receiving a good education, served the

government as physician at several Indian agencies, and in 1908 was

practising his profession in Chicago and teaching in the College of

Physicians and Surgeons and the Post-Graduate Medical School. From

these southern Athabaskans much is to be expected under favouring

conditions.

3. _Iroquoian._--Here, as among the Algonkian tribes, circumstances

favoured the development of men of great ability. Of these may be

mentioned: Hiawatha, statesman and reformer (fl. c. 1450), the chief

mover in the formation of the great "League of the Iroquois"; Captain

Joseph Brant; "Red Jacket"; Oronhyatekha (d. 1906), the head of the

Independent Order of Foresters, an important secret charitable

society, a physician, and a man of remarkable power as an organizer.

4. _Sahaptian._--A remarkable Indian character was Nez Percé Joseph,

the leader of his people in the troubles of 1877. In 1905, at the

general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, a delegate representing

both whites and Indians was Mark Arthur (b. 1873), a full-blood Nez

Percé and since 1900 the successful pastor (fully ordained) of the

church at Lapwai, Idaho, the oldest Presbyterian church west of the

Rocky Mountains.

5. _Siouan._--The most famous Indian of Siouan stock is "Sitting Bull"

(d. 1890), medicine-man and chief. Miss Angel de Cora, a Winnebago,

was in 1908 instructor in art at the Carlisle school.

Another, not always just or fair, method of gauging the intelligence of

the North American Indians is by their ability to assimilate the

culture of the whites and to profit by the contact of the two races.

Curiously enough, some of the tribes at one time considered lowest in

point of general intellectual equipment have shown not a little of this

ability, and there is a marked difference in this respect between tribes

belonging to one and the same stock. The Athabaskan stock e.g. shows

such variations, or rather perhaps this stock in general exhibits a

tendency to adopt the culture of other peoples, thus some of the

Athabaskan tribes in Alaska have acquired elements of culture from the

Eskimo; the Takulli have been influenced by the Tsimshian, and Nahané by

the Tlingit, the Chilcotin by the Salish, the Sarcee by the western

Algonkian tribes, and in the extreme south the Navaho by the Pueblos

Indians. The Salishan stock has largely this same characteristic. Of

these two peoples Mr C. Hill-Tout (_The Salish and Déné_, London, 1907,

p. 50) says: "It would be difficult indeed to find two peoples more

susceptible to foreign influences, more receptive of new ideas and more

ready and willing to adopt and carry them out." In the relations

established between them and the whites not enough advantage in the

proper way has been taken of this "philoneism," which ought to have been

the basis of their acquisition of our culture, or such aspects of it as

suited them best. And perhaps there are other stocks of which, if we

knew them well, similar things might be said. Of the Indians of the

Shoshonian stock the Paiutes of Nevada and Arizona have shown themselves

capable of making themselves necessary to the whites (farmers, &c.) of

that region, and not falling victims to the "vices of civilization."

Although they still retain their primitive _wickiups_ (or rush huts),

they seem actually to have improved in health, wealth and character from

association with the "superior" race, a rare thing in many respects

among the lower Indian tribes of North America. This improvement of the

Paiutes causes us not to be surprised when we find the more cultured

Moquis and the "civilized" Aztecs of ancient Mexico to belong to the

same Shoshonian stock. Acculturation by borrowing has played an

important rôle in the development of North American Indian ideas and

institutions. This is well illustrated by the history of the Plains

Indians, with their numerous intertribal societies, their temporary and

their permanent alliances, federations, &c. If ways and means for the

transfer of elements of culture indicate intelligence, some of these

tribes must rank rather high in the scale. The Algonkian, Iroquoian and

Muskogian stocks, both in the case of individuals and in the case of

whole tribes (or their remnants), have exhibited great ability in the

directions indicated. Of the Caddoan stock the Pawnees seem gifted with

considerable native ability expressing itself particularly in the matter

of religion (the Hupas, of the Athabaskan stock, seem also to have "a

religious sense"). Some tribes of the Siouan stock have, both in the

case of individuals and as peoples, given evidence of marked

intelligence, especially in relation to psychic phenomena and the

treatment of adolescent youth. In their culture, their ceremonies and

ritual proceedings, as well as in their material arts, the Pueblos

Indians of the south-western United States show, in many ways, their

mental kinship with the creators and sustainers of the civilization of

ancient Mexico and Central America. From the table of Indian tribes it

will be seen that aborigines of the most diverse stocks have shown

themselves capable of assimilating white culture and of adapting

themselves to the new set of circumstances. Progress and improvement are

not at all confined to any one stock.

Syllabaries.

A very interesting fact in the history of the education of the

aborigines north of Mexico is the success of the attempt to enable them

to read and write their own language by means of specially prepared

syllabaries, "alphabets," &c. The first of these, the still existing

"Micmac hieroglyphics," so-called, was the work of Father le Clercq in

1665, improved by Father Kauder in 1866; one of the most recent, the

adaptation of the "Cree syllabary" of Evans by Peck to the language of

the Eskimo of Cumberland Sound. The basis of many of the existing

syllabaries is "the Cree syllabary," or "Evans Syllabary," invented

about 1841 by the Rev. James Evans, a Methodist missionary in the

Hudson's Bay region from the study of the shorthand systems current at

that time. This syllabary and modifications of it are now in use (with

much printed literature) for both writing and printing among many tribes

of the Algonkian, Athabaskan (modified by Morice for the Carriers, by

Kirkby and others for Chipewyan, Slavé, &c.), Eskimo (modified by Peck),

Siouan (Cree syllabary used by Canadian Stonies) stocks. Among the

Salishan tribes of the Thompson river region, the Shushwap, Okanagan,

&c., a stenographic modification (reproduced by mimeograph) by Father le

Jeune of the Duployan system of shorthand has been used with great

success. But the most remarkable of all these syllabaries is one more of

Indian than missionary origin, in its application at least, the

well-known "Cherokee alphabet" of Sequoyah, an uneducated Cherokee

half-blood, who got part of his idea from an old spelling-book though

his characters did not at all correspond to English sounds--at first 82,

later 86 syllables were represented. Invented about 1821 the "Cherokee

alphabet" was first used for printing in 1827, and has been in constant

use since then for correspondence and for various literary purposes. The

effect of this invention is thus described by Mooney (_Myths of the

Cherokee_, 1902):--

"The invention of the alphabet had an immediate and wonderful effect

on Cherokee development. An account of the remarkable adaptation of

the syllabary to the language, it was only necessary to learn the

characters to be able to read at once. No school-houses were built and

no teachers hired, but the whole Nation became an academy for the

study of the system, until, in the course of a few months, without

school or expense of time or money, the Cherokee were able to read and

write in their own language. An active correspondence began to be

carried on between the Eastern and Western divisions, and plans were

made for a national press, with a national library and museum to be

established at the capital, New Echota. The missionaries, who had at

first opposed the new alphabet on the ground of its Indian origin, now

saw the advisability of using it to further their own work."

In spite of absurdities of form and position in the characters of this

syllabary, it serves its purpose so well that, as Pilling informs us

(_Amer. Anthrop._, 1893), "a few hours of instruction are sufficient for

a Cherokee to learn to read his own language intelligibly," and in two

and a half months the Cherokee child "acquires the art of reading and

writing fluently in these rude characters." The success of the "Cree

syllabary" was also astonishing, and in 1890, according to Maclean

(_Canad. Sav. Folk_, p. 283), "few Cree Indians can be found who are not

able to read the literature printed in the syllabic characters." Here

again, "an Indian with average intelligence can memorize the whole in a

day, and in less than one week read fluently any book written upon this

plan," and many Indians learn to read fluently "with no other teachers

but the Indians around the camp-fires." Morice reports equal success

with his syllabary: "Through it Indians of common intelligence have

learnt to read in one week's leisurely study before they had any primer

or printed matter of any kind to help them on. We even know of a young

man who performed the feat in the space of two evenings." Le Jeune's

experience with the Shuswap and Thompson Indians is the same. The

creation of a "literary" class among so many Indian tribes within a

comparatively brief period is certainly a very interesting result, and

one which gives evidence of native intelligence among children and

adults alike (_Amer. Journ. Psychol._, 1905).

For a general list of authorities on the American aborigines, see

bibliography under AMERICA, section 3, _Ethnology_. The literature on

the subject, already vast, is continually increasing, and it is

impossible to enumerate every contribution made by the large number of

expert anthropologists working in this field. The chief works of a

special nature have already been cited in the text. (A. F. C.)

INDICATOR (from Lat. _indicare_, to point out), that which points out or

records. In engineering, the word is specifically given to a mechanical

device for registering the pressure of the working fluid in an engine

cylinder during a stroke of the piston, the record so provided being

termed the "indicator diagram" (see STEAM-ENGINE). In chemistry, the

word is generically applied to re-agents or chemicals which detect

usually small quantities or traces of other substances; it is, however,

more customarily restricted to re-agents which show whether a substance

or solution is acid, alkaline or neutral, the character being revealed

in a definite colour change.

Here we shall only deal with indicators in this last restricted sense.

They were first systematically employed in analytical chemistry by

Robert Boyle, who used the aqueous extracts of the coloured principles

present in red-cabbage, violets and cornflowers. The indicator most in

use to-day is litmus (q.v.), whose solution is turned red by an acid,

and blue by an alkali. Several synthetic indicators are employed in

acidimetry and alkalimetry. The choice is not altogether arbitrary, for

experiments have shown that some are more suitable for acidimetry, while

others are only applicable in alkalimetry; moreover, the strength of the

acids and bases employed may exert a considerable influence on the

behaviour of the indicator.

The following are well-known synthetic indicators: hacmoid, obtained from

resorcin and sodium nitrite, resembles litmus. Phenolphthalein, obtained

by condensing phenol with phthalic anhydride, is colourless both in acid

and in neutral solution, but intensely red in the presence of alkali; the

colour change is very sharp with strong bases, but tardy with weak ones,

and consequently its use should be restricted to acidimetry when a strong

base can be chosen, or to alkalimetry when a strong base is present.

[alpha]-Naphtholphthalein has also been used (_Biochem. Zeit._, 1910, p.

381). Methyl orange, which is the sodium salt of the acid helianthin,

obtained by diazotizing sulphanilic acid and coupling with

dimethylaniline, is yellow in neutral and alkaline solutions, but red in

acid; the change is only sharp with strong acids. Para-nitrophenol,

obtained in the direct nitration of phenol, yields a colourless solution

in the presence of acids, and an intense yellow with alkalis. Of more

recent introduction are: alizarin red, I.W.S. (alizarin mono-sulphonic

acid), claimed by G. E. Knowles (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii. 389) to be

better than methyl orange in alkalimetry; 3-amino-2-methylquinoline, used

by O. Stark (ibid. 1907, i. 974) in ammonia estimations;

para-nitrobenzeneazo-a-naphthol, shown by J. T. Hewitt (_Analyst_, 1908,

33, p. 85) to change from purple to yellow when alkalis are titrated with

weak acids; para-dimethylaminoazobenzene-ortho-carboxylic acid, proposed

by E. Rupp and R. Loose (_Ber._, 1908, 41, p. 3905) as very serviceable in

the estimation of weak bases, such as the alkaloids or centinormal

ammonia; the "resorubin" of M. Barberio (_Gazzetta_, 1907, ii. 577),

obtained by acting with nitrous acid on resorcin, which forms a violet,

blue or yellow coloration according as the solution is neutral, alkaline

or acid. Mention may be made of E. Linder's (_J. Soc. Chem. Ind._, 1908,

27, p. 485) suggestion to employ metanil yellow, obtained by coupling

diazotized meta-aminobenzenesulphonic acid with diphenylamine for

distinguishing mineral from organic acids, a violet coloration being

produced in the presence of the former.

_Theory of Indicators._--The ionic theory of solutions permitted the

formulation of a logical conception of the action of indicators by W.

Ostwald which for many years held its ground practically unchallenged;

and even now the arguments originally advanced hold good, except for

certain qualifications rendered necessary by more recent research. In

the language of the ionic theory, an acid solution is one containing

free hydrions, and an alkaline solution is one containing free

hydroxidions. A neutral solution contains hydrions and hydroxidions in

equal concentration; this is a consequence of the fact that pure water

itself undergoes a certain dissociation, and several different methods

show that in the purest water obtainable the concentration of the free

hydrions and hydroxidions is 10^(-7) at 24°. Moreover, the law of

mass-action (see CHEMICAL ACTION) demands that the product of the

concentrations of the hydrions and hydroxidions in any solution is

constant at a given temperature, and we see from the above values that

this constant is 10^(-14). It follows, therefore, that the acidity or

alkalinity of any solution can be expressed both in terms of hydrion

or hydroxidion concentration. Many researches have been directed to

classify acid and alkaline solutions according to the concentration of

the hydrion. Conductivity determinations show that the maximum

concentration of hydrion occurs in 5.8 - N nitric acid, where it has a

value of about 2 - N, and the minimum occurs in 6.7 - N potassium

hydroxide, where its value is 5 × 10^(-15), that of the hydroxidion

being about 2 - N. These figures apply to a temperature of 24°.

Bearing in mind the concentration of the ions in a neutral solution,

it is seen that a scheme of seven grades of "neutrality," differing by

successive powers of ten, may be formulated. The concentration of

hydrion and hydroxidion in any solution may be determined by several

independent methods, and it is therefore a simple matter to prepare

solutions of definite ionic concentrations and to test these with the

object of obtaining a list of indicators according to their

sensitiveness. It is found that litmus responds to concentrations of

10^(-6)H· and 10^(-6)OH', a result which shows this dye to be the best

indicator of true neutrality. Methyl orange responds to between

10^(-4)H· and 10^(-5)H·; para-nitrophenol to between 10^(-5)H· and

10^(-6)H·; and phenolphthalein to between 10^(-5)OH' and 10^(-6)OH'.

Salm (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1904, 10, p. 341) gives a list of

twenty-seven indicators classified on this principle. Other papers

bearing on this subject are Friedenthal, ibid., p. 113; Salessky,

ibid., p. 204; Fels, ibid., p. 208; Scholtz, ibid., p. 549; M. Handa,

_Ber._, 1909, 42, p. 3179.

The actual mechanism by which the indicator changes colour with

varying concentrations of hydrion or hydroxidion is now to be

considered. Ostwald formulated his ionization theory which assumes the

change to be due to the transition of the non-dissociated indicator to

the ionized condition, which are necessarily of different colours. On

this theory, an indicator must be weakly basic or acid, for if it were

a strong acid or base high dissociation would occur when it was in the

free state, and there would be no change of colour when the solution

was neutralized. Take the case of a weakly acid indicator such as

phenolphthalein. The presence of an acid depresses the very slight

dissociation of the indicator, and the colour of the solution is that

of the non-dissociated molecule. The addition of an alkali, if it be

strong, brings about the formation of a salt of phenolphthalein, which

is readily ionized, and so reveals the intense red coloration of the

anion; a weak base, however, fails to give free ions. An acid

indicator of medium strength is methyl orange. When free this

substance is ionized and the solution shows an orange colour, due to a

mixing of the red of the non-dissociated molecule and the yellow of

the ionized molecule. Addition of hydrions lessens the dissociation

and the solution assumes the red colour, while a base increases the

dissociation and so brings about the yellow colour. If the alkaline

solution be titrated with a strong acid, the hydrions present in a

very small amount of the acid suffices to reverse the colour; a weak

acid, however, must be added in considerable excess of the quantity

properly required to neutralize the solution, owing to its weak

dissociation. This indicator is therefore only useful when strong

acids are being dealt with, while its strongly acid nature renders it

serviceable for both strong and weak bases.

It seems, however, that in addition to a change in the ionic condition

of an indicator, there are cases where the coloration is associated

with tautomeric change. For example, J. T. Hewitt (_Analyst_, 1908,

33, p. 85) regards phenolphthalein and similar indicators as obeying

the following equilibrium in solution,

O: X_u·H --> X_v·O·H --> X_v·O´+H·,

<-- <--

X_u and X_v, being isomeric. This indicates the presence of two

tautomeric forms, one being of a quinonoid structure, and an ionized

molecule. A similar view is advanced by A. Hantzsch and F. Hilscher

(_Ber._, 1908, 41, p. 1187) who find that helianthin is quinonoid when

solid, whilst in solution there is an equilibrium between an aminoazo-

and sulphonic acid-form; on the other hand, the sodium salt, methyl

orange, is a sulphonate under both conditions.

INDICTMENT (from Anglo-Fr. _enditement_, _enditer_, to charge; Lat.

_in_, against, _dictare_, declare), in English law, a formal accusation

in writing laid before a grand jury and by them presented on oath to a

court of competent jurisdiction. The accusation is drawn up in the form

of a "bill" of indictment, prepared by the officer of the court or the

legal adviser of the prosecution, engrossed on parchment, and sent

before the grand jury. The grand jury hear in private the witnesses in

support of the accusation (whose names are endorsed on the back of the

bill), and, if satisfied that a prima facie case has been made out, find

the bill to be a true bill and return it to the court as such. If

otherwise, the jury ignore the bill and return to the court that they

find "no true bill." Indictments differ from presentments, which are

made by the grand jury on their own motion and their own knowledge; and

from informations, which are instituted on the suggestion of a public

officer without the intervention of a grand jury.

An indictment lies for "all treasons and felonies, for misprision of

treasons and felonies and for all misdemeanours of a public nature at

common law." And if a statute prohibit a matter of public grievance or

command a matter of public convenience all acts or omissions in

disobedience to the command or prohibition of the statute are treated as

misdemeanours at common law, and unless the statute otherwise provides

are punishable on indictment. In other words, the ordinary common law

remedy in respect of criminal offences is by indictment of the accused

and trial before a petty jury; and except in the case of informations

for misdemeanour and summary proceedings by a court of record for

"contempt of court" it is the only remedy, except where a statute

creates another remedy, e.g. by trial before a court of summary

jurisdiction.

The form of an indictment is still in the main regulated by the old

common law rules of pleading, which as to civil pleadings were often

amended during the 19th century, and finally abolished under the

Judicature Acts.

An indictment may consist of one or more counts charging different

offences. Each count consists of three parts: (1) the commencement, (2)

the statement, (3) the conclusion. The formal commencement runs thus:

"Surrey to wit." The first count begins "The jurors for our Lord the

King (i.e. the grand jurors) upon their oath present that, &c."; and the

subsequent counts begin, the "jurors aforesaid on their oath aforesaid

do further present." The first words, which are placed in the margin of

the document, are the "venue," i.e. the county or district over which

extends the jurisdiction of the court before which the indictment is

found. Subject to certain statutory exceptions it is necessary to prove

that the acts or omissions alleged to constitute the offence occurred

within that area. The conclusion consists of the words following:

"against the form of the statute (or statutes) in that case made and

provided, and against the peace of our Lord the King, his crown and

dignity." Where the offence is statutory the whole phrase is used; where

it is at common law only the second part is used. A formal conclusion is

not now essential to the validity of the indictment, but from inveterate

habit is in continued use. The statement sets forth the circumstances

alleged to constitute the offence, i.e. the accusation made. There are

still in force a number of rules as to the proper elements in the

statement; but in substance it is only necessary to set forth the facts

alleged against the accused with accuracy and sufficient precision as to

the time and place and circumstances of the alleged offence, and to

indicate whether felony or misdemeanour are charged, and so to frame the

statement as to indicate a definite offence for which a lawful sentence

may be imposed.