CHAPTER I.

EARLY TRAVELS

IN

PALESTINE,

COMPRISING THE NARRATIVES OF

ARCULF, WILLIBALD, BERNARD, SÆWULF, SIGURD,

BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE,

DE LA BROCQUIÈRE, AND MAUNDRELL.

EDITED, WITH NOTES,

BY THOMAS WRIGHT, ESQ., M.A., F.S.A., &c.

LONDON:

HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

MDCCCXLVIII.

TO HIS GRACE

THE LORD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK,

THIS VOLUME

IS VERY RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

BY

THE EDITOR.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION by the Editor vii

The Travels of BISHOP ARCULF, in the HOLY LAND, towards A.D. 700 1

The Travels of WILLIBALD, A.D. 721-727 13

The Voyage of BERNARD THE WISE, A.D. 867 23

The Travels of SÆWULF, A.D. 1102 and 1103 31

The Saga of SIGURD THE CRUSADER, A.D. 1107-1111 50

The Travels of RABBI BENJAMIN, of TUDELA, A.D. 1160-1173 63

The Book of SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE, A.D. 1322-1356 127

The Travels of BERTRANDON DE LA BROCQUIÈRE, A.D. 1432 and 1433 283

The Journey of HENRY MAUNDRELL, from ALEPPO to JERUSALEM,

A.D. 1697 383

[Illustration: PLAN OF JERUSALEM]

REFERENCES TO PLAN OF JERUSALEM,

REDUCED FROM A LARGE PLAN, CONSTRUCTED BY SCHULTZ, PRUSSIAN CONSUL AT

JERUSALEM.

1. Chapel of Scourging.

2. Scala Sancta.

3. Pilate's House.

4. Chapel of Crowning with Thorns.

5. Arch of '_Ecce Homo_.'

6. First place where Simon carried the Cross.

7. Second do. do.

8. Gate of Judgment (Porta Judiciaria).

9. House of Urias.

10. Bath of Bathsheba.

11. House of the High Priest Zacharias.

12. " St. Marcus.

13. " St. Thomas.

14. " High Priest Annas.

15. " " Caiphas.

16. Room in which the Last Supper was instituted.

17. House of the Virgin Mary.

18. Place where St. Peter wept.

19. House of Sta. Anna.

20. " the Pharisee Simon.

21. Place where Stephen was stoned.

22. " Jesus sweated blood.

23. " the Disciples slept.

24. " Judas kissed Christ.

25. " Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer.

26. " " wept over Jerusalem.

27. " the Apostles learned the Creed.

28. " Judas hanged himself.

29. Tomb of Jehoshaphat.

30. " Absolom.

31. " Jacob.

32. " Zacharias.

INTRODUCTION.

The attentive reader of history cannot fail to remark how often, in the

confusion of the middle ages, the very movements or principles which

seem in themselves most barbarous, or are most strongly tinctured with

the darkest shades of superstition, have been those which, in the

sequel, gave the strongest impulse to the advancing spirit of

civilization which has at length changed that dark past into this bright

present. It is in the contemplation of this oft-recurring fact, that we

trace, more distinctly, perhaps, than in any other, the inscrutable but

unerring ways of that higher Providence to whose rule all things are

subjected. Few of those duties enjoined by the ancient Romish Church

were accompanied with, and seemed to lead to, more abuses and scandals

than the pilgrimages to the Holy Land, so natural an attraction to every

Christian; few were attended with so much bigotry, and blindness, and

uncharitableness, or ended in observances and convictions so grossly

superstitious and so degrading to the intelligence of mankind. Yet it

was this throwing of people upon the wide and distant scene, on which

they were forced into continual intercourse, hostile or friendly,

according to the circumstances of the moment, with people of different

manners, creed, sentiment, and knowledge, that gradually softened down

all prejudices, and paved the way for the entire destruction of that

system to which it seemed intended to give support. If the seeds of

civilization ever existed in the cloister, they were seeds cast upon the

barren rock, and it was not until they were transplanted to another and

richer soil, that they began to sprout and give promise of fruit.

Even in this point of view the narrative of those early pilgrimages must

possess no ordinary degree of interest, and it gives us no little

insight into the history of the march of intellectual improvement to

accompany these early travellers in their wanderings, as they have

themselves described them to us, and to watch their feelings and hear

their opinions. The human mind is one of those important objects of

study that we can never look upon from too many standing-places. But

there is another point of view in which the narratives of the early

pilgrims, of which so many have been preserved, are perhaps still more

interesting. That favoured land to which they relate, the scene of so

many events of deep import to our happiness in this world and in the

future, has never lost its attractions, and more steps, as well as more

eyes, are now turned towards it, than in those so-called ages of faith,

when every mile on the road was believed to count in heaven for so much

towards the redemption of the past crimes and offences, however great,

of the traveller. Pilgrims innumerable still visit the holy places, with

a purer faith and a less prejudiced understanding, yet with the desire

of knowing what others in past ages saw, which is now not to be seen, or

which is seen under different circumstances; to know what they thought

of objects which still offer themselves to view; and to trace in their

successive observations and reflections the gradual development of a

thirst for discovery and knowledge which has at length given them the

power of being so much wiser than their forefathers. It was the interest

created by the objects these pilgrims visited personally, and the

curiosity excited by the vague information obtained from intercourse

with men who came from parts still more distant, that laid the first

foundation of geographical science, and that first gave the impulse to

geographical discovery.

A comparison of the numerous narratives to which we allude, places

before our eyes the most distinct view we can possibly have of the

various changes which have swept over the land of Palestine since it was

snatched from the power of the Roman emperors. The more ancient are, of

course, the most interesting, because they relate to a period when a far

greater number of monuments of still earlier antiquity remained in

existence than it has been the lot of any modern pilgrims to visit, and

the traditions of the locality were then much more deserving of

attention, because they were so much nearer to the time of the events to

which they related. It can hardly be supposed that the Christian

inhabitants of Jerusalem and its neighbourhood, under the Romans, did

not preserve some authentic traditions concerning the localities of the

more important events of Gospel history.

We have fortunately one document of a very remarkable character, which

has preserved to us the local traditions of the Christians of Syria

under the Romans. It was first brought to light by the celebrated French

antiquary, Pierre Pithou, who printed it, in 1588, from a manuscript in

his own library, under the title of "_Itinerarium a Burdigala Hierusalem

usque_;" and it was afterwards inserted in the editions of the

"_Antonine Itinerary_," by Schott and Wesseling. The author of this

Itinerary was a Christian of Bordeaux, who visited the Holy Land in the

year 333[1], and it was evidently compiled for the use of his

countrymen. This visit took place two years before the consecration of

the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built by the emperor Constantine and

his mother Helena. The compiler of this Itinerary, who is the first

traveller to the East who has left us an account of his journey,

departed from Bordeaux, then one of the chief cities of Gaul, passed by

Arles and other towns, and crossed the Alps into Italy, which country he

traversed, passing through Turin, Pavia, Milan, Brescia, Verona, &c., to

the then magnificent city of Aquileia; thence he crossed the Julian

Alps, and passed through Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Dacia, and Thrace,

to Constantinople, and thence, after crossing the Bosphorus, he

continued his route through Asia Minor to Syria. Hitherto the Itinerary

is a mere recapitulation of names and distances, but, after his arrival

in Syria, he continually interrupts his bare list of names, to mention

some holy site, or other object which attracted his attention. On his

arrival at Jerusalem, he gives us a long description of that city and

its neighbourhood. From Jerusalem he returns to Constantinople, varying

a little his route, and thence he retraces his steps as far as Heraclea

in Thrace, where he leaves his former road, passing through Macedonia to

Thessalonica, and thence to Italy, where he visited Brundusium, Capua,

and Rome, and thence returned to Milan.

Although this Itinerary has come down to us as a solitary narrative, we

learn from the writings of some of the Greek fathers, that pilgrimages

to the Holy Land had already, at that period, become so frequent as to

lead to many abuses; and the early saints' lives have been the means of

preserving to us brief notices of some of the adventures of the

pilgrims, which are obscured by the incredible miracles with which those

narratives abound. St. Porphyry, a Greek ecclesiastic of the end of the

fourth century, after living five years as a hermit in the Thebaid of

Egypt, went with his disciple Marcus to Jerusalem, visited the holy

places, settled there, and finally became bishop of Gaza. St. Eusebius

of Cremona, and his friend St. Jerome, embarked at Porto, in Italy, in

June 385, in company with a great number of other pilgrims, and in the

midst of tempests passed the Ionian Sea and the Cyclades to Cyprus,

where they were received by St. Epiphanius. They went thence to Antioch,

where they were welcomed by St. Paulinus, who was bishop of that city,

and from thence they proceeded to Jerusalem. After passing some time in

the holy city, and visiting the surrounding country, they went to Egypt,

to visit the hermits of the Thebaid, and then returning, they took up

their abode at Bethlehem, where they founded a monastery. Nearly at the

same time, St. Paula, with her daughter, left Rome for Syria, and landed

at Sidon, where she visited the tower of Elijah. At Cæsarea she saw the

house of the centurion Cornelius, which was changed into a church, and

the house of St. Philip, with the chambers of his four daughters. Near

Jerusalem she beheld the tomb of Helena, queen of Adiabene. The governor

of Palestine, who was acquainted with the family of St. Paula, prepared

to receive her in Jerusalem with due honours, but she preferred taking

up her abode in a small cell, and she hastened to visit all the holy

objects with which she was now surrounded. She went first to the church

of the Holy Sepulchre, where she prostrated herself before the true

cross, and entered the sepulchre itself, after having kissed the stone

which the angels had taken from the entrance. On Mount Sion, she was

shown the column to which Christ was bound when scourged, and which then

sustained the gallery of a church. She saw also the spot where the Holy

Ghost had descended on the Apostles on the day of Pentecost. She thence

went to Bethlehem, visiting on the way the sepulchre of Rachel. At

Bethlehem she descended into the grotto of the Nativity. She next

visited the tower of Ader of the Flocks. At Bethphage, she saw the

sepulchre of Lazarus, and the house of Martha and Mary; on Mount

Ephraim, she was shown the sepulchre of Joshua, and of the high priest

Eleazar; at Sichem, she entered the church built over the well of Jacob,

where our Saviour spoke to the Samaritan woman; she next visited the

sepulchres of the twelve patriarchs; and, at Sebaste, or Samaria, she

saw those of Elisha and Abdias, as well as that of St. John the Baptist.

To the latter were brought, from all parts, people possessed with

demons, to be cured. St. Paula went subsequently to Egypt, to visit the

hermits of the desert, whence she returned to Bethlehem, where she built

cells and hospitals for pilgrims, and there she lived in retirement till

her death[2]. St. Antoninus visited the Holy Land early in the seventh

century; his life contains some absurd legendary stories relating to the

cross, which he saw in the church of Golgotha; and he tells that there

stood on one part of Mount Sion an "idol of the Saracens," made of very

white marble (no doubt an ancient sepulchre), which, at the time of the

festival of that idol, suddenly became black as pitch, and after the

festival was restored to its original colour. At Nazareth, St. Antoninus

praises the beauty of the Jewish women who resided there; and he tells

us that the land round that place was prodigiously fertile, and that it

produced excellent wine, oil, and honey. The millet grew there to a

greater height than elsewhere, and the straw was stronger. After

visiting all the holy places, St. Antoninus, like all the other pilgrims

who went to the east before the conquests of the Saracens, repaired to

Egypt, to visit the hermits of the Thebaid. He landed at Alexandria, a

very fine city, the people of which were light in disposition, but

friendly to the travellers who came thither. He saw there, in the Nile,

a multitude of crocodiles, a great number of which were collected

together in a pond. Perhaps this was some remnant of the ancient worship

of the Egyptians. On his return to Jerusalem, St. Antoninus fell sick,

and was received into a hospital destined for poor pilgrims; he then

went into Mesopotamia, and returned by sea to Italy, his native country.

Soon after this period, the circumstances of the pilgrims who arrived in

the Holy Land were entirely changed, in consequence of the conquests of

the Saracens, who, under Omar, obtained possession of Jerusalem in 637,

by a capitulation, however, which allowed them the use of their churches

on payment of a tribute, but forbade them to build new ones. This

interdiction could not be in itself a great grievance, for the whole of

Palestine must have been literally covered with churches when it passed

under the Mohammedan yoke. The conquerors soon saw that greater

advantages would be reaped by preserving the holy places, and

encouraging pilgrimage, than by destroying them; many of them, indeed

their own creed taught them, were to be considered as objects of

reverence; and thus for two or three centuries the Christians of the

west continued to flock to the Holy Sepulchre as numerously as before,

subject, perhaps, to not much greater taxation at the holy places than

in former times, but exposed on their way to more or less insult and

oppression, according to the political or local circumstances of the

moment.

Not many years after it had thus fallen under the power of the Arabs,

the Holy Land was visited by a French bishop named ARCULF, whose

narrative stands at the head of the present volume. The French

antiquaries have not been able to discover of what see Arculf was

bishop, or when he lived; and all that is known of him is the statement

of Adamnan, who wrote down his narrative, that on his return from the

east he was carried by contrary winds to the shores of Britain, and that

he was received at Iona. We learn from Bede[3], that Adamnan visited the

court of the Northumbrian king Aldfrid, and that he then presented to

the king his book on the Holy Places, which he had taken down from the

dictation of bishop Arculf. The visit to king Aldfrid is generally

placed in 703, but by an apparent misunderstanding of the words of Bede,

and it is probable that it occurred at least as early as 701[4]. The

pilgrimage of Arculf must thus have taken place in the latter part of

the seventh century. In relating a miracle concerning the _sudarium_ or

napkin taken from the head of our Saviour (which has not been thought

worth retaining in the present translation), Arculf is made to speak of

"Majuvias, king of the Saracens," as having lived in his time[5], and

the character of the story leaves no doubt that the king referred to was

Moawiyah, the first khalif of the dynasty of the Ommiades, who reigned

from 661 to 679. I am inclined to think that Arculf's visit to Jerusalem

must be placed not long after this khalif's death.

Arculf's travels, having been reduced to a sort of treatise by Adamnan,

do not always present the exact form of a personal narrative, and we

cannot trace his course from his native land as we do those of most

subsequent travellers. He seems to have followed in the steps of the

more ancient pilgrims, and his visit to Egypt, with the avowal of his

voyages up the Nile, can only be explained on the supposition that he

also went to visit the Coptic monks of the Desert, who had been allowed

to remain there, tributary to their Arabian conquerors. He either

derived little satisfaction from this visit, or Adamnan considered it as

having no interest for his countrymen; and we find no allusion to the

Egyptian monks in the later pilgrimages. Arculf speaks of no

difficulties he had to encounter, and his narrative is of especial

interest, from the circumstance of his visiting the country when all the

buildings of the Roman age were still standing.

The narrative of bishop Arculf, besides its intrinsic value as a minute

and accurate description of localities and monuments at this interesting

period, is of especial importance to us, because, through the abridgment

made by Bede, it became the text book on this subject among the

Anglo-Saxons, and led to that passion for pilgrimages with which they

were soon afterwards seized, and which was not uncongenial to the

character of that people whose adventurous steps have since been carried

into every corner of the world.

Among the Anglo-Saxons who followed the example of Arculf, one of the

most remarkable, and the earliest of whose adventures we have any

account, was WILLIBALD, a kinsman, it is said, of the great Boniface,

and a native of the kingdom of Wessex, probably of Hampshire. His

father, who appears to have been of high rank, was honoured with a place

in the Roman calendar, under the title of St. Richard. He, with his two

sons, Willibald and Wunibald, and a daughter, afterwards so celebrated

under the name of St. Walpurgis, left England probably in the year 718,

and travelled through the land of the Franks on their way to Italy. At

Lucca, Willibald's father sickened and died; and, having buried him, the

three children reached Rome in safety, but there they were seized with a

severe fever, on their recovery from which Willibald determined to make

a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. I have fixed the date of his departure to the

year 721, because that would place his departure from Tyre on his way to

Constantinople, in 724; and I have stated on another occasion[6], that

it is in the highest degree probable that the difficulties Willibald and

his companions experienced in obtaining a passport, and the troubles

they met with in their departure from Syria, were coincident with the

persecution of the Christian churches in that country in the year just

alluded to, when the khalif Yezid II., at the end of his reign, had been

instigated by the Jews to publish an edict against the paintings in the

churches of his Christian subjects, in consequence of which many of the

latter fled their homes. After the death of Yezid, hostilities

recommenced between the Greeks and the Arabs, and continued during many

years; and it is evident that the two countries were not yet at war when

the pilgrims left. At the same time, the whole tenor of the narrative

shows that they quitted Syria on account of some sudden change in the

internal state of the country, and that they were anxious to get away,

for they came to Tyre at the wrong season of the year for making the

voyage to Constantinople, and they sailed in rough and tempestuous

weather. In 740 or 741, Willibald was consecrated bishop of Eichstadt,

being then forty-one years of age. He died, it is supposed, in the year

786. His life was written before his death, by a nun of Heidenheim, of

whose name we are ignorant, but who was his kinswoman, and who took down

the account of his travels, as she avows, from his own mouth.

The war with the Greeks did not, however, put a stop to pilgrimages from

the west, but the travellers now seem to have been obliged to pass by

way of Egypt. The geographer, Dicuil, in his treatise _De Mensura Orbis

Terræ_, which he wrote at a very advanced age, in 825, tells us, when

speaking of Egypt, that when a youth at school in France, he heard a

monk named Fidelis give an account of his travels in Egypt and the Holy

Land, to his master, Suibneus, and, from the accuracy with which he

cites it, he must have taken notes at the time. He says, that Fidelis

went with a party of pilgrims, clerks and laymen, who sailed direct to

the mouth of the Nile, no doubt to Alexandria. Proceeding up the Nile a

long way, they were struck with astonishment at the sight of the seven

"barns" (_horrea_), built by Joseph, according to the number of the

years of abundance, which looked at a distance like mountains, four in

one place, and three in another. Curiosity led them to visit the group

of three, and near them they found a lion, and eight men and women, all

lying dead; "the lion had slain them by its strength, and they had

killed the lion with their spears and swords, for the places occupied by

both these groups of barns are deserts." They found that these

buildings, in their whole elevation, were of stone; at the bottom they

were square, in the upper part round, and twisted at the summit in a

spire. Fidelis measured the side of one from one angle to the other, and

found it to be four hundred feet. Then, entering their ships in the

river Nile, they navigated direct to the entrance of the Red Sea, where

they entered a port, not far to the east of which was the spot where

Moses passed on dry land. Fidelis wished to go to this place, where he

expected to see the traces of Pharaoh's chariot wheels, but he could not

prevail with the sailors to turn away from their own course. He

observed, however, that the sea appeared there to be about six miles

across. They sailed thence, without loss of time, along the western part

of the Red Sea, or that part which extends itself in a gulf or bay far

to the north. From thence we are left to suppose that they proceeded to

Palestine[7]. The barns of Joseph were of course the pyramids, with

respect to the form of the upper part of which the pilgrim might easily

have been deceived; but it will be at once evident to any one acquainted

with the geography of Egypt, that the channel by which he passed in a

ship from the Nile to the Red Sea, was the ancient canal of Hadrian.

This canal is said to have been repaired, and rendered navigable by the

Arabs, not long after they had rendered themselves masters of Egypt, but

we know that it was finally blocked up by the khalif Abu Giafar

Almansor, in 767, to hinder provisions from being sent to the people of

Mecca and Medina, who had revolted against his authority. It was

therefore previous to this date that Fidelis visited Egypt.

Peace, broken immediately after the departure of Willibald, was not

restored till the learned reign of the magnificent Haroun-er-Raschid

(786-809), whose name, and his friendship and intercourse with the no

less splendid monarch of the west, Charlemagne, have been so often

celebrated in history and romance. Their friendship led to the opening

of Palestine to the Christian pilgrims on much more liberal terms, and

various privileges and comforts were secured for them in the holy city.

Pilgrimages now became more frequent, and several are mentioned during

the latter part of the eighth and the course of the ninth centuries.

The only one of these pilgrims whose own account of his adventures has

been preserved, was a Breton monk, evidently of the celebrated monastery

of Mount St. Michel, named BERNARD, who is distinguished in the

manuscripts by the title of _Bernardus Sapiens_, or Bernard the Wise,

although we have no other testimony to his wisdom except the account of

his pilgrimage. This very curious narrative was discovered by Mabillon,

in a manuscript of the library of Rheims, and printed in the _Acta

Sanctorum Ordinis Benedictini_. Bernard has given, at the commencement

of this narrative, the date of the year in which he started. In

Mabillon's text, and in a manuscript of the Cottonian Library, now lost,

it is 870; while in another manuscript of the Cottonian Library, still

existing, it is given as 970. Internal evidence at once fixes the date

of Bernard's pilgrimage to the ninth century, and not to the tenth; and

as it is evident that he was at Bari before the siege by Louis II., we

can have little hesitation in considering both the dates given by the

manuscripts as errors of the scribes, and in fixing Bernard's departure

to the year 867.

Bernard left Europe at a time when the Saracens of the west were engaged

in hostility with the Christians, and he was obliged to furnish himself

with a variety of protections. Although he points at the disadvantageous

contrast between the barbarity and turbulence of the western Christians

and the well regulated government of the Arabs in the east, it is quite

evident that a change had taken place in the condition of the Christians

in Syria, and that the pilgrims no longer enjoyed the immunities

obtained for them by the emperor Charlemagne. They now, on the contrary,

seem to have been subjected to extortions on every side. Bernard, like

Fidelis, went by way of Egypt, and proceeded thence into Palestine by

land. He is the first traveller who mentions the afterwards celebrated

miracle of the holy fire. At Jerusalem Bernard lodged in the hostle

which had been founded by Charlemagne, and which was still appropriated

to its original destination.

Somewhere near this period a noble Breton of the name of Frotmond, who,

with his brother, had committed one of those deeds of blood which so

often stain the history of the middle ages, was condemned by the church

to a penance, not uncommon in those times. A chain was close riveted

round his body and his arms; and in this condition, covered only with a

coarse garment, his head sprinkled with ashes, he was to visit,

bare-foot, the holy places, and wander about until God should deign to

relieve him of his burthen. In the fourth year of his wanderings he

returned to France, and went to the monastery of Redon, where he was

miraculously delivered from his chains, which had already eaten deep

into his flesh, at the tomb of St. Marcellinus. The account of his

pilgrimage was collected from the traditions of the monastery long after

Frotmond's death, by one of the monks. It is said that he and his

brethren went direct to the coast of Syria, and made some stay at

Jerusalem, practising there all kinds of austerities. They next went

into Egypt, and took up their abode among the monks of the Thebaid, and

then went to pray at the tomb of St. Cyprian, on the sea-coast, two

leagues from Carthage. They then returned to Rome; but still not

obtaining pardon of the pope (Benedict III.), they again passed the sea

to Jerusalem, from whence they went to Cana, in Galilee, and then they

directed their course to the Red Sea. They next proceeded to the

mountains of Armenia, and visited the spot where Noah's ark rested after

the deluge. On their way they suffered all kinds of outrages from the

infidels, who stripped them naked and scourged them cruelly. This,

however, did not turn them from their purpose, and they went

subsequently to Mount Sinai, where they remained three years, and so

returned to Italy, and thence to France. Frotmond started on his

wanderings in the year 868.

Other pilgrimages are mentioned as having taken place before the end of

the ninth century, at which time new wars broke out between the Greeks

and the Saracens, in the course of which the whole of Judea was taken

from the Mohammedans by the emperor John Zimisces, and the holy places

were again thrown open to pilgrims from all parts. On the death of

Zimisces, in 976, the Greek empire again sunk into weakness, and

Palestine was snatched from them by the Fatimite khalifs of Egypt, whose

policy it was at first to treat the Christians with lenity, seek

commercial relations with the Franks, and encourage the pilgrimages to

the holy places. But all these fair prospects were soon cut short by the

accession to the throne of Hakem, the third khalif of the Fatimite

dynasty, who threw his kingdom into confusion by his cruel despotism,

and who made the unfortunate Christians feel the whole weight of his

fury. They were everywhere oppressed and massacred, their churches were

taken from them, profaned, and destroyed, and the holy places were

deserted. During the whole of the eleventh century the Christians of

Syria were thus treated with every kind of indignity. Pilgrims still

made their way to Jerusalem, and a great number of brief notices of

their adventures are preserved by the numerous writers of the age; but

they brought back with them little more than complaints of the

profanations to which the holy places were exposed, and of the wretched

condition to which their brothers in faith had been reduced. The

celebrated Gerbert, afterwards pope, under the name of Sylvestre II.,

was one of the first who made the pilgrimage during the persecutions of

Hakem; and on his return, in 986, he published a letter, in which he

made Jerusalem deplore her misfortunes, and supplicated the whole

Christian world to come to her aid. The French and the Italians were

excited to vengeance, and they began to make pilgrimages in armed

bodies, and even to attack the coasts of Syria. This only served to

exasperate their enemies, who interdicted the Christians in their

dominions from the exercise of their religion, took from them their

churches, which they profaned by turning them into stables and to still

more degrading purposes, and threw down the church of the Sepulchre, and

the other sacred places in Jerusalem, in 1008. According to the best

authorities the church of the Holy Sepulchre was rebuilt by Hakem's

grandson, Al-Mostanser-Billah, between 1046 and 1048, in consequence of

a treaty with the Byzantine emperor.

The news of these events threw all Christian Europe into consternation,

and excited every where the desire for vengeance on the infidels; but it

increased the eagerness for pilgrimage, and, in spite of all the

insults and perils to which they were exposed, devotees of all ranks and

conditions made their way to Jerusalem in crowds. New revolutions were,

however, taking place there; for another people, the Seldjouk Turks,

having rendered themselves masters of Persia, and established there a

new dynasty of monarchs, the Abassides, passed forwards into

Mesopotamia, and then conquered Syria from the Fatimites. The Seldjouks

took Jerusalem in 1071, massacred both Saracens and Christians, and

delivered up to pillagers the mosques as well as the churches. The fate

of the pilgrims under the new rulers of Palestine was more deplorable

than ever. They were not allowed to enter the gates of Jerusalem without

payment of a very heavy tax; and, as most of them had been plundered on

the way, if they had anything to tempt the merciless rapacity of the

infidels, the greater part remained outside, to perish by hunger or by

the sword. Those who gained admission into the city only entered to

suffer new outrages, and, which was still worse, to see everything they

held most sacred trodden under foot and defiled by unbelievers.

The Turks, in their turn, became divided and enfeebled; and the

Fatimites made a successful effort to recover their power in Syria. In

1096 Jerusalem was delivered, by capitulation, to the general of the

khalif Al-Mostaali-Billeh; but the change of masters seems to have

ameliorated in no degree the condition of the Christians.

The cry of the eastern Christians had, however, already made itself

effectually heard throughout Europe. The voice of Peter the Hermit was

first raised in 1095, in the November of which year he stood by the

pope, Urban II., at the council of Clermont, and the first crusade was

proclaimed. The vast army of invaders assembled in the autumn of 1096,

traversed Europe and Asia Minor, and those who escaped from the terrible

sufferings and losses it experienced on the road reached Palestine in

1099, and took Jerusalem by assault on the 15th of June. Ten days after

the conquerors elected Godfrey of Boulogne king of Jerusalem.

The first pilgrim who followed the crusaders, who has left us a personal

narrative, was an Anglo-Saxon named SÆWULF. Our only information

relating to this personage, beyond what is found in his own relation,

occurs in a passage of William of Malmesbury which appears to relate to

him. This writer, in his History of the English Bishops[8], tells us

that Sæwulf was a merchant who frequently repaired to bishop Wulstan, of

Worcester, to confess his sins, and as frequently, when his fit of

penitence was over, returned to his old courses. Wulstan advised him to

quit the profession in which he met with so many temptations, and

embrace a monastic life; and, on his refusal, the bishop prophesied that

the time would arrive when he would take the habit which he now so

obstinately refused. William of Malmesbury says that he himself

witnessed the fulfilment of this prediction, when in his old age the

merchant Sæwulf became a monk in the abbey of Malmesbury. It is fair to

suppose that, in a moment of penitence, the merchant sought to appease

the divine wrath by undertaking the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the road to

which had then been laid open by the first successes of the crusaders.

Nothing in the narrative proves that our traveller was a monk.

The date of Sæwulf's voyage has been fixed by his learned editor, M.

D'Avezac, from internal evidence of the most satisfactory kind. Sæwulf

makes two or three allusions to historical personages in the course of

his adventures. Thus, on his arrival at Cephalonia, he informs us that

Robert Guiscard died there. This celebrated warrior, the first duke of

the Normans in Italy, the father of the celebrated crusader Bohemond,

prince of Tarentum, was meditating the conquest of Greece, when he died,

according to some poisoned, in July 1085[9]. Further on Sæwulf mentions

two Christian princes, distinguished by their activity in the first

crusade, as still living; Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, and Raymond, duke

of Toulouse. The first was made king on the 25th of December, 1100, and

the latter died on the 28th of February, 1105. Sæwulf mentions further,

that when he returned from Syria Tortosa was in the possession of duke

Raymond, while Acre still remained in the hands of the Saracens. The

latter place was captured on the 12th of March, 1102, while Acre did not

fall into the hands of the Christians till the 15th of May, 1104. Now he

informs us further that he embarked at Joppa, on his return on the day

of Pentecost, which day in the year 1104 fell on the 5th of June, and,

as Acre had then been taken, this could not be the year; and we have

only to choose between 1102 and 1103. To remove all doubt on the

subject, M. D'Avezac points out an element of calculation contained in

Sæwulf's text, which enables us to fix the exact date of his departure

from Italy, after having brought it within so small a compass from the

historical allusions. Sæwulf says that he set sail from Monopoli on

Sunday, the feast of St. Mildred. St. Mildred's day is the 13th of July,

and that day fell on a Sunday in the year 1102. It was, he says, an

unlucky day—_dies Ægyptiaca_, and they fell in with a storm which drove

them along the coast to Brindisi, whence, after a short stay to refit,

they sailed again on an unlucky day. Now the ordinary formula to find

the unlucky or Egyptiac days, composed by the medieval calculators, give

us the 13th and 22nd of July, as falling under this character. It was,

therefore, the 13th of July, 1102, when Sæwulf sailed from Monopoli, and

the 22nd of the same month when he left Brindisi; and it was the day of

Pentecost, 1103, when he embarked at Joppa, on his return. These dates

will agree very well with the age of the Sæwulf mentioned by William of

Malmesbury.

The events preceding, and connected with the crusades, had considerably

modified the route followed by the pilgrims in their way to Jerusalem.

They had previously gone by way of Egypt, because it was no doubt safer

to pass in ships employed in commerce with the Saracens, or to go with

Saracenic passports from the west, than to encounter the hostile

feelings with which people were received who came into Syria from the

neighbouring territory of the Greeks. But now they might proceed with

greater security through the Christian states on the northern shores of

the Mediterranean, either visiting Constantinople before they proceeded

to Jerusalem, or, if their eagerness to see the holy city overcame all

other considerations, sailing along the coast of Greece and through the

islands of the Archipelago. The latter course was taken by Sæwulf; he

sailed from Italy to the Ionian islands; proceeded overland to

Negropont, where he embarked in another ship, and, after touching at

several of the islands, proceeded along the coast of Asia Minor to

Jaffa, whence he travelled by land to Jerusalem, reserving his visit to

the metropolis of the Grecian empire for his return. The narrative

appears to be truncated, which has deprived us of Sæwulf's observations

of Constantinople.

Sæwulf's account of the disastrous storm which attended their arrival at

Jaffa shows us what multitudes of pilgrims now crowded to the Holy Land.

Among these were people of all classes, rich and poor, noble and

ignoble, laymen equally with monks and clergy. Some went in humility and

meekness to visit the scene of their salvation, while others, embarking

with crews of desperate marauders, although they went to the Holy City

with the same professions, proceeded as privateers, or rather as

pirates, plundering and devastating on their way. Among this latter

class the descendants of the sea-kings of the north appear to have been

especially distinguished, and the Scandinavian sagas have preserved more

than one narrative, half authentic and half romantic, of their

adventures. It has been thought advisable to give, as a specimen of

these, the story of SIGURD THE CRUSADER, a northern prince, whose

presence at the capture of Beyrout, in 1110, is mentioned by William of

Tyre.

The land of Palestine was at this time beginning to attract, in an

unusual degree, the attention of another class of travellers from

western Europe—learned men of the Jewish nation—who were anxious to

discover and to make known to their brethren the condition of the

various synagogues in the East, after so many sanguinary revolutions, as

well as to visit the burial-places of the eminent Hebrews of former

days. Several of their relations, written in Hebrew, are still preserved

in manuscript, and a few have been printed[10]. The earliest of these of

any importance is that of BENJAMIN OF TUDELA. We have an "Itinerary of

Palestine" made by Samuel bar Simson in 1210; a "Description of the

Sacred Tombs" by a Jew of Paris named Jacob, in 1258; and several tracts

of the same kind in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Mr. Asher, to whom we owe the best edition of Benjamin of Tudela, has

fixed the date of Benjamin's travels from his own narrative with great

acuteness. It appears from different circumstances to which he alludes,

that his visit to Rome must have taken place subsequent to 1159, that

he was at Constantinople probably in December 1161, and that his account

of Egypt, which almost concludes the work, must have been written prior

to 1171[11]. "If we add to these dates," Mr. Asher observes, "that of

his return, as given in the preface, we shall find that the narrative

refers to a period of about fourteen years, viz. from 1159 or 1160, to

1173." To these dates pointed out by Mr. Asher, it may be added, that he

appears to have been at Antioch immediately after the accession of

Bohemond III. in 1163; and that he probably reached Sicily, on his way

back, early in 1169. By comparing these dates with the general course of

the narrative, I have endeavoured to arrange with tolerable accuracy the

successive years of Benjamin's wanderings; the dates of which are given

at the heads of the pages.

Rabbi Benjamin is the first European traveller whom we find taking a

wider circuit in his travels than that which would have been restricted

by the limits of Christian or Jewish pilgrimage. As Mr. Asher observes,

he appears evidently to have been a merchant, and hence, though the

object most at his heart seems to have been to note the number and

condition of the Jews in the different countries he visited, he has

preserved some valuable information relating to their trade and commerce

at that period, and, in spite of some credulity, and an evident love of

the marvellous, he describes what he saw with more good sense and

accuracy than the Christian travellers of the same age. Benjamin, who

was a Jew of Spain, began his travels from Saragossa, and proceeded

through Italy and Greece to Constantinople, which city he describes at

considerable length. He proceeded thence, by the Greek Islands, to

Antioch, and thence through Syria, by Acre and Nablous, to Jerusalem.

From Jerusalem he went to Damascus, and from thence to Bagdad, but his

route here and elsewhere appears to have been far from direct, as we

often trace him moving backwards and forwards, to obtain information, or

visit districts that lay out of the ordinary road. The actual extent of

his wanderings towards the East appears doubtful; but it is certain he

remained at Bagdad and in Persia two or three years, and he returned by

way of Arabia and Nubia to Egypt. From Egypt he returned to Sicily, and

he then made a tour in Germany before his final return home. Mr. Asher

observes that there is "one very peculiar feature" in this work, by

which its contents are divided into _what he saw_, and _what he heard_.

"In many towns, on the route from Saragossa to Bagdad, rabbi Benjamin

mentions the names of the principal Jews, elders, and wardens of the

congregations he met with. That a great number of the persons enumerated

by rabbi Benjamin really were his contemporaries; and that the

particulars he incidentally mentions of them are corroborated by other

authorities, has been proved in the biographical notes furnished by Dr.

Zunz. We therefore do not hesitate to assert that rabbi Benjamin visited

all those towns of which he names the elders and principals, and that

the first portion of his narrative comprises an account of _what he

saw_. But with Gihiagin, the very first stage beyond Bagdad, all such

notices cease, and except those of two princes and of two rabbis, we

look in vain for any other _names_. So very remarkable a difference

between this and the preceding part of the work leads us to assert that

rabbi Benjamin's travels did not extend beyond Bagdad, and that he there

wrote down the second portion of our work, consisting of _what he

heard_. Bagdad, at his time the seat of the prince of the Captivity,

must have attracted numerous Jewish pilgrims from all regions, and,

beyond doubt, was the fittest place for gathering those notices of the

Jews and of trade in different parts of the world, the collecting of

which was the aim of rabbi Benjamin's labours." It may be observed,

further, that the information he thus collected agrees in general with

that furnished by the contemporary Arabian geographers.

The travels of rabbi Benjamin had little, if any, influence on the state

of geographical science amongst the Christians of the west; but a

variety of causes—the thirst for novelty in science excited by the

educational movement of the twelfth century, scattered information,

gleaned from an increased intercourse with the Arabs, and the

adventurous spirit raised by a hundred years of crusades—were now

combining to render them every day more eager for information relating

to distant lands, and this spirit received a new impulse from the

astonishment and terror excited by the incursions of the Tartars in the

earlier half of the thirteenth century. Shrewd and intelligent men were

sent out by the monarchs of the west, nominally as ambassadors, but

really as spies, to ascertain who these dreaded invaders were, and

whence they came, and to report on their strength and character. These

envoys met at the court of the khan men of distant, and, to them,

unknown countries, from whom they collected information relating to the

central and eastern parts of Asia. Among the first of these envoys was

John du Plan de Carpin, an Italian friar of the order of St. Francis,

sent out by Pope Innocent IV., in the spring of 1245. He was followed

immediately by Simon de St. Quentin, a Dominican monk, also sent by the

pope; and a year or two later, in 1253, by William de Rubruk, another

Franciscan, sent on an embassy to the Tartars by St. Louis. These, as

well as other missionaries of the same century, have left behind them

interesting narratives, several of which are preserved, and some of them

are well known. Merchants, led by the hope of gain, followed in the

steps of, and even preceded, the political or religious missionaries,

and their objects being less restricted, they often penetrated into the

remotest regions of Asia, where they sometimes settled, and rose to rank

and wealth. One of these, an Italian named Marco Polo, on his return,

after a long residence in Asia, in the middle of the thirteenth century,

published the well known narrative, which conduced, more than any other

work, to the development of geographical science, and which first gave

the grand impulse to geographical research, that led to the more

extensive and substantial knowledge which began to dawn in the following

century.

From this time, although short descriptions of the Holy Land became more

numerous than ever, travellers who published their personal narratives

were seldom contented with the old limits of the subject, but they

either visited themselves, or described from the information of others,

some at least of the surrounding countries. This was carried at times

almost to the extreme of affectation. A remarkable example is furnished

to us in the book of SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE. This singular writer, more

credulous than the most bigotted monk, appears to have visited the east

with the double object of performing the pilgrimage to the Holy

Sepulchre, and of seeking military service in foreign lands. Professedly

a guide to pilgrims to Jerusalem, to which a large portion of the book

is devoted, it contains, nevertheless, the description of nearly the

whole of Asia, and of some parts of Africa and Europe, and extends to

countries which its author visited and to many others which he certainly

did not visit. From the rather equivocal light in which he exhibits

himself, and the peculiar form of his work, it is impossible to trace

the course of his travels, but he assures us that he set out from

England in 1322, and that he returned home and compiled his book in

1356. It appears clear, from evidence furnished by the book itself, that

Maundeville was in Egypt for some time previous to the year 1342[12],

and a closer examination would probably fix the date of his presence in

some other countries. But there can be no doubt that his book is partly

a compilation, for we find him not only borrowing from ancient writers,

like Solinus and Pliny, but it is quite evident that he made large use

of the previous narratives of Marco Polo and of the Franciscan Oderic,

who had travelled over a great part of Asia in the earlier years of the

fourteenth century, and had published his account during Maundeville's

absence in the east. It would not be difficult to analyze a great

portion of Maundeville's book, and show from whence it was compiled.

It is now generally agreed that Marco Polo originally wrote the account

of his travels in the French language, from which it was subsequently

translated into Latin and Italian. French had now, indeed, become the

general language of popular treatises, and it seems to be equally well

established that in it was written the original text of Maundeville, who

states expressly in the French copies preserved in manuscript, that he

chose French in preference to Latin, as a language more generally

understood, "especially by lords and knights, and others who understand

not Latin."[13] We learn, from the colophon to some of the Latin copies,

that he was at this time residing at Liege, where he is said to have

ended his days, and that he soon afterwards translated his own book into

Latin. An English version, said to be also from the pen of Maundeville

himself, appeared soon afterwards, and the three versions must have

become extremely popular within a few years after their publication,

from the number of early copies that are still found among our various

collections of manuscripts. The travels of Sir John Maundeville form,

perhaps, the most popular work of the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries, and it continued long afterwards to be read eagerly in a

variety of forms. Yet all we know of him with any certainty is his own

statement that he was a native of St. Albans,—the rest of his

biography, as commonly given, is a mere tissue of errors. Bale tells us

that he died at Liege, on the 17th of November, 1371, and that he was

buried there in the abbey of the Guillamites. Abraham Orbelius, in his

"Itinerarium Belgiæ," gives an epitaph from that abbey, which appears to

be a comparatively recent fabrication. One of the manuscripts, written

in the fifteenth century, (MS. Harl. 3989,) says that Maundeville died

at Liege in 1382.

Contemporary with Maundeville lived a German named variously Boldensel,

Boldensle, and Boldenslave, who visited the east in 1336, and, on his

return, published a description of the Holy Land, of which there is an

early printed edition. It had been preceded by the description of the

Holy Land by Brochard, published in 1332. From this time the narratives

of travels in Palestine became much more numerous and more detailed, and

I shall not attempt even a bare enumeration. The majority of them

consist of little more than a repetition of the same facts and the same

legends. Some, however, are far superior to the rest, by the interest of

the narrative, and the novelty of the information gathered by the

traveller. Two, belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,

stand pre-eminent in this respect, the narratives of Breydenbach and

Rauwulf, which merit separate publication. I have selected to follow sir

John Maundeville, the travels of BERTRANDON DE LA BROCQUIÈRE, on account

of their peculiar character.

The Turks, who were gradually overthrowing the empire of the Arabs in

the east, were becoming formidable to the Christians also towards the

end of the fourteenth century. Since the time of Brochard, who had

written expressly to show how the east lay open to an attack from the

Christians, several attempts had been made to raise a new crusade. La

Brocquière, like Maundeville, was a knight, and he held the high

position of counsellor and first esquire carver to the duke of

Burgundy. As was the case with so many others of his own class, his

pilgrimage to Jerusalem was the result of a vow, but the curiosity and

ardour of the man-at-arms were perhaps more powerful in him than the

mere calls of religion. He left Burgundy in the February of 1432, in

company with other great lords of that country, passed through Italy by

way of Rome to Venice, and there embarked and proceeded by sea to Jaffa.

But when this holy pilgrimage was completed, as far as lay in his power

to perform it, he undertook a pilgrimage of another kind, and in order

to observe the manners and condition of the Turks, who were already

threatening Constantinople, he formed the bold scheme of returning to

France overland, which would lead him to traverse the western part of

Asia and eastern Europe. The notices he has given us of the countries

through which he passed, some of them but imperfectly known even at

present, combined with the interesting period at which the journey was

made, give an especial importance to this narrative, which is marked by

the accuracy and good sense of its writer, and exhibits none of the

credulity of previous travellers. On his return to the court of

Burgundy, La Brocquière's appearance excited great interest, and duke

Philip began to talk loudly of his intention to lead a crusade against

the Infidels. It was probably to further his object that La Brocquière

compiled his narrative, which was published in French, soon after the

year 1438, to which date he alludes in his text. The state of Europe,

however, was not now favourable to a crusade, and the duke's designs

never went further than a few empty proclamations, and some equally

fruitless feasting and pageantry. The Turks were allowed to pursue their

conquests, and the victorious Mohammed II. became master of

Constantinople in the May of 1453.

Our notices of the medieval travellers would properly conclude here. A

new era was opening upon the west as well as upon the east, and the last

breath of the spirit of the crusades died, as the system which had

nourished it sunk before the great religious Reformation of the

sixteenth century. Instead of monks and soldiers, Europe, more

enlightened, began soon afterwards to send merchants, and consuls, and

ambassadors. A clearer and more satisfactory light was now thrown on the

geography of the Holy Land. The English traveller in Palestine of most

authority in the seventeenth century was Sandys, who, however, often

erred on the side of credulity. Before the end of the century came the

well known HENRY MAUNDRELL, who, on account of the brevity of his

narrative and the extreme accuracy of his descriptions, has been

selected to conclude the present volume. We know little more of

Maundrell than that he was a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, which he

left to take the appointment of chaplain to the English factory at

Aleppo. It is not within our province to notice the works of subsequent

travellers.

It will be necessary to make some statement to our readers of the manner

in which the present volume has been edited, and of the sources from

which the different works it contains have been derived.

The travels of bishop Arculf, (as compiled by Adamnan,) as well as those

of Bernard the Wise, and the life of Willibald, were printed in the Acta

Sanctorum Ordinis S. Benedicti, Sæc. III., Part II., in 1672. A previous

edition of Arculf had been published in a small quarto volume,

Ingoldstadt, 1619, which also contained the abridgment by Bede. The

latter, under the title of _Libellus de Locis Sanctis_, is included in

the different editions of Bede's works, and will be found in the recent

edition by Dr. Giles, accompanied with an English translation. Another

edition of the narrative of Bernard was published from a manuscript in

the Cottonian Library in the British Museum by M. Francisque Michel, in

the Memoirs of the Society of Geography at Paris. M. Michel's text is in

many respects inferior to that of Mabillon, but it contains the

concluding paragraphs relating to the state of society in Egypt, Italy,

and France, which were wanting in the manuscript from which Mabillon

printed. But the new editor, M. Michel, has fallen into a very grave

error; for the treatise of Bede, _De Locis Sanctis_, following in the

Cottonian manuscript the tract of Bernard, he has mistaken them for one

continued treatise, and printed them as such, accusing Mabillon of

having printed only one half of his author. The narrative of Sæwulf, the

only manuscript of which is preserved in the library of Corpus Christi

College, Cambridge, was published in the collection of the French

Geographical Society by M. D'Avezac, from a transcript furnished by the

editor of the present volume. M. D'Avezac has executed his task of

editing with remarkable care and discrimination, but I fear that the

transcript was in two or three instances inaccurate, and at the time of

publication it was unfortunately not in the power of M. D'Avezac to have

it collated with the original. One omission of some importance for the

architectural history of the church of the Holy Sepulchre was very

kindly pointed out to me by Professor Willis, and has been corrected in

the translation. In describing this church, the text as printed by M.

D'Avezac contains the words, "Ista oratoria sanctissima continentur in

atrio Dominici sepulchri ad orientalem plagam. In lateribus autem ipsius

ecclesiæ suæ capellæ sibi adhærent præclarissimæ hinc inde, sicut ipsi

participes Dominicæ passionis sibi in lateribus constiterunt hinc inde."

In the original manuscript the passage stands thus, and is rendered

intelligible—"Ista oratoria sanctissima continentur in atrio Dominici

sepulchri ad orientalem plagam. In lateribus vero ipsius ecclesiæ _duæ_

capellæ sibi adhærent præclarissimæ hinc inde, _Sanctæ Mariæ scilicet

Sanctique Johannis in honore_, sicut ipsi participes Dominicæ passionis

sibi in lateribus constiterunt hinc inde."

These four narratives are here translated for the first time. In

translating Bernard, the text of Mabillon has been compared with that of

Michel. The narrative of Arculf has been somewhat abridged, and relieved

of some miracles and theological observations that are totally without

interest. It may be right to observe, also, that in the original

manuscript this narrative is accompanied with plans of churches, copies

of which are given in the edition of Mabillon, and in the editions of

Bede's abridgement.

The translation of the Saga of Sigurd the Crusader, is taken, by the

obliging permission of Mr. Laing, from his recently published

"Hemskringla," or "Chronicle of the Kings of Norway."

A number of editions, and several translations, of the travels of

Benjamin of Tudela, have appeared, but the only strictly correct one is

that published by Mr. A. Asher, Berlin, 1840. The translation published

in the present volume is a mere revision of the English version by Mr.

Asher, altered a little in the language, to make it more suitable for

the popular English reader. My notes are chiefly abridged from the

valuable volume of notes published by Mr. Asher in 1841.

The only edition of the English text of the book of Sir John Maundeville

which correctly represents an original manuscript, is that published

from the Cottonian Library in 1725, of which a reprint appeared in 1839,

with an introduction, and some additional notes by Mr. Halliwell. The

language of this edition has been modernized for the present volume. The

travels of Bertrandon de la Brocquière are preserved in a manuscript

preserved in the Royal Library in Paris, from which they were published,

with some abridgment and in modernized French, in the fifth volume of

the Mémoires of the Institute of France, by Legrand d'Aussy. They were

thence translated into English by Mr. Johns, and printed at his private

press at Hafod, in 1807. This translation, which has become a rare book,

has been here slightly revised, and a few illustrative notes have been

added. Maundrell's journey is reprinted from the original edition.

_Brompton, Aug. 28, 1848._

FOOTNOTES:

[1] This date is fixed by a statement of the writer of the

Itinerary:—"Item ambulavimus Dalmatio et Dalmaticei Zenophilo cons.

iii. Kal. Jun. a Kalcidonia, et reversi sumus ad Constantinopolim vii.

Kalend. Jan. consule suprascripto." We know from the historians that

Flavius Valerius Dalmatius (brother of the emperor Constantine) and

Marcus Aurelius Xenophilus were consuls together in 333.

[2] St. Jerome, in one of his Epistles, has given us the history of the

adventures of St. Paula. The lives of the other saints mentioned here

will be found in the large collection of the Bollandists. The abstract

given here is taken from the Essay on Early Pilgrimages, by the Baron

Walckenaer, inserted in Michaud's History of the Crusades.

[3] Bede, Hist. Eccl. v. 15.

[4] See my Biographia Britannica Literaria, Anglo-Saxon period, p. 202.

[5] Majuvias, Saracenorum rex, qui nostra ætate fuit, judex postulatus.

[6] See the Biographia Britannica Literaria, Anglo-Saxon period, p. 341,

342.

[7] Dicuil, De Mensura Orbis, vi. 3, ed. Letronne.

[8] W. Malmesbury de Gest. Pontif., p. 282. See also my Biographia

Britannica Literaria, Anglo-Norman Period, p. 38.

[9] See, on Robert Guiscard, W. Malmesbury, Hist. book iii. pp. 294,

295. (Bohn's Antiquarian Library.)

[10] An interesting volume of these narratives, translated into French,

and accompanied with valuable notes, has recently been published under

the title, "Itineraires de la Terre Sainte des xiii, xiv^e, xv^e, xvi^e,

and xvii^e siècles, traduits de l'Hébreu, par E. Carmoly," Brussels,

1847.

[11] For these dates see the notes on pp. 67, 75, and 119 of the present

volume. See the notes on pp. 78, 124.

[12] See the note, p. 146 of the present volume.

[13] "Et sachiez que je eusse mis ce livre en Latin pour plus briefment

deviser; mais pour ce que plusieurs entendent mieux Français que Latin,

l'ai-je mis en Rommant à celle fin que chascun l'entende, et les

seigneurs et chevaliers et aultres qui n'entendent pas le Latin." See on

this subject, and on Maundeville's narrative, M. D'Avezac's preface to

his edition of "Plan de Carpin," pp. 29-33.

THE TRAVELS OF BISHOP ARCULF IN THE HOLY LAND.

TOWARDS A.D. 700.

WRITTEN FROM HIS DICTATION, BY ADAMNAN, ABBOT OF IONA.

Arculf, the holy bishop, a native of Gaul, after visiting many remote

countries, resided nine months at Jerusalem, and made daily visits to

the surrounding districts. He counted in the circuit of the walls of the

holy city eighty-four towers and six gates, the latter being distributed

in the following order:—the gate of David on the west of Mount Sion,

the gate of the valley of the Fuller, St. Stephen's gate, Benjamin's

gate, the little gate leading by a flight of steps to the valley of

Jehoshaphat, and the gate called Tecuitis; of which, the three most

frequented are, one to the west, another to the north, and a third to

the east. That part of the wall which, with its towers, extends from the

gate of David over the northern brow of Mount Sion, which overlooks the

city from the south, to the precipitous brow of the same mountain which

looks to the east, has no gates.

The city itself begins from the northern brow of Mount Sion, and

declines with a gentle slope towards the walls on the north and east,

where it is lower; so that the rain which falls on the city runs in

streams through the eastern gates, carrying with it all the filth of the

streets into the brook Cedron, in the valley of Jehoshaphat. On the 15th

of September, annually, an immense multitude of people of different

nations are used to meet in Jerusalem for the purpose of commerce, and

the streets are so clogged with the dung of camels, horses, mules, and

oxen, that they become almost impassable, and the smell would be a

nuisance to the whole town. But, by a miraculous providence, which

exhibits God's peculiar attachment to this place, no sooner has the

multitude left Jerusalem than a heavy fall of rain begins on the night

following, and ceases only when the city has been perfectly cleansed.

On the spot where the Temple once stood, near the eastern wall, the

Saracens have now erected a square house of prayer, in a rough manner,

by raising beams and planks upon some remains of old ruins; this is

their place of worship, and it is said that it will hold about three

thousand men[14]. Arculf also observed many large and handsome houses of

stone in all parts of the city, but his attention was more especially

attracted by the holy places.

The church of the Holy Sepulchre is very large and round, encompassed

with three walls, with a broad space between each, and containing three

altars of wonderful workmanship, in the middle wall, at three different

points; on the south, the north, and the west. It is supported by twelve

stone columns of extraordinary magnitude; and it has eight doors or

entrances through the three opposite walls, four fronting the

north-east, and four to the south-east. In the middle space of the inner

circle is a round grotto cut in the solid rock, the interior of which is

large enough to allow nine men to pray, standing, and the roof of which

is about a foot and a half higher than a man of ordinary stature. The

entrance is from the east side, and the whole of the exterior is covered

with choice marble to the very top of the roof, which is adorned with

gold, and supports a large golden cross. Within, on the north side, is

the tomb of our Lord, hewn out of the same rock, seven feet in length,

and rising three palms above the floor. These measurements were taken by

Arculf with his own hand. This tomb is broad enough to hold one man

lying on his back, and has a raised division in the stone to separate

his legs. The entrance is on the south side, and there are twelve lamps

burning day and night, according to the number of the twelve apostles;

four within at the foot, and the other eight above, on the right-hand

side. Internally, the stone of the rock remains in its original state,

and still exhibits the marks of the workman's tools; its colour is not

uniform, but appears to be a mixture of white and red. The stone that

was laid at the entrance to the monument is now broken in two; the

lesser portion standing as a square altar, before the entrance, while

the greater forms another square altar in the east part of the same

church, covered with linen cloths.

To the right of this round church (which is called the Anastasis, or

Resurrection,) adjoins the square church of the Virgin Mary, and to the

east of this another large church is built on the spot called in Hebrew

Golgotha, from the ceiling of which hangs a brazen wheel with lamps,

beneath which a large silver cross is fixed in the very place where

stood the wooden cross on which the Saviour of the human race suffered.

Under the place of our Lord's cross, a cave is hewn in the rock, in

which sacrifice is offered on an altar for the souls of certain honoured

persons deceased, their bodies remaining meanwhile in the way or street

between this church and the round church. Adjoining the church of

Golgotha, to the east, is the basilica, or church, erected with so much

magnificence by the emperor Constantine, and called the Martyrdom,

built, it is said, in the place where the cross of our Lord with the

other two crosses were found by divine revelation, two hundred and

thirty-three years after they had been buried. Between these two

last-mentioned churches, is the place where Abraham raised the altar for

the sacrifice of his son Isaac, where there is now a small wooden table,

on which the alms for the poor are offered. Between the Anastasis, or

round church, and the basilica of Constantine, a certain open space

extends to the church of Golgotha, in which are lamps burning day and

night. In the same space between the Martyrdom and the Golgotha, is a

seat, in which is the cup of our Lord, concealed in a little shrine,

which Arculf touched and kissed through a hole in the covering. It is

made of silver, of the capacity of about a French quart, and has two

handles, one on each side. In it also is the sponge which was held up to

our Lord's mouth. The soldier's lance, with which he pierced our Lord's

side, which has been broken into two pieces, is also kept in the portico

of the Martyrdom, inserted in a wooden cross. Arculf saw some other

relics, and he observed a lofty column in the holy places to the north,

in the middle of the city, which, at mid-day at the summer solstice,

casts no shadow, which shows that this is the centre of the earth[15].

Arculf next visited the holy places in the immediate neighbourhood of

Jerusalem. In the valley of Jehoshaphat he saw the round church of St.

Mary, divided into two stories by slabs of stone; in the upper part are

four altars; on the eastern side below there is another, and to the

right of it an empty tomb of stone, in which the Virgin Mary is said to

have been buried; but who moved her body, or when this took place, no

one can say. On entering this chamber, you see on the right-hand side a

stone inserted in the wall, on which Christ knelt when he prayed on the

night in which he was betrayed; and the marks of his knees are still

seen in the stone, as if it had been as soft as wax. In the same valley,

not far from the church of St. Mary, is shown the tower of Jehoshaphat,

in which his tomb is seen; adjoining to which little tower, on the

right, is a separate chamber cut out of the rock of Mount Olivet,

containing two hollow sepulchres, one, that of the aged Simeon the Just,

who held the child Jesus in the temple, and prophesied of him; the other

of Joseph, the husband of Mary. On the side of Mount Olivet there is a

cave, not far from the church of St. Mary, on an eminence looking

towards the valley of Jehoshaphat, in which are two very deep pits. One

of these extends under the mountain to a vast depth; the other is sunk

straight down from the pavement of the cavern, and is said to be of

great extent. These pits are always closed above. In this cavern are

four stone tables; one, near the entrance, is that of our Lord Jesus,

whose seat is attached to it, and who, doubtless, rested himself here

while his twelve apostles sat at the other tables. There is a wooden

door to the cave, which was often visited by Arculf[16].

After passing through the gate of David, which is adjacent to Mount

Sion, we come to a stone bridge, raised on arches, and pointing straight

across the valley to the south; half-way along which, a little to the

west of it, is the spot where Judas Iscariot hanged himself; and there

is still shown a large fig-tree, from the top of which he is said to

have suspended himself, according to the words of the poet Juvencus,—

"Informem rapuit ficus de vertice mortem."

On Mount Sion, Arculf saw a square church, which included the site of

our Lord's Supper, the place where the Holy Ghost descended upon the

apostles, the marble column to which our Lord was bound when he was

scourged, and the spot where the Virgin Mary died. Here also is shown

the site of the martyrdom of St. Stephen. He saw on the south of Mount

Sion a small field (Aceldama) covered with a heap of stones, where the

bodies of many pilgrims are carefully buried, while others are left to

rot on the surface.

The ground to the north of Jerusalem, as far as the city of Samuel,

which is called Ramatha, is at intervals rough and stony. There are open

valleys, covered with thorns, extending all the way to the region of

Tamnitis; but, on the other side, from Ælia (Jerusalem) and Mount Sion

to Cæsarea of Palestine, though some narrow and craggy places are found,

yet the principal part of the way is a level plain interspersed with

olive-yards. Arculf states that few trees are found on Mount Olivet,

except vines and olive trees, but wheat and barley flourish exceedingly;

the nature of the soil, which is not adapted to trees, is favourable to

grass and flowers. The height of this hill appears to be equal to that

of Mount Sion, although it is much more extensive in length and breadth:

the two mountains are separated by the valley of Jehoshaphat. On the

highest point of Mount Olivet, where our Lord ascended into heaven, is a

large round church, having around it three vaulted porticoes. The inner

apartment is not vaulted and covered, because of the passage of our

Lord's body; but it has an altar on the east side, covered with a narrow

roof. On the ground, in the midst of it, are to be seen the last prints

in the dust of our Lord's feet, and the roof appears open above, where

he ascended; and although the earth is daily carried away by believers,

yet still it remains as before, and retains the same impression of the

feet. Near this is a brazen wheel, as high as a man's neck, having an

entrance towards the west, with a great lamp hanging above it on a

pulley, and burning night and day. In the western part of the same

church are eight windows; and eight lamps, hanging by cords opposite

them, cast their light through the glass as far as Jerusalem; which

light, Arculf said, strikes the hearts of the beholders with a mixture

of joy and divine fear. Every year, on the day of the Ascension, when

mass is ended, a strong blast of wind comes down, and casts to the

ground all who are in the church. All that night, lanterns are kept

burning there, so that the mountain appears not only lighted up, but

actually on fire, and all that side of the city is illuminated by it.

Arculf visited at Bethany a field in the middle of a large grove of

olives, where there is a great monastery, and a church built over the

cave where our Lord raised Lazarus from the dead. There is also a much

frequented church to the north of Bethany, on that part of Mount Olivet

where our Lord is said to have preached to his disciples.

From Jerusalem Arculf went to Bethlehem, which is situated on a narrow

ridge, surrounded on all sides by valleys. The ridge is about a mile

long, from west to east; and a low wall, without towers, surrounds the

brow of the hill, and overlooks the valley. The houses of the

inhabitants are scattered here and there over the space within the wall.

At the extreme eastern angle there is a sort of natural half cave, the

outer part of which is said to have been the place of our Lord's birth;

the inside is called our Lord's Manger. The whole of this cave is

covered within with precious marble. Over the place where more

especially our Lord is said to have been born, stands the great church

of St. Mary. Near the wall is a hollow stone, which received back from

the wall the water in which our Lord's body was washed, and has ever

since been full of the purest water, without any diminution. If by any

accident or service it has been emptied, it quickly becomes as full as

before. In the valley to the north of Bethlehem, Arculf saw the tomb of

David, in the middle of a church, covered with a low pyramidal stone,

unadorned, with a lamp placed above it. In another church, on the slope

of the hill to the south, is the tomb of St. Jerome, equally without

ornament. About a mile to the east of Bethlehem, by the tower of Ader,

that is, of the Flock, is a church containing monuments of the three

Shepherds, to whom, on this spot, the angel announced the birth of our

Lord.

There is a highway, according to Arculf, leading southward from

Jerusalem to Hebron, to the east of which Bethlehem is situated, six

miles from Jerusalem. At the extremity of this road, on the west side,

is the tomb of Rachel, rudely built of stones, without any ornament,

presenting externally the form of a pyramid. Her name, placed there by

her husband Jacob, is still shown upon it.

Hebron, which is also called Mamre, has no walls, and exhibits only the

ruins of the ancient city; but there are some ill-built villages and

hamlets scattered over the plain, and inhabited by a multitude of

people. To the east is a double cave, looking towards Mamre, where are

the tombs of the four patriarchs, Abram, Isaac, Jacob, and Adam the

first man. Contrary to the usual custom, they are placed with the feet

to the south, and the heads to the north; and they are inclosed by a

square low wall. Each of the tombs is covered with a single stone,

worked somewhat in form of a church, and of a light colour for those of

the three patriarchs, which are together. The tomb of Adam, which is of

meaner workmanship, lies not far from them, at the furthest extremity to

the north. Arculf also saw poorer and smaller monuments of the three

women, Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, who were here buried in the earth. The

hill of Mamre is a mile to the south-west of these monuments, and is

covered with grass and flowers, with a flat plain at the summit; on the

north side of which is a church, in which is still seen, rooted in the

ground, the stump of the oak of Mamre, called also the oak of Abraham,

because under it he received the angels. St. Jerome says that this oak

had stood there from the beginning of the world. Passing from Hebron

towards the north, a hill of no great size is seen to the left, covered

with fir-trees, about three miles from Hebron. Fir-wood, for fuel, is

carried hence to Jerusalem on camels, for, as Arculf observed, carriages

or waggons are very seldom met with throughout the whole of Judæa.

In another excursion, Arculf proceeded to Jericho, where, although the

city had been three times built, and as many times utterly destroyed,

yet the walls of the house of Rahab still stand, although without a

roof. The whole site of the city is covered with corn-fields and

vineyards, without any habitations. Between it and the Jordan are large

groves of palm trees, interspersed with open spaces, in which are almost

innumerable houses, inhabited by a diminutive sort of men of the race of

Canaan. A large church stands on the site of Galgalis, where the

children of Israel first encamped after passing the Jordan. It is five

miles from Jericho. Within the church are the twelve stones which Joshua

ordered to be taken out of the Jordan; six on the south side of the

church floor, and six on the north. They are so heavy, that two strong

men, at the present day, could hardly lift one of them; one has been

accidentally broken in two, but the pieces have been reunited by means

of iron.

A wooden cross stands in the Jordan, on the spot where our Lord was

baptized, the depth of which, when the water is highest, reaches to the

neck of a tall man, and, when lowest, to the breast. The river is here

about as broad as a man can throw a stone with a sling. A stone bridge,

raised on arches, reaches from the bank of the river to the cross, where

people bathe. Arculf swam backwards and forwards in the water. A little

church stands at the brink of the water, on the spot where our Lord is

said to have laid his clothes when he entered the river. On the higher

ground is a large monastery of monks, and a church dedicated to St.

John. Arculf found the waters of the Jordan of a yellowish milky colour,

and observed that they preserved this colour to a considerable distance,

after they flowed into the Dead Sea, where he also witnessed the way in

which salt was obtained from the waters of the latter.

In another excursion, Arculf visited the spot at the foot of Mount

Libanus where the Jordan has its rise from two fountains, which are

named Jor and Dan, the waters of which uniting, take the name of Jordan;

and he went round the greater part of the Sea of Galilee, called also

the Lake of Gennesareth, and the Sea of Tiberias, which is surrounded by

thick woods, and is a hundred and forty stadia in length. The waters are

sweet, and fit to drink; for it receives no mud, or other coarse

substance, from any marshy pools, but is surrounded on all sides by a

sandy shore. Arculf also travelled over the country of Samaria, and

visited the town called in Hebrew Sichem, but by the Greeks and Latins

Sicima, and now more usually Sichar. Here, without the walls, he saw a

cruciform church, in the centre of which is the well of Jacob, where our

Saviour met the Samaritan woman. Arculf, who drank of the water,

estimated its depth at forty cubits. He also saw in the wilderness a

clear fountain, protected with a covering of masonry, at which it is

reported John the Baptist used to drink. He likewise saw a very small

species of locust, the bodies of which are slender and short, about the

size of a finger; and, because they make short leaps like frogs, they

are easily caught among the grass. When boiled in oil, they form a poor

sort of food. In the same desert he saw trees with broad round leaves of

a milky colour, with the savour of honey, which are naturally fragile,

and, after being bruised with the hand, are eaten; and this is the wild

honey found in the woods. He further saw, on this side of the Sea of

Galilee, to the north of the city of Tiberias, the place where our Lord

blessed the loaves and fishes, a grassy and level plain, which has never

been ploughed since that event, and shows no traces of buildings, except

a few columns round the fountain where, as they say, those persons drank

after they had eaten their fill.

Those who wish to go from Jerusalem to Capernaum, take the direct way by

Tiberias, and from thence, along the Sea of Gennesareth, to the place

where the loaves were blessed, from which Capernaum is at no great

distance. Arculf saw this place from a neighbouring hill, and observed

that it has no walls, but lies on a narrow piece of ground between the

mountain and the lake. On the shore, towards the east, it extends a long

way, having the mountain on the north and the water on the south. Arculf

remained two days and two nights at Nazareth, which is on a hill, and is

also without walls, but it has large houses of stone, and two very large

churches. One of these is raised upon mounds and arches connecting them,

and under it, between the mounds, is a clear fountain, from which all

the citizens draw water in vessels, which they raise up into the church

by means of pulleys. On this site stood formerly the house in which our

Lord was nursed when an infant. The other church was built on the site

of the house in which the archangel Gabriel came to the blessed Mary.

Mount Tabor, in Galilee, is three miles from the Lake of Gennesareth, of

a remarkably round shape, and covered in an extraordinary manner with

grass and flowers. At the top is a pleasant and extensive meadow,

surrounded by a thick wood, and in the middle of the meadow a great

monastery, with numerous cells of monks. The meadow is about twenty-four

stadia in breadth, and the height of the mountain about thirty stadia.

There are also three handsome churches on the top, according to the

number of tabernacles described by Peter[17]. The monastery and churches

are inclosed by a stone wall.

From Mount Tabor, Arculf went to the royal city of Damascus, eight

days' journey, and remained there some days. It is situated in a plain,

surrounded by a broad and ample circuit of walls, with numerous towers,

and is intersected by four great rivers. On all sides beyond the walls

are numerous groves of olives. The king of the Saracens has obtained

possession of this city, and reigns in it[18]. It contains a large

church of St. John the Baptist, frequented by the Christians. The

unbelieving Saracens have built themselves a large mosque here. From

hence Arculf repaired to Tyre, and thence (as it appears) he returned to

Jerusalem. He went subsequently from Jerusalem to Joppa, and thence

sailed, in forty days, to Alexandria in Egypt, a city famous throughout

the whole world. It extends to a great length from east to west, so that

Arculf, who began to enter the city at nine o'clock in the morning

(_hora tertia_), in the month of October, and proceeding through the

whole length of the city, hardly reached the other side before dark[19].

On the south it is bounded by the mouths of the Nile, and on the north

by the Lake Mareotis. Its port is difficult of access, and bears some

resemblance to the human body; for in its head it is sufficiently ample,

but at its entrance it is very narrow, where it admits the tide of the

sea, together with such ships as run into the port to take shelter and

refit. But when you have passed the narrow neck and mouth of the

harbour, the sea, like the human body, stretches out far and wide. On

the right hand side is a small port, in which is the Pharos, a large

tower, which is every night lighted up with torches, lest mariners might

mistake their way in the dark, and be dashed against the rocks in their

attempt to find the entrance, particularly as this is much impeded and

disturbed by the waves dashing to and fro. The port, however, is always

calm, and in magnitude about thirty stadia. The precautions alluded to

are necessary for a port which is, in a manner, the emporium of the

whole world; for innumerable people from all parts go there for

commerce, and the surrounding region is extremely fruitful. Although

the country is destitute of rain, the Nile serves both as a cultivator

of the land, and as the means of transferring its products from one

place to another. Here you see people sowing, there navigating, which

are their chief occupations. The Nile is navigable to the place they

call the town of Elephants[20]; beyond that the cataracts hinder a ship

from proceeding, not from want of water, but because all the waters of

the river run in a sort of wild ruin down a steep descent. Towards

Egypt, as we enter the city, there is a large church on the right, in

which St. Mark the Evangelist is interred. The body is buried in the

eastern part of the church, before the altar, with a monument of squared

marble over it. Along the Nile, the Egyptians are in the habit of

constructing numerous embankments, to prevent the irruption of the

water, which, if these mounds were broken down by the neglect of their

keepers, would rather inundate and destroy than irrigate the lands

below. The Egyptians who inhabit the plains, as Arculf, who frequently

passed backward and forward along the Nile, observed, make their houses

over canals by laying planks across. Arculf relates further, that the

river Nile is haunted by crocodiles, aquatic beasts, not so large as

they are ravenous, and so strong, that if one of them see by chance a

horse or an ass, or even an ox, feeding near the bank of the river, he

suddenly rushes out to attack it, and seizing it perhaps by the foot,

drags it under the water, and devours the whole.

On his return from Alexandria, Arculf went to Constantinople, which is

bounded on all sides, except the north, by the sea. The circuit of the

walls, which are angular, according to the line of the sea, is about

twelve miles. Constantine was at first disposed to build it in Cilicia,

near the sea which separates Europe and Asia; but on a certain night all

the iron tools were carried away, and when men were sent to seek them,

they were found on the European side; for there it was God's will that

the city should be built. In this city is a church of wonderful

workmanship, called the Church of St. Sophia, built circular from its

foundation, domed in, and surrounded by three walls. It is supported to

a great height on columns and arches, and has, in its inmost part, on

the north side, a large and beautiful closet, wherein is a wooden chest

with a wooden lid, containing three pieces of our Lord's cross[21]; that

is to say, the long timber cut in two, and the transverse part of the

same holy cross. These pieces are exhibited for the adoration of the

people three times only in the year; namely, on the day of our Lord's

Supper, the day of the Preparation, and on Holy Saturday. On the first

of these, the chest, which is two cubits long and one broad, is set out

on a golden altar, with the holy cross exposed to view: the Emperor

first approaches, and, after him, all the different ranks of laymen in

order kiss and worship it; on the following day, the Empress and all the

married women and virgins do the same; on the third day, the bishops and

different orders of the clergy observe the same ceremonies; and then the

chest is shut, and carried back to the closet before mentioned.

Arculf saw other sacred relics in Constantinople, and then sailed for

his own country. About twelve miles from Sicily he saw the isle of

Vulcano, whence constantly issued smoke by day and fire by night, with a

noise like thunder, but with more intensity on Fridays and Saturdays.

The noise is heard in Sicily, where Arculf made a short stay; and

afterwards, on his way home, he was carried by contrary winds to the

shores of Britain, and at length came to me, Adamnan, who by diligent

inquiry obtained from him the above particulars, which I have carefully

committed to writing.

FOOTNOTES:

[14] Jerusalem was first captured by the Saracens, under the khalif

Omar, in 637, about sixty years before it was visited by Arculf. The

patriarch Sophronius, when requested by Omar to point out a place for

the erection of a mosque, is said to have taken him to the ruins on the

site of Solomon's Temple, which had been deserted by the Christians, and

where the building known as the Mosque of Omar was subsequently built.

Until Arculf's time, the Mohammedans appear, however, to have had but a

rough and temporary erection, unless the worthy bishop's pious zeal

would not allow him to speak of the mosque otherwise than

disrespectfully.

[15] It was a very old article of popular belief, founded on a literal

interpretation of the words of Ps. lxxiv. 12, that Jerusalem was the

centre, or, as it was often expressed, the navel, of the world; and it

is so exhibited in nearly all the medieval maps.

[16] Dr. Clarke is the only modern traveller who has given any notice of

these subterranean chambers or pits, which he supposes to have been

ancient places of idolatrous worship.

[17] Matth. xvii. 4.

[18] Damascus was taken by the Arabs in 634. By the capitulation, the

Christians were to have seven churches; but one of the Arabian leaders

having broken into the city before the capitulation was completed, it

was only very partially observed.

[19] Alexandria fell into the power of the Arabs in 640. The account

given of the city by Arculf would lead us to believe that its prosperity

and importance were not so suddenly reduced by that event as is

generally believed.

[20] _Urbs Elephantorum._ The town of Elephantina, famous for its

interesting monuments, situate on the Nile, just below the cataracts. It

is to be presumed that Arculf had visited this place; and perhaps he had

here seen the crocodiles subsequently described, as those animals are

said not to be found in Lower Egypt. It must, however, be observed, that

St. Antoninus, who visited Egypt in the seventh century, appears to have

seen crocodiles in Lower Egypt. See his Life, in the Act. Sanct. of the

Bollandists.

[21] The subsequent history of the supposed real cross, or rather the

supposed fragments of it, which were scattered as relics over Christian

Europe, would fill a volume. It was pretended that it was brought to

France by Charlemagne.

THE TRAVELS OF WILLIBALD.

A.D. 721-727.

WRITTEN FROM HIS OWN RECITAL BY A NUN OF HEIDENHEIM.

After the ceremonies of Easter were ended, the active champion (of

Christ) prepared for his voyage with his two companions, and left Rome.

They first went eastward to the town of Daterina[22], where they

remained two days; and thence to Cajeta, on the coast, where they went

on board a ship and sailed over to Nebule[23]. They here left the ship,

and remained a fortnight. These are cities belonging to the Romans; they

are in the territory of Beneventum, but subject to Rome. There, after

waiting anxiously, in constant prayer that their desires might be

agreeable to heaven, they found a ship bound for Egypt, in which they

took their passage, and sailed to the land of Calabria, to the town

which is called Rhegia[24], and there remained two days; and then

proceeded to the island of Sicily, in which is the town of Catania,

where the body of St. Agatha, the virgin, reposes. And there is Mount

Etna; in case of an eruption of which, the inhabitants of Catania take

the veil of St. Agatha, and hold it up towards the fire, which

immediately ceases. They made a stay of three weeks at this place, and

then sailed to the isle of Samos, and thence to the town of Ephesus, in

Asia, which is one mile from the sea. They walked thence to the place

where the seven sleepers repose; and onward thence to John the

Evangelist, in a beautiful locality by Ephesus. They next walked two

miles along the sea-side to a large village which is called Figila[25],

where they remained one day, and, having begged bread, they went to a

fountain in the middle of the town, and, sitting on the edge, they

dipped their bread in the water, and so made their meal. They next

walked along the sea-shore to the town of Strobole[26], seated on a

lofty hill, and thence to the place called Patera, where they remained

till the rigour of winter was past.

After this, going on ship-board, they came to the town which is called

Melitena[27], which had been nearly destroyed by an inundation; and two

hermits lived there on a rock, secured by walls, so that the water could

not reach them. And there they suffered much from hunger, from which

they were only relieved by God's providential mercy[28]. They sailed

thence to the isle of Cyprus, which is between the Greeks and the

Saracens, to the town of Papho, where they passed the first week in the

year. And thence they went to the town of Constantia, where St.

Epiphanius reposes, and there they remained till after the Nativity of

St. John the Baptist[29]. They then put to sea again and came into the

region of the Saracens to the town of Tharratas[30], by the sea; and

thence they walked a distance of nine to twelve miles to a castle called

Archæ[31], where there was a Greek bishop; and there they had divine

service according to the Greek custom. Thence they walked twelve miles

to the town which is called Emessa, where there is a large church built

by St. Helena, in honour of John the Baptist, whose head was long

preserved there. This is in Syria.

Willibald's party had now increased to eight in number, and they became

an object of suspicion to the Saracens, who, seeing that they were

strangers, seized them and threw them into prison, because they knew

not of what country they were, and supposed them to be spies. They

carried them as prisoners before a certain rich old man, that he might

examine them; and he inquired whence they came and the object of their

mission; whereupon they related to him the true cause of their journey.

The old man replied, "I have often seen men of the parts of the earth

whence these come, travelling hither; they seek no harm, but desire to

fulfil their law." And upon that they went to the palace, to obtain

leave to proceed to Jerusalem.

While they were in prison it happened, by a manifest intervention of

Divine Providence, that a merchant residing there was desirous, as an

act of charity, and for the salvation of his soul, to purchase their

deliverance, that they might pursue their way, but he was not allowed to

carry his generous design into effect; nevertheless he sent them daily

their meals, and on Wednesdays and Saturdays sent his son to them in

prison, who took them out to the bath, and brought them back again. And

on Sunday he took them to church through the market, that they might see

the shops, and whatever they seemed to take a liking to he afterwards

bought for them at his own expense. The townsmen used then to come there

to look at them, because they were young and handsome, and clad in good

garments.

Then, while they were still remaining in prison, a man, who was a native

of Spain, came and spoke with them, and inquired earnestly who they were

and from whence they came, and they told him the object of their

pilgrimage. This Spaniard had a brother in the king's palace, who was

chamberlain to the king of the Saracens; and when the governor who had

thrown them into prison came to the palace, the captain in whose ship

they had sailed from Cyprus, and the Spaniard who had spoken to them in

prison, went together before the king of the Saracens, whose title is

Emir-al-Mumenin[32], and, when their cause came on, the Spaniard spoke

to his brother, and begged him to intercede with the king for them.

After this, when all three came before the king, and told him the case,

he asked whence the prisoners came. And they said, "These men come from

the west country, where the sun sets; and we know of no land beyond

them, but water only." And the king replied, "Why ought we to punish

them? they have not sinned against us:—give them leave, and let them

go." And even the fine of four deniers, which the other prisoners had to

pay, was remitted to them. The Cyprians were then situated between the

Greeks and the Saracens, and were not in arms: for there was great peace

and friendship between the Greeks and Saracens. It was a great and

extensive region, and had twelve bishops.

As soon as they had obtained leave, the travellers went direct to

Damascus, a distance of a hundred miles. St. Ananias reposes there, and

it is in the land of Syria. They remained there one week. And at two

miles from the city was a church, on the spot where St. Paul was first

converted, and the Lord said to him, "Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou

me?" &c. And after praying there, they went into Galilee, to the place

where Gabriel first came to St. Mary, and said, "Hail, full of grace,"

&c. A church now stands there, and the village which contains the church

is Nazareth. The Christians repeatedly bought that church of the pagans,

when the latter were about to destroy it. And having there recommended

themselves to the Lord, they proceeded to the town of Cana, where our

Lord turned water into wine. A large church stands there, and near the

altar is still preserved one of the six vessels which our Lord commanded

to fill with water to be turned into wine; and the travellers drunk wine

out of it. They remained there one day, and then continued their journey

to Mount Tabor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguration, where there is

now a monastery and a church consecrated to our Lord, and Moses, and

Elijah. And those who dwell there call it Hagemon (the Holy Mount).

After praying there, they proceeded to the town of Tiberias, which

stands on the shore of the sea on which our Lord walked with dry feet,

and on which Peter tried to walk but sank. Here are many churches, and a

synagogue of the Jews. They remained there some days, and observed where

the Jordan passes through the midst of the sea. And thence they went

round the sea, and by the village of Magdalum to the village of

Capernaum, where our Lord raised the prince's daughter. Here was a house

and a great wall, which the people of the place told them was the

residence of Zebedæus with his sons John and James. And thence they went

to Bethsaida, the residence of Peter and Andrew, where there is now a

church on the site of their house. They remained there that night, and

next morning went to Chorazin, where our Lord healed the demoniacs, and

sent the devil into a herd of swine. Here was a church of the

Christians.

Having performed their devotions there, they went to the place where the

two fountains, Jor and Dan, issue from the earth, and flowing down from

the mountain are collected into one, and form the Jordan. And there they

passed the night between the two fountains, and the shepherds gave them

sour ewes' milk to drink. The sheep are of an extraordinary kind, with a

long back, short legs, large upright horns, and all of one colour. There

are deep marshes in the neighbourhood, and when the heat of the sun, in

summer, is oppressive, the sheep go to the marsh, and immerse themselves

in the water all but the head. Thence they proceeded to Cæsarea, where

there was a church and a multitude of Christians. They next went to the

monastery of St. John the Baptist[33], where there were about twenty

monks, and remained one night there, and next day went the distance of a

mile to the spot in the river Jordan where our Lord was baptized. Here

is now a church raised upon stone columns, and under the church it is

now dry land where our Lord was baptized. They still continue to baptize

in this place; and a wooden cross stands in the middle of the river,

where there is small depth of water, and a rope is extended to it over

the Jordan. At the feast of the Epiphany, the infirm and sick come

thither, and, holding by the rope, dip in the water. And women who are

barren come thither also, and thus obtain God's grace. Willibald here

bathed in the Jordan, and they remained at this place one day.

Thence they went to Galgala, a journey of five miles, where is a

moderate-sized wooden church, in which are the twelve stones which the

children of Israel carried out of the Jordan to Galgala, and placed

there as a memorial of their passage. Here also they performed their

devotions, and then proceeded to Jericho, above seven miles from the

Jordan, and saw there the fountain which was blessed by the prophet

Elisha, and hence to the monastery of St. Eustochium, which stands in

the middle of the plain between Jericho and Jerusalem.

On their arrival at Jerusalem, they first visited the spot where the

holy cross was found, where there is now a church which is called the

Place of Calvary, and which was formerly outside of Jerusalem; but when

St. Helena found the cross, the place was taken into the circuit of the

city. Three wooden crosses stand in this place, on the outside of the

wall of the church, in memory of our Lord's cross and of those of the

other persons crucified at the same time. They are without the church,

but under a roof. And near at hand is the garden in which was the

sepulchre of our Saviour, which was cut in the rock. That rock is now

above ground, square at the bottom, but tapering above, with a cross on

the summit. And over it there is now built a wonderful edifice. And on

the east side of the rock of the sepulchre there is a door, by which men

enter the sepulchre to pray. And there is a bed within, on which our

Lord's body lay; and on the bed stand fifteen golden cups with oil

burning day and night. The bed on which our Lord's body rested stands

within the rock of the sepulchre on the north side, to the right of a

man entering the sepulchre to pray. And before the door of the sepulchre

lies a great square stone, in the likeness of the former stone which the

angel rolled from the mouth of the monument. Our bishop arrived here on

the feast of St. Martin[34], and was suddenly seized with sickness, and

lay sick until the week before the Nativity of our Lord. And then, being

a little recovered, he rose and went to the church called St. Sion,

which is in the middle of Jerusalem, and, after performing his

devotions, he went to the porch of Solomon, where is the pool where the

infirm wait for the motion of the water, when the angel comes to move

it; and then he who first enters it is healed. Here our Lord said to the

paralytic, "Rise, take up thy bed, and walk!"[35] St. Mary expired in

the middle of Jerusalem, in the place called St. Sion; and as the twelve

apostles were carrying her body, the angels came and took her from their

hands and carried her to paradise.

Bishop Willibald next descended to the valley of Jehoshaphat, which is

close to the city of Jerusalem, on the east side. And in that valley is

the church of St. Mary, which contains her sepulchre, not because her

body rests there, but in memory of it. And having prayed there, he

ascended Mount Olivet, which is on the east side of the valley, and

where there is now a church, where our Lord prayed before his passion,

and said to his disciples, "Watch and pray, that ye enter not into

temptation."[36] And thence he came to the church on the mountain

itself, where our Lord ascended to heaven. In the middle of the church

is a square receptacle, beautifully sculptured in brass, on the spot of

the Ascension, and there is on it a small lamp in a glass case, closed

on every side, that the lamp may burn always, in rain or in fair

weather, for the church is open above, without a roof; and two columns

stand within the church, against the north wall and the south wall, in

memory of the two men who said, "Men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up

into heaven?"[37] And the man who can creep between the wall and the

columns will have remission of his sins.

He next came to the place where the angel appeared to the shepherds, and

thence to Bethlehem, where our Lord was born, distant seven miles from

Jerusalem. The place where Christ was born was once a cave under the

earth, but it is now a square house cut in the rock, and the earth is

dug up and thrown from it all round, and a church is now built above it,

and an altar is placed over the site of the birth. There is another

smaller altar, in order that when they desire to celebrate mass in the

cave, they may carry in the smaller altar for the occasion. This church

is a glorious building, in the form of a cross. After prayers here,

Willibald came to a large town called Thecua, where the children were

slain by Herod, and where there is now a church; here rests one of the

prophets. And then he came to the valley of Laura, where there is a

large monastery; here the abbot resides in the monastery, and he is

porter of the church, with many other monks who belong to the monastery,

and have their cells round the valley on the slope of the mountain. The

mountain is in a circle round the valley, in which the monastery is

built. Here rests St. Saba. He next arrived at the place where Philip

baptized the eunuch, where there is a small church, in an extensive

valley between Bethlehem and Gaza, where the travellers prayed. Thence

they went to St. Matthew, where there is great glory on the Sunday. And

while our bishop Willibald was standing at mass in this church, he

suddenly lost his sight, and was blind for two months. And thence they

went to St. Zacharias, the prophet, not the father of John, but another

prophet. They next went to the castle of Aframia, where the three

patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, repose, with their wives, and

thence he returned to Jerusalem, and there, entering the church where

the holy cross of our Lord was found, he recovered his sight.

After remaining some time at Jerusalem, Willibald set out on another

journey, and came first to St. George, at Diospolis, which is ten miles

from Jerusalem, and then to a town where there is a church of St. Peter

the apostle, who here restored to life the widow named Dorcas. He went

thence to the coast, far away from Jerusalem, to Tyre and Sidon, which

stand on the sea-shore six miles from each other; after which he passed

over Mount Libanus, to Damascus, and so again to Cæsarea, and a third

time to Jerusalem, where he passed the following winter. And then he

went to the town of Ptolemais, on the extreme bounds of Syria, and was

obliged by sickness to remain there all Lent. His companions went

forward to the king of the Saracens, named Emir-al-Mumenin, with the

hope of obtaining letters of safe conduct; but they could not find the

king, because he had fled out of his kingdom. Upon this, they came back,

and remained together at Ptolemais until the week before Easter.

Then they went again to Emessa, and asked the governor there to give

them letters, and he gave them a letter for each two, because they could

not travel in a company, but only two and two, on account of the

difficulty of obtaining food. And then they went to Damascus, and

returned a fourth time to Jerusalem, where they remained a short period.

They now left Jerusalem by another route, and came to the town of

Sebaste, which was formerly called Samaria, and they call the castle

Sebastia. Here repose St. John the Baptist, and the prophets Abdiah and

Elisha; and near the castle is the well at which our Lord asked for

water of the Samaritan woman, and over which well there is now a church.

And near is the mountain on which the Samaritans worshipped; for the

woman said to our Lord, "Our fathers worshipped in this mountain, and ye

say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship."[38]

Here the travellers performed their devotions, and then they proceeded

to a large town on the farthest borders of Samaria, where they reposed

that night. And thence they continued their journey over an extensive

plain covered with olive trees, and they were accompanied by a black

with two camels and a mule, who was conducting a woman through the wood.

And on their way they were met by a lion[39], which threatened them much

with fearful roaring; but the black encouraged them, and told them to go

forwards; and when they approached it, the lion, as God willed, hurried

off in another direction, and they soon heard his roaring in the

distance. They supposed he came there to devour people who went into the

wood to gather olives. At length they arrived at a town called

Thalamartha, on the sea-coast; and they proceeded onwards to the head of

Mount Libanus, where it forms a promontory in the sea, and where stands

the tower of Libanus. Nobody is allowed to pass this place without

letters of safe conduct, for there is a guard in it; those who are

without such letters, are seized and sent to Tyre. That mountain is

between Tyre and Thalamartha. And so the bishop arrived again at Tyre.

Willibald had formerly, when at Jerusalem, bought balsam, and filled a

gourd with it; and he took a gourd that was hollow, and had flax, and

filled it with rock oil[40]; and poured some in the other gourd, and cut

the small stalk, so that it fitted exactly and closed up the mouth of

the gourd. So, when they came to Tyre, the citizens stopped them, and

examined their burthens to see if they had any thing concealed; for if

they had found any thing, they would immediately have put them to death.

But they found nothing but Willibald's gourd, which they opened, and,

smelling the rock oil in the stalk, they did not discover the balsam

that was within. So they let them go. They remained here many days

waiting for a ship, and when they had obtained one they were at sea all

the winter, from the day of St. Andrew the apostle[41] till a week

before Easter, when they reached Constantinople. Here repose in one

altar the three saints, Andrew, Timothy, and Luke the evangelist; and

the sepulchre of John Chrysostom is before the altar where the priest

stands when he performs mass. Willibald remained there two years, and

was lodged in the church, so that he might behold daily where the saints

reposed. And then he came to the town of Nice, where the emperor

Constantine held a synod, at which three hundred and eighteen bishops

were present. The church here resembles the church on Mount Olivet,

where our Lord ascended to heaven, and in it are the pictures

of the bishops who were at the synod. Willibald went thither from

Constantinople, that he might see how that church was built, and then

returned to Constantinople.

At the end of the two years they sailed, in company with the envoys of

the pope and the emperor, to the isle of Sicily, to the town of

Syracuse, and thence to Catania, and so to the city of Regia, in

Calabria; and thence to the isle of Vulcano, where is Theodoric's

Hell[42]. And when they arrived there, they went on shore to see what

sort of a hell it was; and Willibald especially, who was curious to see

the interior, was wishful to ascend to the summit of the mountain where

the opening was; but he was unable to accomplish his wish, on account of

the cinders which were thrown up from the gulf, and settled in heaps

round the brim, as snow settles on the ground when it falls from heaven.

But though Willibald was defeated in his attempt to reach the summit, he

had a near view of the column of flame and smoke which was projected

upwards from the pit with a noise like thunder. And he saw how the

pumice-stone, which writers use[43], was thrown with the flame from the

hell, and fell into the sea, and was thence cast on the shore, where men

gathered it and carried it away. After having witnessed this spectacle,

they sailed to the church of St. Bartholomew the apostle, which stands

on the sea-shore, and came to the mountains which are called Didymi.

Thence they went by sea to Naples.

FOOTNOTES:

[22] Probably Terracina.

[23] Probably this is a corruption of Neapolis, or Naples.

[24] Now Reggio.

[25] This evidently corresponds to the Πυγελα (or Pygela) of Strabo,

which he calls πολίχνιον, a little town. Stephanus and Pomponius Mela

also write Pygela, but Pliny has it _Phygala_. The site is now,

according to Hamilton, (Trav. vol. ii. p. 22,) covered with fragments of

Roman tiles and pottery; and near the road is the foundation of a large

marble building, apparently a temple.

[26] Mr. Ainsworth, with whom I have consulted on this name, observes,

"I can only suppose that we must read Trogilium for Strobolem, or that

the latter was the native corruption of Trogilium, the name, according

to Ptolemy, of the promontory which lies between Ephesus and the

Meander, and which is opposite the island of Samos." In the Acts of the

Apostles, xx. 15, it is written, "And we sailed thence, (Mitylena,) and

came the next day over against Chios; and the next day we arrived at

Samos, and tarried at Trogyllium; and the next day we came to Miletus."

[27] _i. e._ Miletus.

[28] The passage in the original is rather obscure. The later anonymous

life of St. Willibald says that they came to the mount of the Galani,

which having been ravaged by war, they were distressed for want of

provisions. "Navim demum ingressi, ad montem Galanorum transfretarunt;

quo bellorum tempestate tunc temporis depilato sævam passi sunt

inediam."

[29] June 24, 722.

[30] Tortosa, now called Tartus.

[31] The Arca of Ptolemy, placed in the Antonine Itinerary, 18 M.P. from

Tripolis, and 32 M.P. from Antaradon. Josephus (De Bel. Jud., lib. vii.

c. 13) says the Gentiles called this Phœnician town Arcæa or Arcena. It

is now called Tele Arka.

[32] _i. e._ Emir, or commander of the faithful. Willibald, not

understanding the language, translated the title of the khalif into the

name of a king, whom the biographer calls _Mirmumni_. In a similar

manner the old Spanish and English historians frequently turned the same

title into the name Miramomelin. The khalif here alluded to was Yézid

II.

[33] In the desert of Quarantania.

[34] Nov. 11, 722.

[35] John, v. 8.

[36] Matth., xxvi. 41.

[37] Acts, i. 11.

[38] John, iv. 20.

[39] Lions were ever of very rare occurrence in Syria: perhaps it was

some other wild animal peculiar to the country that Willibald saw. It

may, however, be pointed out as a curious illustration of the words of

Jeremiah (xlix. 19, and l. 44), "He shall come up like a _lion_ from the

swelling of Jordan."

[40] _Petræ oleum._ No doubt the writer means naphtha, bitumen, or

asphaltum.

[41] Nov. 30, 724.

[42] _Infernus Theodorici._ In the legends of this age, the craters of

volcanoes were believed to be entrances to hell. A hermit, who resided

on the Isle of Lipari, told a friend of pope Gregory the Great that he

had seen the soul of the Gothic king, Theodoric, thrown into the crater

of the Isle of Vulcano (Gregor. Magn. Dialog., lib. iv. c. 30). Hence

the name given to it in Willibald's narrative.

[43] The medieval scribes made constant use of the pumice-stone, for

smoothening their vellum and for making erasures.

THE VOYAGE OF BERNARD THE WISE.

A.D. 867.

In the year from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ 867, in the

name of the Lord wishing to visit the holy places at Jerusalem, I,

Bernard, having taken for my companions two brother monks, one of whom

was of the monastery of St. Vincent at Beneventum, and named Theudemund,

and the other a Spaniard, named Stephen, we went to Rome, to Pope

Nicholas, and obtained the desired licence to go, along with his

benediction and assistance.

Thence we went to Mount Gargano, in which is the Church of St. Michael,

under one stone, covered above with oak trees; which church is said to

have been dedicated by the archangel himself. Its entrance is from the

north, and it is capable of containing sixty men. In the interior, on

the east side, is the image of the angel; to the south is an altar on

which sacrifice is offered, and no other gift is placed there. But there

is suspended before the altar a vessel in which gifts are deposited,

which also has near it other altars. Benignatus is abbot of this place,

and presides over a numerous brotherhood.

Leaving Mount Gargano, we travelled a hundred and fifty miles, to a city

in the power of the Saracens, named Bari[44], which was formerly subject

to Beneventum. It is seated on the sea, and is fortified to the south by

two very wide walls; but to the north it stands exposed to the sea. Here

we obtained from the prince of the city, called the sultan, the

necessary arrangements for our voyage, with two letters of safe conduct,

describing our persons and the object of our journey, to the prince of

Alexandria, and to the prince of Babylonia[45]. These princes are under

the jurisdiction of the Emir-al-Mumenin, who rules over all the

Saracens, and resides in Bagada and Axinarri, which are beyond

Jerusalem.

From Bari we proceeded to the port of the city of Tarentum, a distance

of ninety miles, where we found six ships, having on board nine thousand

captives of the Christians of Beneventum. In the two ships which sailed

first, and which were bound for Africa, were three thousand captives;

and in the two which followed them, and which went to Tunis, there were

also three thousand. The two others, which likewise contained the same

number of Christian captives, carried us to the port of Alexandria,

after a voyage of thirty days. Here we were prohibited from landing by

the captain of the sailors, who had sixty under his command, until we

had given six _aurei_ for our leave. Thence we went to the prince of

Alexandria, and showed him the letter which the sultan had given us, to

which, however, he paid no attention, but obliged each of us to pay

thirteen deniers, and then gave us letters to the prince of Babylonia.

It is the custom of these people to take in weight only what can be

weighed; and six of our sols and six deniers make three sols and three

deniers of their money.

The city of Alexandria is adjacent to the sea. It was here that St.

Mark, preaching the gospel, bore the episcopal dignity; and outside the

eastern gate of the city is the monastery of the saint, with the church

in which he formerly reposed. But the Venetians coming there obtained

his body by stealth, and carrying it on shipboard, sailed home with it.

Without the western gate is a monastery called The Forty Saints, in

which, as well as in the former, there are a number of monks. The port

is to the north of the city; on the south is the entrance to the Gyon,

or Nile, which waters Egypt, and, running through the middle of the

city, empties itself into the sea in the aforesaid port. We entered the

river, and sailed to the south six days, and came to the city of Babylon

of Egypt, where once reigned king Pharaoh, under whom Joseph built the

seven granaries still remaining. When we went on shore at Babylon, the

guards of the city carried us before the prince, a Saracen named

Adalhacham, who inquired of us the object of our journey, and asked us

from what princes we had letters. Whereupon we showed him the letters of

the aforesaid sultan, and those of the prince of Alexandria; but they

were of no service to us, for he sent us to prison, where we remained

six days, and then, having consulted together, we obtained our liberty

by giving more money. He then gave us letters, which effectually

protected us from any further exactions, for he was second in command to

the Emir-al-Mumenin aforesaid. Nevertheless, when we entered the cities

mentioned in the following narrative, we were never allowed to leave

them until we had received a paper or impression of a seal, for which we

had to pay one or two deniers.

There is in this city a patriarch, by name Michael[46], who by the grace

of God rules over the bishops, monks, and other Christians throughout

Egypt. These Christians are tolerated by the pagans, on condition of

paying for each person an annual tribute to the aforesaid prince, and

they live in security and freedom. This tribute is three, or two, or one

aureus, or for a meaner person thirteen deniers. But he who cannot pay

thirteen deniers, whether he be a native or a stranger, is thrown into

prison, until God or some good Christian redeem him.

We now returned by the river Gyon, and came to the city of Sitinulh, and

thence proceeded to Malla; and from Malla we sailed across to Damietta,

which has the sea to the north, and on all other sides the river Nile,

with the exception of a small strip of land. We sailed thence to the

city of Tamnis, in which the Christians are very pious, and exceedingly

hospitable. This city possesses no land, except where the churches

stand; and there is shown the field of Thanis, where lie, in the manner

of three walls, the bodies of those who died in the time of Moses[47].

From Tamnis we came to the city of Faramea, where is a church of St.

Mary, on the spot to which, by the admonition of the angel, Joseph fled

with the child and its mother. In this city there is a multitude of

camels, which are hired from the natives by travellers to carry their

baggage across the desert, which is a journey of six days. At this city

the desert begins; and it may well be called a desert, for it bears

neither grass nor fruit of any kind, with the exception of palm-trees,

and it is white, like a plain covered with snow. In the middle of the

route there are two caravanserais, one called Albara, the other

Albacara, in which the Christians and pagans traffic for the things

necessary on the journey. But around them the earth is as barren as in

the rest of the desert. After Albacara the earth becomes fruitful, and

continues so to the city of Gaza, which was the city of Samson, and is

very rich in all things. Then we came to Alariza, and thence we went to

Ramula, near which is the monastery of St. George the Martyr, in which

he rests. From Ramula we hastened to the castle of Emaus; and thence we

went to the holy city of Jerusalem, where we were received in the hostel

founded there by the glorious emperor Charles[48], in which are received

all the pilgrims who speak the Roman tongue; to which adjoins a church

in honour of St. Mary, with a most noble library, founded by the same

emperor, with twelve mansions, fields, vineyards, and a garden in the

Valley of Jehoshaphat. In front of the hospital is a market, for which

every one trading there pays yearly to him who provides it two aurei.

Within this city, besides others, there are four principal churches,

connected with each other by walls; one to the east, which contains the

Mount of Calvary, and the place in which the cross of our Lord was

found, and is called the Basilica of Constantine; another to the south;

a third to the west, in the middle of which is the sepulchre of our

Lord, having nine columns in its circuit, between which are walls made

of the most excellent stones; of which nine columns, four are in front

of the monument itself; which, with their walls, include the stone

placed before the sepulchre, which the angel rolled away, and on which

he sat after our Lord's resurrection. It is not necessary to say more of

this sepulchre, since Bede has given a full description of it in his

history[49]. I must not, however, omit to state, that on Holy Saturday,

which is the eve of Easter, the office is begun in the morning in this

church, and after it is ended the _Kyrie Eleison_ is chanted, until an

angel comes and lights the lamps which hang over the aforesaid

sepulchre[50]; of which light the patriarch gives their shares to the

bishops and to the rest of the people, that each may illuminate his own

house. The present patriarch is called Theodosius[51], and was brought

to this place on account of his piety from his monastery, which is

fifteen miles from Jerusalem, and was made patriarch over all the

Christians in the Land of Promise. Between the aforesaid four churches

is a parvis without roof, the walls of which shine with gold, and the

pavement is laid with very precious stone; and in the middle four

chains, coming from each of the four churches, join in a point which is

said to be the middle of the world.

There is, moreover, in the city, another church on Mount Sion, which is

called the Church of St. Simeon, where our Lord washed the feet of his

disciples, and in which is suspended our Lord's crown of thorns. St.

Mary is said to have died in this church. Near it, towards the east, is

a church in honour of St. Stephen, on the spot where he is believed to

have been stoned. And, indirectly to the east, is a church in honour of

St. Peter, in the place where he denied our Lord. To the north is the

Temple of Solomon, having a synagogue of the Saracens[52]. To the south

of it are the iron gates through which the angel of the Lord led Peter

out of prison, and which were never opened afterwards.

Leaving Jerusalem, we descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which is

a mile from the city, containing the village of Gethsemane, with the

place of the nativity of St. Mary. In it is a round church of St. Mary,

containing her sepulchre, on which the rain never falls, although there

is no roof above it. There is also a church on the spot where our Lord

was betrayed, containing the four round tables of his Supper. In the

Valley of Jehoshaphat there is also a church of St. Leon, in which it is

said that our Lord will come at the Last Judgment. Thence we went to

Mount Olivet, on the declivity of which is shown the place of our Lord's

prayer to the Father. On the side of the same mountain is shown the

place where the Pharisees brought to our Lord the woman taken in

adultery, where there is a church in honour of St. John, in which is

preserved the writing in marble which our Lord wrote on the ground[53].

At the summit of the mountain, a mile from the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is

the place of our Lord's ascension, in the middle of which, on the spot

from which he ascended, is an altar open to the sky, on which mass is

celebrated. Thence we proceeded to Bethany, which is to the south, on

the ascent of the mountain, one mile from the top; there is here a

monastery, with a church containing the sepulchre of Lazarus; near

which, to the north, is a pool in which, by our Lord's command, Lazarus

washed himself after he had been raised from the dead; and he is said to

have been subsequently bishop in Ephesus forty years. On the western

declivity of Mount Olivet is shown the marble from which the Lord

descended on the foal of an ass. Between these, to the south, in the

Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the pool of Siloah.

When we left Jerusalem on the way to Bethlehem, the place of our Lord's

nativity, distant six miles, we were shown the field in which Habakkuk

was at work when the angel of the Lord ordered him to carry his meal to

Daniel in Babylon, which is to the south, where Nebuchadnezzar reigned,

but which is now the haunt of serpents and wild beasts. At Bethlehem

there is a very large church in honour of St. Mary, in the middle of

which is a crypt under a stone, the entrance of which is from the south,

and the egress from the east, in which is shown the manger of our Lord,

on the west side of the crypt. But the place in which our Lord cried, is

to the east, having an altar where masses are celebrated. Near this

church, to the south, is a church of the Blessed Innocents, the martyrs.

One mile from Bethlehem, is the monastery of the Holy Shepherds, to whom

the angel appeared at our Lord's nativity. Lastly, thirty miles to the

east of Jerusalem is the river Jordan, on which is the monastery of St.

John; in which space there are also many other monasteries. Among them,

one mile to the south of the city of Jerusalem, is the church of St.

Mamilla, in which are many bodies of martyrs slain by the Saracens, and

diligently buried there by her.

We returned from the holy city of Jerusalem direct to the sea, where we

took ship, and sailed sixty days in very great peril, from the violence

of the wind. At length we landed at _Mons Aureus_, where is a crypt

containing seven altars, and having above it a great forest; which crypt

is so dark, that none can enter it without lamps. The abbot there is Dom

Valentine. Thence we went to Rome, within which city, to the east, in a

place called Lateran, is a well-built church in honour of St. John the

Baptist, where is the special see of the popes; and there, every year,

the keys are carried to the pope from every part of the city. On the

west side of Rome is the church of St. Peter, the chief of the

Apostles, where he rests; the magnitude of which is unequalled by any

church in the whole world, and it contains a variety of ornaments. In

which city repose innumerable bodies of saints.

Here I separated from my companions; I myself proceeded thence to St.

Michael _ad Duas Tumbas_[54], which is a place situated on a mountain

that runs out two leagues into the sea. At the summit of this mountain

is a church in honour of St. Michael; the mountain is surrounded by the

tide twice every day, at morning and evening, and men cannot go to the

mountain until the sea retires. But on the Feast of St. Michael the sea

does not join round the mountain when the tide comes in, but stands like

walls to the right and left, so that on that day all who wish to perform

their devotions there can pass to the mountain any hour of the day,

which they cannot do on other days. There Phinimontius, a Breton, is

abbot.

Now I will tell you how the Christians keep God's law both at Jerusalem

and in Egypt. The Christians and Pagans have there such a peace between

them, that if I should go a journey, and in the journey my camel or ass

which carries my baggage should die, and I should leave everything there

without a guard, and go to the next town to get another, on my return I

should find all my property untouched. The law of public safety is there

such, that if they find in a city, or on the sea, or on the road, any

man journeying by night or by day, without a letter, or some mark of a

king or prince of that land, he is immediately thrown into prison, till

the time he can give a good account whether he be a spy or not.

The people of Beneventum, in their pride, slew their prince, Sichard,

and did great injury to the Christian faith; then they had quarrels and

contentions among themselves, until Louis, the brother of Lothaire and

Charles[55], obtained the empire over them. And in Romania many crimes

are committed, and there are bad people there, banditti and thieves, and

so men cannot go to Rome to visit St. Peter, unless they join together

in troops, and go armed. In Lombardy, under the reign of the aforesaid

Louis, there is tolerably good peace. The Bretons also have peace among

themselves; and it is there the custom that if any one injure another, a

third immediately comes, whoever he may be who witnesses it, and takes

up the cause of the injured man as though he were his neighbour. And if

any one is proved to have stolen more than four deniers, they slay him,

or hang him on a gallows[56].

I will add, in conclusion, that we saw in the village of Gethsemane

squared marble stones of that fineness that a man might see any thing he

liked in them, as in a looking-glass.

FOOTNOTES:

[44] The Saracens had established themselves at Bari in the early part

of the century, and it was now the head seat of their power on the coast

of Italy. Their predatory excursions into the territory of Beneventum

caused the emperor Louis II. to prepare an expedition against them, and

he took Bari after a siege of four years, and returned to Beneventum in

871, while his troops laid siege to Tarentum, which, however, was not

taken from the Saracens till a somewhat later period. The Christian

captives mentioned by Bernard, as carried in such numbers into slavery

in Africa and Egypt, had been carried off in the incursions into the

territory of Beneventum. To judge from the numbers embarked in one ship,

they must have been packed up almost as close as negroes in a

slave-ship.

[45] This is the Egyptian Babylon, now Fostat, or, as it is often

called, Old Cairo. Bagdad (Bagada) was, for many ages, the capital of

the Saracen empire, and residence of the khalifs. It is doubtful what

place is meant by _Axinarri_, which, in Mabillon's text, is called

_Axiam_.

[46] This was the patriarch Michael I., who ruled over the Melchite

portion of the Coptic Christians from 859 to 871. There was at this time

a schism among the Christians of Egypt.

[47] Of the places here visited by Bernard, Sitinulh is perhaps Menuph;

Malla is Mahalleh; and Tamnis is Tennis, or Tennesus, the field of

Thanis, answering to "the field of Zoan," Psal. lxxviii. 12. Faramea (in

the next page), is Farama or Pelusium. The caravanserais are perhaps

_al-bir_ (the well) and _al-bákara_ (the pulley), both common names

given to wells; but it is uncertain now what were the particular spots

alluded to by Bernard. Alariza would seem to be Al-arish.

[48] Charlemagne. We have no other account of Charlemagne's foundations

at Jerusalem; but the khalif Haroun-er-Raschid is said to have shown

great favour to the Christian pilgrims from respect for the Frankish

emperor, and even to have sent him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre and of

Jerusalem. A legend prevalent in the twelfth century made the emperor

visit Jerusalem in person; and an Anglo-Norman poem on Charlemagne's

pretended voyage to the Holy Land, composed in that century, was printed

by M. Fr. Michel in 1836.

[49] See "Bede's Ecclesiastical History," book v. chaps. 16 and 17. Bede

professedly takes his account from Adamnan's narrative of the travels of

bishop Arculf, and the description referred to will be found at p. 2 of

the present volume.

[50] This was a very celebrated miracle in the middle ages, and will be

remembered as the cause of the persecution of the Christians in the Holy

City, and of the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, by the

khalif Hakem, in A.D. 1008 or 1010. An eastern Christian writer,

Abulfaragius, tells us that "the author of this persecution was some

enemy of the Christians, who told Hakem that, when the Christians

assembled in their temple at Jerusalem, to celebrate Easter, the

chaplains of the church, making use of a pious fraud, greased the chain

of iron that held the lamp over the tomb with oil of balsam; and that,

when the Arab officer had sealed up the door which led to the tomb, they

applied a match, through the roof, to the other extremity of the chain,

and the fire descended immediately to the wick of the lamp and lighted

it. Then the worshippers burst into tears, and cried out _kyrie

eleison_, supposing it was fire which fell from heaven upon the tomb;

and they were thus strengthened in their faith." This miracle was

probably instituted after the time when so much encouragement was given

to the pilgrims under the reign of Charlemagne. It is not mentioned in

the works that preceded Bernard, but it is often alluded to in

subsequent writers, and continues still to be practised by the Greeks.

[51] Theodosius was patriarch of Jerusalem from 863 to 879.

[52] _i. e._ the Mosque of Omar.

[53] The event alluded to occurred in the Temple, and not on the Mount

of Olives. The notion mentioned in the text must have arisen from a

wrong reading of the first verses of John, viii. It is stated in the

Gospel, John, viii. 6, "But Jesus stooped down, and with his finger

wrote on the ground, as though he heard them not." This writing on the

ground was worked up into a popular legend in the middle ages, according

to which Christ is represented as writing on the ground the secret sins

of all the persons assembled to condemn the woman; and this, we are

told, was the cause that they all slunk away ashamed.

[54] Mount St. Michel, on the coast of Brittany, which was commonly

called St. Michel _ad tumbam_ or _ad tumbas_, and was a place of great

celebrity in the romantic, as well as in the religious, legends of the

middle ages. It is more than probable that, before the foundation of the

monastery, the top of the mount was occupied by a cromlech, like so many

of the islands on this coast.

[55] Sichard was a cruel and oppressive tyrant, and was deservedly hated

by his subjects. At length, having attempted to violate the wife of one

of his nobles, the latter excited the people of Beneventum to revolt;

and they burst into his palace; and slaughtered him, towards the end of

the year 839. This act of popular vengeance was succeeded by a period of

domestic troubles, which favoured the designs of the Saracens, and

ultimately brought Beneventum under the power or protection of the

emperor Louis II., or the Germanic, (the brother of Lothaire and Charles

the Bald, and grandson of Charlemagne,) who was emperor and king of

Germany from 840 to 876.

[56] Salomon III. was count of Brittany at this time; but history hardly

bears out Bernard's boasts of the peace and good government of the

country under his rule.

THE TRAVELS OF SÆWULF.

A.D. 1102 AND 1103.

I, Sæwulf, though conscious of my own unworthiness, went to offer up my

prayers at the Holy Sepulchre; but, owing to my sins, or to the badness

of the ship, being unable to proceed thither by the direct course on the

open sea, I will commence with an enumeration of the different islands

at which we touched.

Some pilgrims embark at Bari, others at Barlo (Barletta?), some at

Siponte, or at Trani; while others take ship at Otranto, the entrance

port of Apulia. We set sail from Monopoli, one day's journey from Bari,

on Sunday, being the feast of St. Mildred[57]. But starting at an

unlucky hour, as happened to us again on a subsequent occasion, we had

not proceeded more than three miles, when the mercy of God alone saved

us from perishing; for the same day the violence of the waves wrecked

our vessel, but with God's help we all reached the shore in safety. We

then went to Brandia[58], and again our ship, being refitted, set sail

on an unlucky day[59], and reached the town of Corfu, on the eve of St.

James the Apostle[60]. From thence we were driven by a tempest to the

island of Cephalonia, which we reached on the 1st of August. Here Robert

Guiscard died[61]; we also lost some of our party, which was the cause

of sadness to us. We next touched at Polipolis[62]; after which we came

to the celebrated island of Patras, the city of which we entered for the

sake of praying to St. Andrew the Apostle, who suffered martyrdom and

was buried here, but was afterwards translated to Constantinople. From

Patras we went to Corinth, which we reached on the eve of St.

Lawrence[63]. St. Paul preached the word of God here, and wrote an

epistle to the citizens. In this place we suffered many contrarieties.

Thence we sailed to the port of Hosta[64]; from which place we

proceeded, some on foot, others on asses, to the city of Thebes,

vulgarly called Stivas. On the eve of St. Bartholomew the Apostle[65],

we came to Nigropont, where we hired another ship. Athens, where the

Apostle Paul preached, is two days' journey from Corinth; St. Dionysius

was born and taught there, and was afterwards converted by St. Paul.

Here is a church of the blessed Virgin Mary, which has a lamp that burns

always and never wants oil.

We went afterwards to the island of Petalion[66]; thence to Andros,

where are made rich sindals and samits and other stuffs of silk. We then

touched successively at Tinos, Syra, Miconi, and Naxia, near which is

the famous island of Crete. Next we came to Carea (Khero), Amorgo,

Samos, Scio, and Meteline. We then proceeded to Pathmos, where St. John

the Apostle and Evangelist, banished by Domitian Cæsar, wrote the

Revelations. On the side towards Smyrna, a day's journey distant, is

Ephesus, where he afterwards entered the sepulchre living; the apostle

Paul, moreover, wrote an Epistle to the Ephesians. Then we came to the

isles of Lero and Calimno, and afterwards to Ancho[67], where Galen, the

physician most celebrated among the Greeks, was born. Thence we passed

over to the port of Lido[68], a city destroyed, where Titus, the

disciple of St. Paul, preached. Next, to Asus, which is interpreted

silvery.

Our next station was the famous island of Rhodes, which is said to have

possessed one of the seven wonders of the world, the idol called

Colossus, which was a hundred and twenty feet high, and was destroyed by

the Persians, with nearly all the province of Romania, when they were on

their way to Spain. These are the Colossians, to whom St. Paul the

Apostle wrote his epistle[69]. Hence, it is a distance of one day to the

city of Patera, where St. Nicholas the archbishop was born, and where we

arrived in the evening, after escaping a violent storm. Next morning we

sailed to an entirely desolate town called Mogronissi of St. Mary, which

means Long Island, which it would appear by the churches and other

buildings had been inhabited by the Christians, after they had been

driven by the Turks from Alexandria[70]. Then we came to the city of

Myra, where St. Nicholas was archbishop, and which is the port of the

Adriatic Sea, as Constantinople is the port of the Ægean Sea. After

having worshipped at the sepulchre of the saint, we sailed to the island

which is called Xindacopo[71], which means sixty oars, on account of the

force of the sea; near it is the port and district of Finica. Thence we

sailed over the broad part of the Adriatic Sea[72], to the city of

Paffus (Baffo), which is in the isle of Cyprus, where all the Apostles

met after the ascension of our Lord, and held a council for the

arrangement of the affairs of the gospel, on which occasion they sent

forth St. Barnabas to preach; after whose death St. Peter went thence to

Joppa, and sowed the seed of God's word there, before he ascended the

episcopal see of Antioch.

After leaving the isle of Cyprus, we were tossed about by tempestuous

weather for seven days and seven nights, being forced back one night

almost to the spot from which we sailed; but after much suffering, by

divine mercy, at sun-rise on the eighth day, we saw before us the coast

of the port of Joppa, which filled us with an unexpected and

extraordinary joy. Thus, after a course of thirteen weeks, as we took

ship at Monopoli, on a Sunday, having dwelt constantly on the waves of

the sea, or in islands, or in deserted cots and sheds (for the Greeks

are not hospitable), we put into the port of Joppa, with great

rejoicings and thanksgivings, on a Sunday[73].

And now, my dear friends, all join with me in thanking God for his mercy

shown to me through this long voyage; blessed be his name now and

evermore! Listen now to a new instance of his mercy shown to me,

although the lowest of his servants, and to my companions. The very day

we came in sight of the port, one said to me (I believe by divine

inspiration), "Sir, go on shore to-day, lest a storm come on in the

night, which will render it impossible to land to-morrow." When I heard

this, I was suddenly seized with a great desire of landing, and, having

hired a boat, went into it, with all my companions; but, before I had

reached the shore, the sea was troubled, and became continually more

tempestuous. We landed, however, with God's grace, without hurt, and

entering the city weary and hungry, we secured a lodging, and reposed

ourselves that night. But next morning, as we were returning from

church, we heard the roaring of the sea, and the shouts of the people,

and saw that every body was in confusion and astonishment. We were also

dragged along with the crowd to the shore, where we saw the waves

swelling higher than mountains, and innumerable bodies of drowned

persons of both sexes scattered over the beach, while the fragments of

ships were floating on every side. Nothing was to be heard but the

roaring of the sea and the dashing together of the ships, which drowned

entirely the shouts and clamour of the people. Our own ship, which was a

very large and strong one, and many others laden with corn and

merchandise, as well as with pilgrims coming and returning, still held

by their anchors, but how they were tossed by the waves! how their crews

were filled with terror! how they cast overboard their merchandise! what

eye of those who were looking on could be so hard and stony as to

refrain from tears? We had not looked at them long before the ships were

driven from their anchors by the violence of the waves, which threw them

now up aloft, and now down, until they were run aground or upon the

rocks, and there they were beaten backwards and forwards until they were

crushed to pieces. For the violence of the wind would not allow them to

put out to sea, and the character of the coast would not allow them to

put into shore with safety. Of the sailors and pilgrims who had lost all

hope of escape, some remained on the ships, others laid hold of the

masts or beams of wood; many remained in a state of stupor, and were

drowned in that condition without any attempt to save themselves; some

(although it may appear incredible) had in my sight their heads knocked

off by the very timbers of the ships to which they had attached

themselves for safety; others were carried out to sea on the beams,

instead of being brought to land; even those who knew how to swim had

not strength to struggle with the waves, and very few thus trusting to

their own strength reached the shore alive. Thus, out of thirty very

large ships, of which some were what are commonly called dromunds, some

gulafres, and others cats[74], all laden with palmers and with

merchandise, scarcely seven remained safe when we left the shore. Of

persons of both sexes, there perished more than a thousand that day.

Indeed, no eye ever beheld a greater misfortune in the space of a single

day, from all which God snatched us by his grace; to whom be honour and

glory for ever. Amen.

We went up from Joppa to the city of Jerusalem, a journey of two days,

by a mountainous road, very rough, and dangerous on account of the

Saracens, who lie in wait in the caves of the mountains to surprise the

Christians, watching both day and night to surprise those less capable

of resisting by the smallness of their company, or the weary, who may

chance to lag behind their companions. At one moment, you see them on

every side; at another, they are altogether invisible, as may be

witnessed by any body travelling there. Numbers of human bodies lie

scattered in the way, and by the way-side, torn to pieces by wild

beasts. Some may, perhaps, wonder that the bodies of Christians are

allowed to remain unburied, but it is not surprising when we consider

that there is not much earth on the hard rock to dig a grave; and if

earth were not wanting, who would be so simple as to leave his company,

and go alone to dig a grave for a companion? Indeed, if he did so, he

would rather be digging a grave for himself than for the dead man. For

on that road, not only the poor and weak, but the rich and strong, are

surrounded with perils; many are cut off by the Saracens, but more by

heat and thirst; many perish by the want of drink, but more by too much

drinking. We, however, with all our company, reached the end of our

journey in safety. Blessed be the Lord, who did not turn away my prayer,

and hath not turned his mercy from me. Amen.

The entrance to the city of Jerusalem is from the west, under the

citadel of king David, by the gate which is called the gate of David.

The first place to be visited is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, which

is called the Martyrdom, not only because the streets lead most directly

to it, but because it is more celebrated than all the other churches;

and that rightly and justly, for all the things which were foretold and

forewritten by the holy prophets of our Saviour Jesus Christ were there

actually fulfilled. The church itself was royally and magnificently

built, after the discovery of our Lord's cross, by the archbishop

Maximus, with the patronage of the emperor Constantine, and his mother

Helena. In the middle of this church is our Lord's Sepulchre, surrounded

by a very strong wall and roof, lest the rain should fall upon the Holy

Sepulchre, for the church above is open to the sky. This church is

situated, like the city, on the declivity of Mount Sion. The Roman

emperors Titus and Vespasian, to revenge our Lord, entirely destroyed

the city of Jerusalem, that our Lord's prophecy might be fulfilled,

which, as he approached Jerusalem, seeing the city, he pronounced,

weeping over it, "If thou hadst known, even thou, for the day shall come

upon thee, that thine enemies shall cast a trench about thee, and

compass thee round, and keep thee in on every side, and shall lay thee

even with the ground, and thy children with thee; and they shall not

leave in thee one stone upon another."[75] We know that our Lord

suffered without the gate. But the emperor Hadrian, who was called

Ælius, rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and the Temple of the Lord, and

added to the city as far as the Tower of David, which was previously a

considerable distance from the city, for any one may see from the Mount

of Olivet where the extreme western walls of the city stood originally,

and how much it is since increased. And the emperor called the city

after his own name Ælia, which is interpreted the House of God. Some,

however, say that the city was rebuilt by the emperor Justinian, and

also the Temple of the Lord as it is now; but they say that according to

supposition, and not according to truth. For the Assyrians[76], whose

fathers dwelt in that country from the first persecution, say that the

city was taken and destroyed many times after our Lord's Passion, along

with all the churches, but not entirely defaced.

In the court of the church of our Lord's sepulchre are seen some very

holy places, namely, the prison in which our Lord Jesus Christ was

confined after he was betrayed, according to the testimony of the

Assyrians; then, a little above, appears the place where the holy cross

and the other crosses were found, where afterwards a large church was

built in honour of queen Helena, but which has since been utterly

destroyed by the Pagans; and below, not far from the prison, stands the

marble column to which our Lord Jesus Christ was bound in the common

hall, and scourged with most cruel stripes. Near this is the spot where

our Lord was stripped of his garments by the soldiers; and next, the

place where he was clad in a purple vest by the soldiers, and crowned

with the crown of thorns, and they cast lots for his garments. Next we

ascend Mount Calvary, where the patriarch Abraham raised an altar, and

prepared, by God's command, to sacrifice his own son; there afterwards

the Son of God, whom he prefigured, was offered up as a sacrifice to God

the Father for the redemption of the world. The rock of that mountain

remains a witness of our Lord's passion, being much cracked near the

foss in which our Lord's cross was fixed, because it could not suffer

the death of its Maker without splitting, as we read in the Passion,

"and the rocks rent."[77] Below is the place called Golgotha, where Adam

is said to have been raised to life by the blood of our Lord which fell

upon him, as is said in the Passion, "And many bodies of the saints

which slept arose."[78] But in the Sentences of St. Augustine, we read

that he was buried in Hebron, where also the three patriarchs were

afterwards buried with their wives; Abraham with Sarah, Isaac with

Rebecca, and Jacob with Leah; as well as the bones of Joseph, which the

Children of Israel carried with them from Egypt. Near the place of

Calvary is the church of St. Mary, on the spot where the body of our

Lord, after having been taken down from the cross, was anointed before

it was buried, and wrapped in a linen cloth or shroud.

At the head of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the wall outside,

not far from the place of Calvary, is the place called Compas, which our

Lord Jesus Christ himself signified and measured with his own hand as

the middle of the world, according to the words of the Psalmist, "For

God is my king of old, working salvation in the midst of the earth."[79]

But some say that that is the place where our Lord Jesus Christ first

appeared to Mary Magdalene, while she sought him weeping, and thought he

had been a gardener, as is related in the Gospel. These most holy places

of prayer are contained in the court of our Lord's Sepulchre, on the

east side. In the sides of the church itself are attached, on one side

and the other, two most beautiful chapels in honour of St. Mary and St.

John, as they, participating in our Lord's sufferings, stationed

themselves beside him here and there. On the west wall of the chapel of

St. Mary is seen the picture of our Lord's Mother, painted externally,

who once, by speaking wonderfully through the Holy Spirit, in the form

in which she is here painted, comforted Mary the Egyptian, when she

repented with her whole heart, and sought the help of the Mother of our

Lord, as we read in her life. On the other side of the church of St.

John is a very fair monastery of the Holy Trinity, in which is the place

of the baptistery, to which adjoins the chapel of St. John the Apostle,

who first filled the pontifical see at Jerusalem. These are all so

composed and arranged, that any one standing in the furthest church may

clearly perceive the five churches from door to door.

Without the gate of the Holy Sepulchre, to the south, is the church of

St. Mary, called the Latin, because the monks there perform divine

service in the Latin tongue; and the Assyrians say that the blessed

Mother of our Lord, at the crucifixion of her Son, stood on the spot now

occupied by the altar of this church. Adjoining to this church is

another church of St. Mary, called the Little, occupied by nuns who

serve devoutly the Virgin and her Son. Near which is the Hospital, where

is a celebrated monastery founded in honour of St. John the Baptist.

We descend from our Lord's sepulchre, about the distance of two

arbalist-shots, to the Temple of the Lord, which is to the east of the

Holy Sepulchre, the court of which is of great length and breadth,

having many gates; but the principal gate, which is in front of the

Temple, is called the Beautiful, on account of its elaborate workmanship

and variety of colours, and is the spot where Peter healed Claudius,

when he and John went up into the Temple at the ninth hour of prayer, as

we read in the Acts of the Apostles. The place where Solomon built the

Temple was called anciently Bethel; whither Jacob repaired by God's

command, and where he dwelt, and saw the ladder whose summit touched

heaven, and the angels ascending and descending, and said, "Truly this

place is holy," as we read in Genesis. There he raised a stone as a

memorial, and constructed an altar, and poured oil upon it; and in the

same place afterwards, by God's will, Solomon built a temple to the Lord

of magnificent and incomparable work, and decorated it wonderfully with

every ornament, as we read in the Book of Kings. It exceeded all the

mountains around in height, and all walls and buildings in brilliancy

and glory. In the middle of which temple is seen a high and large rock,

hollowed beneath, in which was the Holy of Holies. In this place Solomon

placed the Ark of the Covenant, having the Manna and the Rod of Aaron,

which flourished and budded there and produced almonds, and the two

Tables of the Testament; here our Lord Jesus Christ, wearied with the

insolence of the Jews, was accustomed to repose; here was the place of

confession, where his disciples confessed themselves to him; here the

angel Gabriel appeared to Zacharias, saying, "Thou shalt receive a child

in thy old age;" here Zacharias, the son of Barachias, was slain between

the temple and the altar; here the child Jesus was circumcised on the

eighth day, and named Jesus, which is interpreted Saviour; here the Lord

Jesus was offered by his parents, with the Virgin Mary, on the day of

her purification, and received by the aged Simeon; here, also, when

Jesus was twelve years of age, he was found sitting in the midst of the

doctors, hearing and interrogating them, as we read in the Gospel; here

afterwards he cast out the oxen, and sheep, and pigeons, saying, "My

house shall be a house of prayer;" and here he said to the Jews,

"Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up." There still

are seen in the rock the footsteps of our Lord, when he concealed

himself, and went out from the Temple, as we read in the Gospel, lest

the Jews should throw at him the stones they carried. Thither the woman

taken in adultery was brought before Jesus by the Jews, that they might

find some accusation against him[80]. There is the gate of the city on

the eastern side of the Temple, which is called the Golden, where

Joachim, the father of the Blessed Mary, by order of the Angel of the

Lord, met his wife Anne. By the same gate the Lord Jesus, coming from

Bethany on the day of olives, sitting on an ass, entered the city of

Jerusalem, while the children sang, "Hosanna to the son of David." By

this gate the emperor Heraclius entered Jerusalem, when he returned

victorious from Persia, with the cross of our Lord; but the stones first

fell down and closed up the passage, so that the gate became one mass,

until humbling himself at the admonition of an angel, he descended from

his horse, and so the entrance was opened to him. In the court of the

Temple of the Lord, to the south, is the Temple of Solomon, of wonderful

magnitude, on the east side of which is an oratory containing the cradle

of Christ, and his bath, and the bed of the Virgin Mary, according to

the testimony of the Assyrians[81].

From the Temple of the Lord you go to the church of St. Anne, the mother

of the Blessed Mary, towards the north, where she lived with her

husband, and she was there delivered of her daughter Mary. Near it is

the pool called in Hebrew Bethsaida, having five porticoes, of which the

Gospel speaks. A little above is the place where the woman was healed by

our Lord, by touching the hem of his garment, while he was surrounded by

a crowd in the street[82].

From St. Anne we pass through the gate which leads to the Valley of

Jehoshaphat, to the church of St. Mary in the same valley, where she was

honourably buried by the Apostles after her death; her sepulchre, as is

just and proper, is revered with the greatest honours by the faithful,

and monks perform service there day and night. Here is the brook Cedron;

here also is Gethsemane, where our Lord came with his disciples from

Mount Sion, over the brook Cedron, before the hour of his betrayal;

there is a certain oratory where he dismissed Peter, James, and John,

saying, "Tarry ye here, and watch with me;"[83] and going forward, he

fell on his face and prayed, and came to his disciples, and found them

sleeping: the places are still visible where the disciples slept, apart

from each other. Gethsemane is at the foot of Mount Olivet, and the

brook Cedron below, between Mount Sion and Mount Olivet, as it were the

division of the mountains; and the low ground between the mountains is

the Valley of Jehoshaphat. A little above, in Mount Olivet, is an

oratory in the place where our Lord prayed, as we read in the Passion,

"And he was withdrawn from them about a stone's cast, and being in an

agony, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was, as it were, great

drops of blood falling down to the ground."[84] Next we come to

Aceldama, the field bought with the price of the Lord, also at the foot

of Mount Olivet, near a valley about three or four arbalist-shots to the

south of Gethsemane, where are seen innumerable monuments. That field is

near the sepulchres of the holy fathers Simeon the Just and Joseph the

foster-father of our Lord. These two sepulchres are ancient structures,

in the manner of towers, cut into the foot of the mountain itself. We

next descend, by Aceldama, to the fountain which is called the Pool of

Siloah, where, by our Lord's command, the man born blind washed his

eyes, after the Lord had anointed them with clay and spittle.

From the church of St. Mary before mentioned, we go up by a very steep

path nearly to the summit of Mount Olivet, towards the east, to the

place whence our Lord ascended to heaven in the sight of his disciples.

The place is surrounded by a little tower, and honourably adorned, with

an altar raised on the spot within, and also surrounded on all sides

with a wall. On the spot where the Apostles stood with his mother,

wondering at his ascension, is an altar of St. Mary; there the two men

in white garments stood by them, saying, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand

ye gazing into heaven?" About a stone's throw from that place is the

spot where, according to the Assyrians, our Lord wrote the Lord's Prayer

in Hebrew, with his own fingers, on marble; and there a very beautiful

church was built, but it has since been entirely destroyed by the

Pagans, as are all the churches outside the walls, except the church of

the Holy Ghost on Mount Sion, about an arrow-shot from the wall to the

north, where the Apostles received the promise of the Father, namely,

the Paraclete Spirit, on the day of Pentecost; there they made the

Creed. In that church is a chapel in the place where the Blessed Mary

died. On the other side of the church is the chapel where our Lord Jesus

Christ first appeared to the Apostles after his resurrection, and it is

called Galilee, as he said to the Apostles, "After I am risen again, I

will go before you unto Galilee."[85] That place was called Galilee,

because the Apostles, who were called Galileans, frequently rested

there.

The great city of Galilee is by Mount Tabor, a journey of three days

from Jerusalem. On the other side of Mount Tabor is the city called

Tiberias, and after it Capernaum and Nazareth, on the sea of Galilee or

sea of Tiberias, whither Peter and the other Apostles, after the

resurrection, returned to their fishing, and where the Lord afterwards

showed himself to them on the sea. Near the city of Tiberias is the

field where the Lord Jesus blessed the five loaves and two fishes, and

afterwards fed four thousand men with them, as we read in the Gospel.

But I will return to my immediate subject.

In the Galilee of Mount Sion, where the Apostles were concealed in an

inner chamber, with closed doors, for fear of the Jews, Jesus stood in

the middle of them and said, "Peace be unto you;"[86] and he again

appeared there when Thomas put his finger into his side and into the

place of the nails. There he supped with his disciples before the

Passion, and washed their feet; and the marble table is still preserved

there on which he supped. There the relics of St. Stephen, Nicodemus,

Gamaliel, and Abido, were honourably deposited by St. John the Patriarch

after they were found. The stoning of St. Stephen took place about two

or three arbalist-shots without the wall, to the north, where a very

handsome church was built, which has been entirely destroyed by the

Pagans. The church of the Holy Cross, about a mile to the west of

Jerusalem, in the place where the holy cross was cut out, and which was

also a very handsome one, has been similarly laid waste by the Pagans;

but the destruction here fell chiefly on the surrounding buildings and

the cells of the monks, the church itself not having suffered so much.

Under the wall of the city, outside, on the declivity of Mount Sion, is

the church of St. Peter, which is called the Gallican, where, after

having denied his Lord, he hid himself in a very deep crypt, as may

still be seen there, and there wept bitterly for his offence. About

three miles to the west of the church of the Holy Cross is a very fine

and large monastery in honour of St. Saba, who was one of the

seventy-two disciples of our Lord Jesus Christ. There were above three

hundred Greek monks living there, in the service of the Lord and of the

Saint, of whom the greater part have been slain by the Saracens, and the

few who remain have taken up their abode in another monastery of the

same Saint, within the walls of the city, near the tower of David, their

other monastery being left entirely desolate.

The city of Bethlehem in Judea is six miles to the north of Jerusalem.

The Saracens have left nothing there habitable, but every thing is

destroyed (as in the other holy places without the walls of the city of

Jerusalem) except the monastery of the blessed Virgin Mary, which is a

large and noble building. In the church there is a crypt under the

choir, about the middle, in which is seen the place of our Lord's

nativity, as it were to the left. A little lower, to the right, near the

place of the nativity, is the manger where the ox and ass stood when the

child was placed before them in it; and the stone which supported the

head of our Saviour in the sepulchre, which was brought hither from

Jerusalem by St. Jerome the Presbyter, may be seen in the manger. St.

Jerome himself rests in the same church, under the altar, to the

north-east; and the innocents who were slain for the infant Christ, by

Herod, lie under the altar on the north part of the church, as well as

the two most holy women, Paula and her daughter Eustochium, the virgin.

There is the marble table on which the blessed Virgin Mary eat with the

three Magians, after they had given their offerings. There is a cistern

in the church, near the crypt of our Lord's nativity, into which the

star is said to have fallen. There, also, is said to be the bath of the

blessed Virgin Mary.

Bethany, where Lazarus was raised by our Lord from the dead, is distant

from the city about two miles to the east, on the other side of Mount

Olivet, and contains the church of St. Lazarus, in which is seen his

sepulchre, as well as those of many bishops of Jerusalem. Under the

altar is the place where Mary Magdalene washed the feet of our Lord

Jesus with her tears, and wiped them with her hair, and kissed his feet

and anointed them with ointment. Bethphage, where our Lord sent forward

his disciples to the city, is on Mount Olivet, but nearly all traces of

it have disappeared. Jericho, where is the garden of Abraham, is ten

leagues from Jerusalem, in a land covered with trees, and producing all

kinds of palms and other fruits. There is the well of the prophet

Elisha, the water of which was most bitter to drink and productive of

sterility, until he blessed it and threw salt into it, when it became

sweet. This place is surrounded on every side by a beautiful plain. From

thence we ascend a lofty mountain, to the spot where our Lord fasted

forty days, and where he was afterwards tempted by Satan, about three

miles from Jericho.

The river Jordan is four leagues to the east of Jericho. On this side

Jordan is the region called Judea, as far as the Adriatic Sea, that is,

to the port which is called Joppa; on the other side Jordan is Arabia,

most hostile to Christians, and hateful to all who worship God, in which

is the mountain whence Elijah was carried into heaven in a fiery

chariot. It is eighteen days' journey from Jordan to Mount Sinai, where

the Lord appeared to Moses in the burning bush, and where, afterwards,

Moses ascended by God's command, and was there fasting forty days and as

many nights, and there received from the Lord the two stone tables,

written by the finger of God, to teach the Children of Israel the law

and the commandments, which were contained in the same tables.

Hebron, where the holy patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob repose,

each with his wife, and where Adam, the first of mankind, is also

buried, is distant from Bethlehem four leagues to the south. Here king

David reigned seven years, before he obtained possession of the city of

Jerusalem from the family of king Saul. The city of Hebron, which was

large and very handsome, is destroyed by the Saracens. On the eastern

side of it the monuments of the holy patriarchs, of ancient workmanship,

are surrounded by a very strong castle, each of the three monuments

being like a great church, with two sarcophagi placed in a very

honourable manner within, that is, one for the man and one for the

woman; and, even at the present day, the smell of the balsam and

precious aromatics with which the bodies were anointed, rising sweetly

from the sepulchre, fills the nostrils of those who stand round them.

But the bones of Joseph, which the Children of Israel, as he had charged

them, brought with them out of Egypt, are buried, more humbly than the

rest, as it were, at the extremity of the castle. The holm-oak, under

the shade of which Abraham stood when he saw the three youths descending

by the road, still flourishes and bears leaves, according to the

statement of the inhabitants of the place, not far distant from the

aforesaid castle.

The city of Nazareth of Galilee, where the blessed Virgin Mary received

the salutation of our Lord's nativity from the angel, is about four

days' journey from Jerusalem, the road lying through Sichem, a city of

Samaria, which is now called Neapolis, where St. John the Baptist

received sentence of decollation from Herod. There, also, is the well of

Jacob, where Jesus, weary with his journey, thirsty, and sitting upon

the well, condescended to ask water of the Samaritan woman who came

thither to draw it, as we read in the Gospel. From Sichem we come to

Cæsarea of Palestine, from Cæsarea to Cayphas[87], and from Cayphas to

Accaron[88]. Nazareth is about eight miles to the east of Accaron. The

city of Nazareth is entirely laid waste and overthrown by the Saracens;

but the place of the annunciation of our Lord is indicated by a very

noble monastery. A most limpid fountain bubbles out near the city, still

surrounded, as formerly, with marble columns and blocks, from which the

child Jesus, with other children, often drew water for the use of his

mother.

From Nazareth we proceed about four miles to the east, to Mount Tabor,

the scene of our Lord's transfiguration, which is covered in an

extraordinary manner with grass and flowers, and rises in the middle of

the green plain of Galilee so as to exceed in altitude all the mountains

which, though at a distance, surround it. On the summit still remain

three ancient monasteries; one in honour of our Lord Jesus Christ;

another in honour of Moses; and a third, at some distance from the

others, in honour of Elias, according to the words of Peter, "Lord, it

is good for us to be here; if thou wilt, let us make here three

tabernacles, one for thee, and one for Moses, and one for Elias."[89]

The sea of Galilee is about six miles from Mount Tabor to the east and

north-east, and is about ten miles long by five in breadth. The city of

Tiberias stands on the sea-shore on one side, and on the other side are

Corozaim and Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter. About four miles

to the north-east of the city of Tiberias is the castle of Gennesareth,

where the Lord appeared to the disciples when fishing, as we learn from

the Gospel. About two miles to the east of Gennesareth is the mount on

which our Lord Jesus fed five thousand men with five loaves and two

fishes. This mount is called by the inhabitants our Lord's table; and at

its foot stands a very beautiful church of St. Peter, but deserted. Six

miles to the north-east of Nazareth, on a hill, is Cana of Galilee,

where our Lord converted water into wine at the marriage feast. There

nothing is left standing except the monastery called that of

Architriclinius[90]. About half way between Nazareth and Galilee is a

castle which is called Roma, where all travellers from Accaron to

Tiberias are lodged, having Nazareth on the right, and Galilee to the

left.

A day's journey to the north-east of Tiberias is Mount Libanus, at the

foot of which the river Jordan boils out from two foundations, of which

one is called Jor, and the other Dan; the streams of which, joining in

one, become a very rapid river, and take the name of Jordan. Its origin

is near Cæsarea, the city of Philip the Tetrarch, in the district where

Jesus, as is related in the Gospel, interrogated his disciples, saying,

"Whom do men say that I, the Son of Man, am?"[91] Now the river Jordan,

flowing from its spring with a very rapid course, falls into the sea of

Galilee on one side, and passing out of it on the opposite side, by the

violence of its current, makes itself a bed, through which it runs a

distance of eight days' journey, and then falls into the Dead Sea. The

water of the Jordan is whiter and more of a milky colour than any other

water, and it may be distinguished by its colour a long distance into

the Dead Sea.

Having, to the best of our power, visited and paid our devotion at all

the holy places in the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding country, we

took ship at Joppa on the day of Pentecost[92], on our return; but,

fearing to meet the fleet of the Saracens, we did not venture out into

the open sea by the same course we came, but sailed along the coast by

several cities, some of which have fallen into the hands of the Franks,

while others still remain in the power of the Saracens. Their names are

as follows:—First, after Joppa, is the town called popularly Atsuph,

but in Latin, Azotum; next, Cæsarea of Palestine; and then Cayphas.

Baldwin, the flower of kings, has possession of these cities. Next after

these is the very strong city of Acre, which is called Accaron; then Sur

and Sagete, which are Tyre and Sidon; then Jubelet; then Baruth; and

then Tartusa, which is in possession of duke Raimund. Next Gibel, where

are the mountains of Gilboa; and then Tripolis and Lice. We passed by

all these cities[93].

On the Wednesday of Pentecost, as we were sailing between Cayphas and

Accaron[94], twenty-six ships of the Saracens suddenly came in sight,

the forces of the admiral of Tyre and Sidon, which were carrying an army

to Babylonia to assist the Chaldeans in making war on the king of

Jerusalem; upon which two of our ships, which had come with us from

Joppa full of palmers, leaving our ship behind because they were

lighter, fled in all haste to Cæsarea. The Saracens, encircling our ship

on all sides, at the distance of about an arrow's shot, rejoiced in the

prospect of such a rich prey; but our men, ready to meet death in the

cause of Christ, took to their arms, and stationed themselves as quickly

as possible on the castle of the ship; for our dromund carried about two

hundred soldiers. After the space of about an hour, the commander of the

hostile fleet held a council, and sent a sailor up the mast of his ship,

which was the largest, that he might give information of our condition

and preparations; and as soon as he understood from him the bold

countenance we showed, they hoisted their sails and put out to sea, and

so that day the Lord by his grace snatched us from our enemies. Some of

our people from Joppa afterwards took three of the ships we had seen,

and enriched themselves with their spoils.

Thus making our way as well as we could along the coast of Syria, in

eight days we reached the port of St. Andrew, in the isle of Cyprus[95];

and thence, next day, we sailed towards Romania, passing the port of St.

Simon, and the port of St. Mary, and after many days reached Little

Antioch[96]. In this part of the voyage we were several times attacked

by pirates; but, under the Divine protection, we escaped unhurt from the

attacks of enemies and the shocks of tempests. Then directing our course

along the coast of Romania, and passing the towns of Stamirra[97] and

Patras of St. Nicholas, we with difficulty reached the island of Rhodes

on the eve of St. John the Baptist[98], after a narrow escape from wreck

in the bay of Satalia. At Rhodes we hired a smaller ship, that we might

proceed more rapidly, and then returned to the coast of Romania. We then

came to Stromlo[99], a very fair city, but entirely laid waste by the

Turks, and there we were detained many days by a strong contrary wind.

Then we came to the island of Samos, and having bought provisions there,

as we did in all the islands, we arrived at length at the island of

Scio, where we parted with our ship and company, and undertook the

journey to Constantinople, to perform our devotions there. After leaving

Scio, we passed by the great town of Smyrna, and came to the island of

Meteline, and then to Tenit[100], near which, on the coast of Romania,

was the very ancient and famous city of Troy, the ruins of the buildings

of which, as the Greeks say, are still apparent over a space of many

miles.

After leaving this place, we came to the narrow sea which is called the

arm of St. George, which divides the two lands, Romania and Macedonia,

through which we sailed to St. Phemius, having Greece to the right, and

Macedonia to the left. The city of St. Phemius the bishop is on one side

of the arm, in Macedonia, and another city, which is called Samthe,

stands on the other side in Greece, so that two or three arbalist-shots

would reach from one city to the other[101]. They are said to be the

keys of Constantinople. Then we sailed by Callipolis, and Agios

Georgios, and Paniados, and other notable castles of Macedonia, and came

to the city of Rothostoca, after Michaelmas. We came next to the noble

city of Raclea, whence, according to the Greeks, Helen was ravished by

Paris Alexander[102].

FOOTNOTES:

[57] July 13, 1102.

[58] The modern Brindisi (_Brundusium_ of the ancients).

[59] _Die Ægyptiaca, hora Ægyptiaca._ The superstitious belief in

unlucky, or, as they were commonly termed, Egyptian days, was

universally prevalent in the middle ages; and the days of the month

believed to have this character, and on which it was unpropitious to

begin or undertake any thing, are often marked in the early calendars

and other manuscripts.

[60] July 24.

[61] See our Introduction.

[62] M. D'Avezac conjectures this to be merely some _palæopolis_, or

ancient site. No such name as Polipolis can be traced in the maps.

[63] Aug. 9.

[64] This appears to be the place formerly called Liva d'Osta, now

corrupted into Livadostro.

[65] Aug. 23.

[66] The modern Spili.

[67] Stancho, the ancient Cos; Hippocrates, and not Galen, was born

there.

[68] M. D'Avezac is probably right in his conjecture that the Lido of

Sæwulf represents the ruins of Cnidus, near Cape Crio; and that Asus,

which immediately follows, is the little island of Syme (Συμὴ), which

lies off Cnidus. It is likely enough that the local pronunciation of

Cnido may have been taken by the monkish traveller for something like

Lido. No detailed legend of St. Titus is preserved. What is known of him

will be found in the Acta Sanctorum of the Bollandists, vol. i. p. 163.

[69] This is a remarkable blunder, arising from a strange confusion of

words and ideas. The Colossians were the inhabitants of Colossus, in

Phrygia. The _Persians_ of Sæwulf were the Saracens, who captured Rhodes

in A.D. 651. It had been taken by the Persians in 616.

[70] Mogronissi, or Macronisi, is supposed by M. D'Avezac to be the

island of Kakava, on the western point of which are still traced the

ruins of a town and church. The Alexandria here alluded to is of course

Alexandretta, or Iskenderoon.

[71] This is evidently Khelidonia.

[72] This term was then applied to all the eastern part of the

Mediterranean.

[73] Sunday, Oct. 12, 1102.

[74] These were the names of ships in the middle ages, of large

dimensions, but for which it would be difficult to assign any thing like

equivalents from our modern naval nomenclature. The title of palmer

(_palmarius_) was given, from an early period, to the pilgrims to the

Holy Land; it is said, on account of the palm branches or leaves which

they usually brought back with them as signs that they had performed the

pilgrimage.

[75] Luke, xix. 42-44.

[76] By the Assyrians, who are subsequently mentioned more than once, we

are to understand the Syrian Christians, as distinguished from the

Greeks.

[77] Matth. xxvii. 51.

[78] Ib. 52.

[79] Psal. lxxiv. 12.

[80] John, ii. 19.

[81] It may be necessary to remind the reader that the building of which

Sæwulf is here talking was the Mosque of Omar, which, during the long

period that Jerusalem had remained in the hands of the Saracens, had

been entirely closed from the examination of Christians. Now that the

Holy City had fallen under the power of the Crusaders, it was thrown

open to public inspection, and the monks appear to have laboured

industriously to identify every part of the Saracenic edifice with the

events of Scripture. Probably some portions of the ancient building were

worked up into the Mohammedan mosque; but Sæwulf's description will show

us how cautious we ought to be in receiving these traditionary

identifications of the localities of Scripture history.

[82] Matth. ix. 20.

[83] Matth. xxvi. 38.

[84] Luke, xxii. 41-44.

[85] Matth. xxvi. 32. It is hardly necessary to state that the giving

the name of Galilee to this church was a mere legendary blunder,

originating in the desire to crowd several holy places in one spot.

[86] John, xx. 19.

[87] Kaiffa.

[88] Acre.

[89] Matth. xvii. 4.

[90] The medieval theologians made a proper name of Architriclinius, or,

as they called him popularly, St. Architriclin, whom they looked upon as

the lord of the feast on the occasion alluded to, and the person in

whose especial favour Christ performed the miracle. It is hardly

necessary to say that _architriclinus_ is the Latin word which, in the

Vulgate, translates what the English text terms "the ruler of the

feast."

[91] Matth. xvi. 13.

[92] May 17, 1103.

[93] The names of these cities, in the modern nomenclature, are Arsouph,

Kaisariyah, Kaiffa, Akre, Sour, Sayd, Gjobayl, Beyrout, Tortus, Gebely,

Tripoli, and Laodicea, the latter of which was the place named by Sæwulf

Lice. Jacobus de Vitriaco (Hist. Hierosol., cap. 44) says, "Laodicia

Syriæ nuncupata, vulgariter autem Liche nominatur." Our traveller,

however, perhaps by a confusion of his memory, having no map before him,

has given these places out of their right order. Perhaps, as M. D'Avezac

suggests, the fear of the Saracen cruisers drove him sometimes out of

his right course.

Baldwin had been made king of Jerusalem on Christmas-day, in the year

1100. Tortosa was captured by Raymond, duke of Toulouse, on the 12th of

March, 1102.

[94] Acre was not taken by the crusaders till the 15th of May, 1104, the

year after our traveller's return.

[95] Cape St. Andrea is the north-eastern point of the island of Cyprus.

[96] _i. e._ Antiochetta.

[97] Stamirra is the same place which Sæwulf has before called Myra. M.

D'Avezac points out documents of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,

in which it is named Astamirle, Stamire, and Stamir.

[98] June 23.

[99] Stromlo, as M. D'Avezac observes, is evidently the ancient

Astypalæa, now called Stampali.

[100] Tenit is the island of Tenedos.

[101] M. D'Avezac suggests that perhaps St. Euphemius and Samthe

represent the ancient Eleonta on one coast, and the ancient Æantium,

near the mouth of the Xanthus, on the other.

[102] Sæwulf's relation seems to break off abruptly here, probably by

the fault of the scribe; but, unfortunately, we know of no other

manuscript that might furnish us with an account of his adventures at

Constantinople on his return home.

THE SAGA OF SIGURD THE CRUSADER.

A.D. 1107-1111.

(FROM THE HEIMSKRINGLA, OR CHRONICLE OF THE KINGS OF NORWAY, BY SAMUEL

LAING, ESQ.)

After king Magnus Barefoot's fall, his sons, Eystein, Sigurd, and

Olaf[103], took the kingdom of Norway. Eystein got the northern, and

Sigurd the southern parts of the country. King Olaf was then four or

five years old, and the third part of the country which he had was under

the management of his two brothers. King Sigurd was chosen king when he

was thirteen or fourteen years old, and Eystein was a year older. When

king Magnus's sons were chosen kings, the men who had followed Skopte

Ogmundsson returned home. Some had been to Jerusalem, some to

Constantinople; and there they had made themselves renowned, and they

had many kinds of novelties to talk about. By these extraordinary

tidings many men in Norway were incited to the same expedition; and it

was also told that the Northmen who liked to go into the military

service at Constantinople found many opportunities of getting property.

Then these Northmen desired much that one of the two kings, either

Eystein or Sigurd, should go as commander of the troop which was

preparing for this expedition. The kings agreed to this, and carried on

the equipment at their common expense. Many great men, both of the

lendermen and bonders, took part in this enterprize; and when all was

ready for the journey, it was determined that Sigurd should go, and

Eystein, in the mean time, should rule the kingdom upon their joint

account.

A year or two after king Magnus's fall, Hakon, a son of earl Paul, came

from Orkney. The kings gave him the earldom and government of the Orkney

Islands, as the earls before him, his father Paul or his uncle Erlend,

had possessed it; and earl Hakon then sailed back immediately to Orkney.

Four years after the fall of king Magnus, king Sigurd sailed with his

fleet of sixty ships from Norway. So says Thorarin Stutfeld:—

"A young king just and kind,

People of loyal mind:

Such brave men soon agree,—

To distant lands they sail with glee.

To the distant Holy Land

A brave and pious band,

Magnificent and gay,

In sixty long ships glide away."

King Sigurd sailed in autumn to England, where Henry, son of William the

Bastard, was then king, and Sigurd remained with him all winter. So says

Einar Skuleson:—

"The king is on the waves!

The storm he boldly braves.

His ocean steed,

With winged speed,

O'er the white-flashing surges,

To England's coast he urges;

And there he stays the winter o'er:

More gallant king ne'er trod that shore."

In spring[104] king Sigurd and his fleet sailed westward to

Valland[105], and in autumn came to Galicia[106], where he staid the

second winter. So says Einar Skuleson:—

"Our king, whose land so wide

No kingdom stands beside,

In Jacob's land[107] next winter spent,

On holy things intent;

And I have heard the royal youth

Cut off an earl who swerved from truth.

Our brave king will endure no ill,—

The hawks with him will get their fill."

It went thus:—The earl who ruled over the land made an agreement with

king Sigurd, that he should provide king Sigurd and his men a market at

which they could purchase victuals all the winter; but this he did not

fulfil longer than to about Yule. It began then to be difficult to get

food and necessaries, for it is a poor barren land. Then king Sigurd

with a great body of men went against a castle which belonged to the

earl; and the earl fled from it, having but few people. King Sigurd took

there a great deal of victuals and of other booty, which he put on board

of his ships, and then made ready and proceeded westward to Spain. It so

fell out, as the king was sailing past Spain, that some pirates who were

cruising for plunder met him with a fleet of galleys, and king Sigurd

attacked them. This was his first battle with heathen men; and he won

it, and took eight galleys from them. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"Bold vikings, not slow

To the death-fray to go,

Meet our Norse king by chance,

And their galleys advance.

The bold vikings lost

Many a man of their host,

And eight galleys too,

With cargo and crew."

Thereafter king Sigurd sailed against a castle called Sintre[108], and

fought another battle. This castle is in Spain, and was occupied by many

heathens, who from thence plundered Christian people. King Sigurd took

the castle, and killed every man in it, because they refused to be

baptized; and he got there an immense booty. So sings Halldor

Skualldre:—

"From Spain I have much news to tell

Of what our generous king befell.

And first he routs the viking crew,

At Cintra next the heathens slew;

The men he treated as God's foes,

Who dared the true faith to oppose.

No man he spared who would not take

The Christian faith for Jesus' sake."

After this king Sigurd sailed with his fleet to Lisbon, which is a great

city in Spain, half Christian and half heathen; for there lies the

division between Christian Spain and heathen Spain[109], and all the

districts which lie west of the city are occupied by heathens. There

king Sigurd had his third battle with the heathens, and gained the

victory, and with it a great booty. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"The son of kings on Lisbon's plains

A third and bloody battle gains.

He and his Norsemen boldly land,

Running their stout ships on the strand."

Then king Sigurd sailed westwards along heathen Spain, and brought up at

a town called Alkassi[110]; and here he had his fourth battle with the

heathens, and took the town, and killed so many people that the town was

left empty. They got there also immense booty. So says Halldor

Skualldre:—

"A fourth great battle, I am told,

Our Norse king and his people hold

At Alkassi; and here again

The victory fell to our Norsemen."

And also this verse:—

"I heard that through the town he went,

And heathen widows' wild lament

Resounded in the empty halls;

For every townsman flies or falls."

King Sigurd then proceeded on his voyage, and came to Nörfa Sound[111];

and in the Sound he was met by a large viking force, and the king gave

them battle: and this was his fifth engagement with heathens since the

time he left Norway. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"Ye moistened your dry swords with blood,

As through Niorfa Sound ye stood:

The screaming raven got a feast,

As ye sailed onward to the East."

King Sigurd then sailed eastward along the coast of Serkland[112], and

came to an island there called Formentara. There a great many heathen

Moors had taken up their dwelling in a cave, and had built a strong

stone-wall before its mouth. It was high up to climb to the wall, so

that whoever attempted to ascend was driven back with stones or missile

weapons. They harried the country all round, and carried all their booty

to their cave. King Sigurd landed on this island, and went to the cave;

but it lay in a precipice, and there was a high winding path to the

stone-wall, and the precipice above projected over it. The heathens

defended the stone-wall, and were not afraid of the Northmen's arms; for

they could throw stones, or shoot down upon the Northmen under their

feet: neither did the Northmen, under such circumstances, dare to mount

up. The heathens took their clothes and other valuable things, carried

them out upon the wall, spread them out before the Northmen, shouted,

and defied them, and upbraided them as cowards. Then Sigurd fell upon

this plan: he had two ship's boats, such as we call barks, drawn up the

precipice right above the mouth of the cave; and had thick ropes

fastened round the stem, stern, and hull of each. In these boats as many

men went as could find room, and then the boats were lowered by the

ropes down in front of the mouth of the cave; and the men in the boats

shot with stones and missiles into the cave, and the heathens were thus

driven from the stone-wall. Then Sigurd with his troops climbed up the

precipice to the foot of the stone-wall, which they succeeded in

breaking down, so that they came into the cave. Now the heathens fled

within the stone-wall that was built across the cave; on which the king

ordered large trees to be brought to the cave, made a great pile in the

mouth of it, and set fire to the wood. When the fire and smoke got the

upper hand, some of the heathens lost their lives in it; some fled; some

fell by the hands of the Northmen; and part were killed, part burned;

and the Northmen made the greatest booty they had got on all their

expeditions. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"Formentara lay

In the victor's way;

His ships' stems fly

To victory.

The bluemen there

Must fire bear,

And Norsemen's steel

At their hearts feel."

And also thus:—

"'Twas a feat of renown,—

The boat lowered down,

With a boat's crew brave,

In front of the cave;

While up the rock scaling,

And comrades up trailing,

The Norsemen gain,

And the bluemen are slain."

And also Thorarin Stuttfeld says:—

"The king's men up the mountain's side

Drag two boats from the ocean's tide:

The two boats lay,

Like hill-wolves gray.

Now o'er the rock in ropes they're swinging,

Well manned, and death to bluemen bringing:

They hang before

The robbers' door."

Thereafter king Sigurd proceeded on his expedition, and came to an

island called Ivitsa (Ivica), and had there his seventh battle, and

gained a victory. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"His ships at Ivica now ride,

The king's, whose fame spreads far and wide;

And here the bearers of the shield

Their arms again in battle wield."

Thereafter king Sigurd came to an island called Minorca, and held there

his eighth battle with heathen men, and gained the victory. So says

Halldor Skualldre:—

"On green Minorca's plains

The eighth battle now he gains:

Again the heathen foe

Falls at the Norse king's blow."

In spring king Sigurd came to Sicily, and remained a long time there.

There was then a duke Roger in Sicily, who received the king kindly, and

invited him to a feast. King Sigurd came to it with a great retinue, and

was splendidly entertained. Every day duke Roger stood at the company's

table, doing service to the king; but the seventh day of the feast,

when the people had come to table, and had wiped their hands, king

Sigurd took the duke by the hand, led him up to the high seat, and

saluted him with the title of king; and gave the right that there should

be always a king over the dominion of Sicily, although before there had

only been earls or dukes over that country[113].

It is written in the chronicles, that earl Roger let himself first be

called the king of Sicily in the year of our Lord 1102, having before

contented himself with the title of earl only of Sicily, although he was

duke of Calabria and Apulia, and was called Roger the Great; and when he

afterwards made the king of Tunet or Tunis tributary to him, he had

these words engraved on his sword,—

"Apulus et Calaber, Siculus mihi servit et Afer."

King Roger of Sicily was a very great king. He won and subdued all

Apulia, and many large islands besides in the Greek sea; and therefore

he was called Roger the Great. His son was William, king of Sicily, who

for a long time had great hostility with the emperor of Constantinople.

King William had three daughters, but no son. One of his daughters he

married to the emperor Henry, a son of the emperor Frederic; and their

son was Frederic, who for a short time after was emperor of Rome. His

second daughter was married to the duke of Kypur[114]. The third

daughter, Margaret, was married to the chief of the corsairs; but the

emperor Henry killed both these brothers-in-law. The daughter of Roger

the Great, king of Sicily, was married to the emperor Manuel of

Constantinople; and their son was the emperor Kirialax[115].

In summer king Sigurd sailed across the Greek sea to Palestine[116], and

came to Acre[117], where he landed, and went by land to Jerusalem[118].

Now when Baldwin, king of Palestine, heard that king Sigurd would visit

the city, he let valuable clothes be brought and spread upon the road,

and the nearer to the city the more valuable; and said, "Now ye must

know that a celebrated king from the northern part of the earth is come

to visit us; and many are the gallant deeds and celebrated actions told

of him, therefore we shall receive him well; and in doing so we shall

also know his magnificence and power. If he ride straight on to the

city, taking little notice of these splendid preparations, I will

conclude that he has enough of such things in his own kingdom; but, on

the other hand, if he rides off the road, I shall not think so highly of

his royal dignity at home." Now king Sigurd rides to the city with great

state; and when he saw this magnificence, he rode straight forward over

the clothes, and told all his men to do the same. King Baldwin received

him particularly well, and rode with him all the way to the river

Jordan, and then back to the city of Jerusalem. Einar Skuleson speaks

thus of it:—

"Good reason has the scald to sing

The generous temper of the king,

Whose sea-cold keel from Northern waves

Ploughs the blue sea that green isles laves.

At Acre scarce were we made fast,

In holy ground our anchors cast,

When the king made a joyful morn

To all who toil with him had borne."

And again he sang:—

"To Jerusalem he came,

He who loves war's noble game,

(The scald no greater monarch finds

Beneath the heaven's wide hall of winds)

All sin and evil from him flings

In Jordan's wave: for all his sins

(Which all must praise) he pardon wins."

King Sigurd staid a long time in the land of Jerusalem in autumn, and in

the beginning of winter.

King Baldwin made a magnificent feast for king Sigurd and many of his

people, and gave him many holy relics. By the orders of king Baldwin and

the patriarch, there was taken a splinter off the holy cross; and on

this holy relic both made oath, that this wood was of the holy cross

upon which God himself had been tortured. Then this holy relic was given

to king Sigurd; with the condition that he, and twelve other men with

him, should swear to promote Christianity with all his power, and erect

an archbishop's seat in Norway if he could; and also that the cross

should be kept where the holy king Olaf reposed, and that he should

introduce tithes, and also pay them himself. After this king Sigurd

returned to his ships at Acre; and then king Baldwin prepared to go to

Syria, to a town called Saet, which some think had been Sidon. This

castle, which belonged to the heathens, he wished to conquer, and lay

under the Christians. On this expedition king Sigurd accompanied him

with all his men, and sixty ships; and after the kings had besieged the

town some time it surrendered[119], and they took possession of it, and

of a great treasure of money; and their men found other booty. King

Sigurd made a present of his share to king Baldwin. So says Halldor

Skualldre:—

"He who for wolves provides the feast

Seized on the city in the east,

The heathen nest; and honour drew,

And gold to give, from those he slew."

Einar Skuleson also tells of it:—

"The Norsemen's king, the scalds relate,

Has ta'en the heathen town of Saet;

The slinging engine, with dread noise,

Gables and roofs with stones destroys.

The town wall totters too,—it falls;

The Norsemen mount the blackened walls.

He who stains red the raven's bill

Has won,—the town lies at his will."

Thereafter king Sigurd went to his ships, and made ready to leave

Palestine. They sailed north to the island of Cyprus; and king Sigurd

staid there awhile, and then went to the Greek country, and came to the

land with all his fleet at Engilsness[120]. Here he lay still for a

fortnight, although every day it blew a breeze for going before the wind

to the north; but Sigurd would wait a side wind, so that the sails might

stretch fore and aft in the ship; for in all his sails there was silk

joined in, before and behind in the sail, and neither those before nor

those behind the ships could see the slightest appearance of this, if

the vessel was before the wind; so they would rather wait a side wind.

When king Sigurd sailed into Constantinople, he steered near the land.

Over all the land there are burghs, castles, country towns, the one upon

the other without interval. There from the land one could see into the

bights of the sails; and the sails stood so close beside each other,

that they seemed to form one inclosure. All the people turned out to see

king Sigurd sailing past. The emperor Alexius had also heard of king

Sigurd's expedition, and ordered the city port of Constantinople to be

opened, which is called the Gold Tower, through which the emperor rides

when he has been long absent from Constantinople, or has made a campaign

in which he has been victorious. The emperor had precious cloths spread

out from the Gold Tower to Loktiar, which is the name of the emperor's

most splendid hall. King Sigurd ordered his men to ride in great state

into the city, and not to regard all the new things they might see; and

this they did. The emperor sent singers and stringed instruments to meet

them; and with this great splendour king Sigurd and his followers were

received into Constantinople. It is told that king Sigurd had his horse

shod with golden shoes before he rode into the city, and managed so that

one of the shoes came off in the street, but that none of his men should

regard it. When king Sigurd came to the magnificent hall, every thing

was in the grandest style; and when king Sigurd's men had come to their

seats, and were ready to drink, the emperor's messengers came into the

hall, bearing between them purses of gold and silver, which they said

the emperor had sent to king Sigurd; but the king did not look upon it,

but told his men to divide it among themselves. When the messengers

returned to the emperor, and told him this, he said, "This king must be

very powerful and rich not to care for such things, or even give a word

of thanks for them;" and ordered them to return with great chests filled

with gold. They come again to king Sigurd, and say, "These gifts and

presents are sent thee from the emperor." King Sigurd said, "This is a

great and handsome treasure, my men; divide it among you." The

messengers return and tell this to the emperor. He replies, "This king

must either exceed other kings in power and wealth, or he has not so

much understanding as a king ought to have. Go thou now the third time,

and carry him the costliest purple, and these chests with ornaments of

gold:" to which he added two gold rings. Now the messengers went again

to king Sigurd, and told him the emperor had sent him this great

treasure. Then he stood up, and took the rings, and put them on his

hand; and the king made a beautiful oration in Greek, in which he

thanked the emperor in many fine expressions for all this honour and

magnificence, but divided the treasure again very equitably among his

men. King Sigurd remained here some time. The emperor Alexius sent his

men to him to ask if he would rather accept from the emperor six

skifpound [one ton] of gold, or would have the emperor give the

games in his honour which the emperor was used to have played at the

Padreimr[121]. King Sigurd preferred the games, and the messengers said

the spectacle would not cost the emperor less than the money offered.

Then the emperor prepared for the games, which were held in the usual

way: but this day every thing went on better for the king than for the

queen; for the queen has always the half part in the games, and their

men, therefore, always strive against each other in all games. The

Greeks accordingly think that when the king's men win more games at the

Padreimr than the queen's, the king will gain the victory when he goes

into battle. People who have been in Constantinople tell that the

Padreimr is thus constructed:—A high wall surrounds a flat plain, which

may be compared to a round bare Thing-place[122], with earthen banks all

around at the stone-wall, on which banks the spectators sit; but the

games themselves are in the flat plain. There are many sorts of old

events represented concerning the Asers, Volsungers, and Giukungers, in

these games[123]; and all the figures are cast in copper, or metal, with

so great art that they appear to be living things; and to the people it

appears as if they were really present in the games. The games

themselves are so artfully and carefully managed, that people appear to

be riding in the air; and at them also are used shot-fire[124], and all

kinds of harp-playing, singing, and music instruments.

It is related that king Sigurd one day was to give the emperor a feast,

and he ordered his men to provide sumptuously all that was necessary for

the entertainment; and when all things were provided which are suitable

for an entertainment given by a great personage to persons of high

dignity, king Sigurd ordered his men to go to the street in the city

where fire-wood was sold, as they would require a great quantity to

prepare the feast. They said the king need not be afraid of wanting

fire-wood, for every day many loads were brought into the town. When it

was necessary, however, to have fire-wood, it was found that it was all

sold, which they told the king. He replied, "Go and try if you can get

walnuts. They will answer as well as wood for fuel." They went and got

as many as they needed. Now came the emperor, and his grandees and

court, and sat down to table. All was very splendid; and king

Sigurd received the emperor with great state, and entertained him

magnificently. When the queen and the emperor found that nothing was

wanting, she sent some persons to inquire what they had used for

firewood; and they came to a house filled with walnuts, and they came

back and told the queen. "Truly," said she, "this is a magnificent king,

who spares no expense where his honour is concerned." She had contrived

this to try what they would do when they could get no firewood to dress

their feast with.

King Sigurd soon after prepared for his return home. He gave the emperor

all his ships; and the valuable figure-heads which were on the king's

ships were set up in Peter's church, where they have since been to be

seen. The emperor gave the king many horses and guides to conduct him

through all his dominions, and appointed markets for him in his

territories at which he could buy food and drink. Then king Sigurd left

Constantinople; but many Northmen remained, and went into the emperor's

pay. Then king Sigurd travelled from Bulgaria, and through Hungary,

Pannonia, Suabia, and Bavaria. In Suabia he met the Roman emperor

Lotharius, who received him in the most friendly way, gave him guides

through his dominions, and had markets established for him at which he

could purchase all he required. When king Sigurd came to Sleswick in

Denmark, earl Eilif made a sumptuous feast for him; and it was then

midsummer. In Heidaby he met the Danish king Nicolaus, who received him

in the most friendly way, made a great entertainment for him,

accompanied him north to Jutland, and gave him a ship provided with

every thing needful. From thence the king returned to Norway, and was

joyfully welcomed on his return to his kingdom. It was the common talk

among the people, that none had ever made so honourable a journey from

Norway as this of king Sigurd. He was twenty years of age, and had been

three years on these travels. His brother Olaf was then twelve years

old.

[William of Tyre, book xi., gives the following account of the

arrival of the Northmen in Syria:—

"The town of Bereyth was taken in the year 1111 [1110] from the

incarnation of our Saviour, and on the 27th of the month of April.

That same year people from the isles of the west, and principally

from the western country called Norway, having heard that the

faithful Christians had taken possession of the holy city of

Jerusalem, resolved to repair thither and pay their devotions; and

they prepared a fleet accordingly. They embarked, and being

favoured by the winds, they traversed the British Sea, passed the

strait of Calpe and Assos, by which the Mediterranean Sea is

formed, and having coasted along its whole length, they landed at

Joppa. The supreme chief of this expedition was a stout, handsome

young man, brother of the king of Norway. As soon as he had

disembarked at Joppa, with all his followers, they proceeded to

Jerusalem, the object of their wishes and vows. The king, on being

informed of the arrival of the noble prince of Norway, made all

haste to meet him, received him with much kindness, conversed

familiarly with him, and tried to discover if the prince would be

disposed to stop some time in the kingdom with his naval force, and

to consecrate to Christ the fruit of his labour by giving his aid

to extend the dominion of the faithful, and by taking possession of

some other towns. The Norwegians, after holding a council among

themselves, replied that they were come with the express intention

of employing themselves usefully in the service of Christ, and that

consequently they were quite disposed to proceed, without the least

delay, by sea, towards any of the maritime towns which the king was

disposed to attack with his army, and would demand no other pay

than the victuals necessary for their support. The king accepted

these terms with the greatest ardour; and immediately assembling

all the forces of his kingdom, and all the knights he could

collect, he began his march to Sidon. The fleet left the port of

Acre, and proceeded also to Sidon, where the land and sea forces

arrived simultaneously.... The people of the fleet received

presents from the king, took leave of him, and returned to their

country loaded with the blessings of all Christians. The town of

Sidon was taken in the year of grace 1111 [1110], and on the 19th

of December."

This account of Sigurd the Crusader's expedition to the holy land,

by a nearly contemporary historian, native of the country,

corroborates Snorro Sturleson's account of it even in the minute

details, but he makes him arrive at Joppa, instead of Acre, as the

Norse account has it.]

FOOTNOTES:

[103] They reigned from about 1103 to about 1130.

[104] A.D. 1108.

[105] Valland, the west of France.

[106] Galizo land, the province of Galicia, in the north-west of Spain.

[107] Jacob's land. Galicia is called Jacob's land by the scald, from

St. James of Compostella: the apostle James, whose relics are held in

veneration at Compostella in Spain. Portugal appears to have been

reckoned part of Spain, and Galicia a distinct country.

[108] Sintre, now Cintra, in Portugal; then reckoned part of Spain.

[109] The heathen Spain would be the parts of the Peninsula occupied by

the Moors.

[110] There is some difficulty in finding a town corresponding to this

Alkassi. It cannot be Alkassir in Fez, in Africa, as some have supposed,

as the context does not agree with it; nor with Algesiras, which is

within the Straits of Gibraltar (Nörfasund), and it would have been so

described. Alcasser de Sal lies too far inland to have been the place.

Lady Grosvenor, in her Yacht Voyage, 1841, speaks of a Moorish palace

near Seville, called Alcasir, which would correspond best with the Saga

account.

[111] Nörfa Sound, the Straits of Gibraltar; so called from Nörfa, the

first Norse viking who passed through it.

[112] Serkland is the Saracen's land, the north of Africa; and the

inhabitants bluemen, the Moors.

[113] It appears to have been the feudal idea of the times, that a title

or dignity must be conferred by a superior in title or dignity; and thus

a wandering king from the north could raise Roger of Sicily to the

kingly title. [The Norseman's account is a fable: the dignity of king of

Sicily was given to count Roger, in 1129, by the pope.]

[114] Kypur, Cyprus.

[115] Kirialax. Kuriou Alexou, the emperor Alexius Comnenus.

[116] Jorsalaland, Palestine; the land of Jerusalem.

[117] Akersborg, Acre.

[118] Jorsalaborg, Jerusalem.

[119] Saide, or Sidon, was taken in December, 1110.

[120] Engilsness, supposed to be the ness at the river Ægos, called

Ægisnes in the Orkneyinga Saga, within the Dardanelles; not Cape Saint

Angelo in the Morea.

[121] Padreimr, or Padrennir, the Hippodrome where the great spectacles

were given.

[122] Place of public assembly.

[123] It is not likely that the feats of the Asers, Volsungers, and

Giukungers, were represented in the games of the Hippodrome at

Constantinople; but very likely that the Væringers, and other northmen

there, would apply the names of their own mythology to the

representations taken from the Greek mythology.

[124] Fire-works, or the Greek fire, were probably used.

THE TRAVELS OF RABBI BENJAMIN OF TUDELA.

A.D. 1160-1173.

HEBREW PREFACE.

This book contains the reports of Rabbi Benjamin, the son of Jonah, of

blessed memory[125], of Tudela, in the kingdom of Navarre. This man

travelled through many and distant countries, as related in the

following account, and took down in writing in each place what he saw or

what was told him by men of integrity, whose names were known in Spain.

Rabbi Benjamin also mentions some of the principal men in the places he

visited; and when he returned, he brought this report along with him to

the country of Castile in the year 933 (A.D. 1173). The above-mentioned

Rabbi Benjamin was a man of wisdom and understanding, and of much

information; and after strict inquiry his words were found to be true

and correct, for he was a true man.

TRAVELS OF RABBI BENJAMIN OF BLESSED MEMORY.

Thus says Rabbi Benjamin, son of Jonah, of blessed memory. I first set

out from the city of Saragossa, and proceeded down the river Ebro to

Tortosa. Two days' journey brought me to the ancient city of Tarragona,

which contains many cyclopean and pelasgic remains[126], and similar

buildings are found nowhere else in the whole kingdom of Spain. This

city stands on the coast. Two days thence is Barcelona, in which place

there is a congregation of wise, learned, and princely men, such as R.

Shesheth, R. Shealthiel, and R. Solomon, son of R. Abraham, son of

Chisdai of blessed memory. The city is handsome, though small, and is

situated on the sea-shore. Its trade attracts merchants from all parts

of the world: from Greece, from Pisa, Genoa, and Sicily, from Alexandria

in Egypt, from Palestine and the adjacent countries.

A day's journey and a half brings you to Gerona, which city contains a

small congregation of Jews. From thence it is three days to Narbonne,

eminent for its university, from which the study of the law spreads over

all countries. The city contains many wise and noble men, especially R.

Calonymos, son of the great and noble R. Theodoros of blessed memory, a

descendant of the house of David, as proved by his pedigree. This man

holds landed property from the sovereigns of the country, and nobody can

deprive him of it by force. There is also R. Abraham, the president of

the university, R. Makhir, R. Juda, and others of much merit and

learning. Altogether the number of Jews amounts to about three hundred.

It is four parasangs thence to the city of Beziers, which contains a

congregation of learned men, the principals of which are R. Solomon

Chalaphtha and R. Joseph, son of R. Nathaniel of blessed memory.

From thence it is two days to Har Gáash, or Montpellier, a city

conveniently situated for trade, being within two parasangs from the

coast. You here meet with Christian and Mohammedan merchants from all

parts: from Algarve (Portugal), Lombardy, the Roman empire, Egypt,

Palestine, Greece, France, Spain, and England. People of all tongues

meet here, chiefly in consequence of the traffic of the Genoese and

Pisans. The Jews of this city are among the wisest and most esteemed of

the present generation. R. Reuben, son of Theodoros, R. Nathan, son of

Zacharias, R. Samuel, their rabbi, R. Shelemiah, and R. Mordecai of

blessed memory, are the principal among them. Others are very rich, and

benevolent towards all who apply to them for assistance. It is four

parasangs hence to Lunel, a city containing also a holy congregation of

Jews, who employ all their time upon the study of the law. This town is

the place of residence of the celebrated rabbi R. Meshullam and his five

sons (R. Joseph, R. Isaac, R. Jacob, R. Aaron, and R. Asher), all of

whom are eminent scholars and rich men. The latter is an ascetic, who

does not attend to any worldly business, but studies day and night,

keeps fasts, and never eats meat. He possesses an extraordinary degree

of knowledge of every thing relating to Talmudic learning. R. Moses, his

brother-in-law, R. Samuel, the minister, R. Solomon Cohen, and the

physician R. Juda, son of Thibbon, of Spanish origin, are also

inhabitants of Lunel. All foreign students who resort hither to study

the law, are supplied with food and raiment at the public expense during

the whole time of their stay in the university. The Jews of this city,

amounting to about three hundred, are wise, holy, and benevolent men,

who support their poor brethren near and far. The town stands within two

parasangs of the coast. It is two parasangs hence to Beaucaire, a large

town, containing about four hundred Jews, and a great university under

the presidency of the great rabbi, R. Abraham, son of David of blessed

memory, a scholar of the first eminence in scriptural and talmudic

learning. He attracts students from distant countries, who are lodged in

his own house and are taught by him; he, moreover, provides them with

all necessaries of life from his own means and private property, which

is very considerable. R. Joseph, son of R. Menachem, R. Benbenast, R.

Benjamin, R. Abraham, and R. Isaac, son of R. Moses of blessed memory of

this city, are also very great scholars and wise men. It is three

parasangs further to Nogres or Bourg de St. Gilles. The chief of the

Jewish inhabitants, of which there are about one hundred, are R. Isaac,

son of R. Jacob, R. Abraham, son of R. Juda, R. Eliasar, R. Isaac, R.

Moses, and R. Jacob, son of the late rabbi R. Levi of blessed memory.

This town is a place of pilgrimage[127], visited by the inhabitants of

distant countries and islands. It is situated within three parasangs of

the sea, on the very banks of the large river Rhone, which traverses the

whole of Provence. It is the place of residence of R. Abba Mari, son of

R. Isaac of blessed memory, who holds the office of steward to count

Raymond.

To Arles, three parasangs. The chief of its two hundred Israelites are

R. Moses, R. Tobi, R. Isaiah, R. Solomon the rabbi, R. Nathan, and R.

Abba Mari of blessed memory. It is three days hence to Marseilles, a

city containing many eminent and wise men. Its three hundred Jews form

two congregations, one of which resides in the lower town on the shore

of the Mediterranean, and the other in the upper part, near the

fortress. The latter supports a great university and boasts of many

learned scholars. R. Simeon, son of R. Antoli, his brother, R. Jacob,

and R. Levaro, are the chief of the upper synagogue, R. Jacob Perpiano,

a rich man, R. Abraham, and his son-in-law, R. Meir, R. Isaac, and

another Meir, preside over the lower congregation. An extensive trade is

carried on in this city, which stands immediately on the coast. And here

people take ship for Genoa, which also stands on the coast, and is

reached in about four days. Two Jews from Ceuta, R. Samuel, son of

Khilam, and his brother, reside there. The city is surrounded by a wall;

no king governs over it, but senators chosen by the citizens out of

their own body. Every house is provided with a tower, and in times of

civil commotion war is carried on from the tops of these towers. The

Genoese are masters of the sea, and build vessels called galleys, by

means of which they carry on war in many places and bring home much

plunder and booty. They are now at war with the Pisans.

From their city it is a distance of two days' journey to Pisa, which is

a place of very great extent, containing about ten thousand fortified

houses, from which war is carried on in times of civil commotion. All

the inhabitants are brave; no king or prince governs over them, the

supreme authority being vested in senators chosen by the people. The

principal of the twenty Jews resident at Pisa are R. Moses, R. Chaim,

and R. Joseph. The city has no walls, and stands about four miles from

the sea, the navigation being carried on by means of vessels which ply

upon the Arno, a river that runs through the city. Hence it is four

parasangs to Lucca, a large city, which contains about forty Jews, the

principal of whom are R. David, R. Samuel, and R. Jacob.

A journey of six days from thence brings you to the large city of Rome,

the metropolis of all Christendom. Two hundred Jews live there, who are

very much respected, and pay tribute to no one. Some of them are

officers in the service of pope Alexander[128], who is the chief

ecclesiastic and head of the Christian church. The principal of the many

eminent Jews resident here are R. Daniel and R. Jechiel. The latter is

one of the pope's officers, a handsome, prudent, and wise man, who

frequents the pope's palace, being the steward of his household and

minister of his private property. R. Jechiel is a descendant of R.

Nathan, the author of the book Aruch and its comments[129]. There are

likewise at Rome, R. Joab, son of the rabbi R. Solomon, R. Menachem, the

president of the university, R. Jechiel, who resides in Trastevere, and

R. Benjamin, son of R. Shabthai of blessed memory.

The city of Rome is divided into two parts by the river Tiber, which

runs through it. In the first of these divisions you see the large place

of worship called St. Peter of Rome, on the site of the extensive palace

of Julius Cæsar. The city contains numerous buildings and structures

entirely different from all other buildings upon the face of the earth.

The extent of ground covered by the ruined and inhabited parts of Rome

amounts to four-and-twenty miles. You there find eighty halls of the

eighty eminent kings who were all called Imperator, from king Tarquin to

king Pepin, the father of Charles (Charlemagne), who first conquered

Spain and wrested it from the Mohammedans[130]. In the outskirts of Rome

is the palace of Titus, who was rejected by three hundred senators in

consequence of his having wasted three years in the conquest of

Jerusalem, which, according to their will, he ought to have accomplished

in two years. There is likewise the hall of the palace of king

Vespasianus, a very large and strong building; also the hall of king

Galba, containing 360 windows, equal in number to the days of the year.

The circumference of this palace is nearly three miles. A battle was

fought here in times of yore, and in the palace fell more than a hundred

thousand, whose bones are hung up there even to the present day. The

king caused a representation of the battle to be drawn, army against

army, the men, the horses, and all their accoutrements being sculptured

in marble, in order to preserve a memorial of the wars of antiquity. You

there find also a cave under ground containing the king and his queen

upon their thrones, surrounded by about one hundred nobles of their

court, all embalmed by physicians and in good preservation to this day.

Another remarkable object is St. Giovanni _in porta Latina_, in which

place of worship there are two copper pillars constructed by king

Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, "Solomon, son of David," is

engraved upon each. The Jews in Rome told Benjamin, that every year,

about the time of the 9th of Ab[131], these pillars sweat so much that

the water runs down from them. You there see also the cave in which

Titus, the son of Vespasian, hid the vessels of the temple, which he

brought from Jerusalem; and in another cave on the banks of the Tiber,

you find the sepulchres of those holy men of blessed memory, the ten

martyrs of the kingdom[132]. Opposite St. Giovanni de Laterano, there is

a statue of Samson, with a lance of stone in his hand; also that of

Absalom, the son of David, and of king Constantine, who built

Constantinople, which city is called after his name; his statue is cast

in copper, the man and horse being gilt. Rome contains many other

remarkable buildings and works, the whole of which nobody can enumerate.

Four days from Rome is Capua, a large city, built by king Capys. The

town is elegant, but the water is bad, and the country unhealthy. Among

the three hundred Jews who reside at Capua are many very wise men of

universal fame, such as R. Konpasso and his brother, R. Samuel, R.

Saken, and the rabbi R. David, who bears the title of Principalo.

From thence to Puzzuolo, or Sorrento, a large city built by Tsintsan

Hadareser, who fled in fear of king David of blessed memory. This city

has been inundated in two spots by the sea; and even to this day you may

see the streets and towers of the submerged city. A hot spring, which

issues forth from under ground, produces the oil called Petroleum, which

is collected upon the surface of the water and used in medicine. There

are likewise hot baths, proceeding from hot subterranean springs, which

here issue from under ground. Two of these baths are situated on the

sea-shore, and whoever is afflicted with any disease generally

experiences great relief, if not certain cure, from the use of these

waters. During the summer season all persons afflicted with diseases

crowd hither from the whole of Lombardy[133].

From this place a man may travel fifteen miles by a causeway under the

mountains, constructed by king Romulus, the founder of Rome, who feared

David, king of Israel, and Joab, his general, and constructed buildings

both upon and under the mountains. The city of Naples is very strongly

fortified; it is situated on the coast, and was originally built by the

Greeks. The principal of the five hundred Jews who live here are R.

Chiskiah, R. Shalom, R. Eliah Cohen, and R. Isaac, from Mount Hor. One

day's journey brings you to Salerno, the chief medical university of

Christendom. The number of Jews living here amounts to about six

hundred, among whom R. Juda, son of R. Isaac, R. Melchisedek, the grand

rabbi, originally from Siponte, R. Solomon Cohen, R. Elija Hajevani

(i.e. the Greek), R. Abraham Narboni, and R. Thamon, deserve particular

notice as wise and learned men. The city is surrounded by a wall towards

the land; one part of it however stands on the shore of the sea. The

fort on the summit of the hill is very strong. Half a day to Amalfi,

among the inhabitants of which city are twenty Jews, the chief being R.

Chananel, the physician, R. Elisha, and the benevolent (or noble)

Abu-al-Gid. The Christian population of this country is chiefly occupied

with trade; they do not till the ground, but buy every thing for money,

because they reside on high mountains and upon rocky hills; fruit,

however, abounds; the land being covered with vineyards, olive-groves,

gardens, and orchards. Nobody ventures to make war upon them.

One day to Bavento, a large city between the coast and a high mountain.

The congregation of Jews is about two hundred, of which the principals

are R. Calonymos, R. Sarach, and R. Abraham of blessed memory. From

hence two days to Melfi in Apulia, the Pul[134] of scripture, with about

two hundred Jews, of which R. Achimaats, R. Nathan, and R. Sadok are the

principal. One day's journey hence to Ascoli; the principal of the forty

Jews who live there are R. Kontilo, R. Semach, his son-in-law, and R.

Joseph. Two days to Trani, on the coast. All the pilgrims who travel to

Jerusalem assemble here, on account of the convenience of its port. This

city contains about two hundred Israelites, the chief of whom are R.

Elijah, R. Nathan the lecturer[135], and R. Jacob. Trani is a large and

elegant town. One day's journey to St. Nicholas di Bari[136], formerly a

large city, but it was destroyed by William king of Sicily. It still

lies in ruins, and contains neither Jewish nor Christian inhabitants.

One day's journey and a half to Taranto, the frontier town of Calabria,

the inhabitants of which are Greeks. It is a large city, and the

principal of the three hundred Jews who live there are R. Mali, R.

Nathan, and R. Israel. One day's journey to Brindisi, on the sea-coast,

containing about ten Jews, who are dyers. Two days to Otranto, on the

coast of the Grecian sea; the principal of its five hundred Jewish

inhabitants are R. Menachem, R. Khaleb, R. Meier, and R. Mali.

From thence you cross over in two days to the island of Corfu,

containing but one Jew, a dyer, of the name of R. Joseph. Unto this

place reaches the kingdom of Sicily[137]. Two days' voyage by sea

brings you to the coast of Arta, the confines of the empire of Manuel,

king of Greece. On this coast lies a village with about a hundred Jewish

inhabitants, the principal of whom are R. Shelachiah, and R. Hercules.

Two days to Achelous, containing ten Jews, of whom the principal is R.

Shabthai. Half a day to Anatolica on the gulf. One day by sea to Patras.

This is the city of Antipatros, king of Greece, one of the four kings

who rose after king Alexander[138]. It contains large and ancient

buildings, and about fifty Jews reside there, of whom R. Isaac, R.

Jacob, and R. Samuel are the principal. Half a day by sea to Lepanto, on

the coast. The principal of the hundred Jews who reside there are R.

Gisri, R. Shalom, and R. Abraham. One day's journey and a half to

Crissa. Two hundred Jews live there by themselves on mount Parnassus,

and carry on agriculture upon their own land and property; of these, R.

Solomon, R. Chaim, and R. Jedaiah are the principal. Three days to the

city of Corinth, which contains about three hundred Jews, of whom the

chief are R. Leon, R. Jacob, and R. Ezekias.

Three days to the large city of Thebes, containing about two thousand

Jewish inhabitants. These are the most eminent manufacturers of silk and

purple cloth in all Greece[139]. Among them are many eminent Talmudic

scholars and men as famous as any of the present generation. The

principal of them are, the great rabbi R. Aaron Koti, his brother, R.

Moses, R. Chija, R. Elijah Tareteno, and R. Joktan. No scholars

like them are to be found in the whole Grecian empire, except at

Constantinople. A journey of three days brings you to Negropont, a large

city on the coast, to which merchants resort from all parts. Of the two

hundred Jews who reside there, the principal are R. Elijah Psalteri, R.

Emanuel, and R. Khaleb. From thence to Jabustrisa[140] is one day's

journey. This city stands on the coast, and contains about one hundred

Jews, the principal of whom are R. Joseph, R. Samuel, and R. Nethaniah.

Rabenica[141] is distant one day's journey, and contains about one

hundred Jews, of whom R. Joseph, R. Eleasar, and R. Isaac are the

principal. Sinon Potamo, or Zeitun, is one day's journey further; R.

Solomon and R. Jacob are the principal of its fifty Jewish inhabitants.

Here we reach the confines of Wallachia, the inhabitants of which

country are called Vlachi. They are as nimble as deer, and descend from

their mountains into the plains of Greece, committing robberies and

making booty. Nobody ventures to make war upon them, nor can any king

bring them to submission, and they do not profess the Christian faith.

Their names are of Jewish origin, and some even say that they have been

Jews, which nation they call brethren. Whenever they meet an Israelite,

they rob, but never kill him, as they do the Greeks. They profess no

religious creed.

From thence it is two days to Gardiki[142], a ruined place, containing

but few Jewish or Grecian inhabitants. Two days further, on the coast,

stands the large commercial city of Armiro[143], which is frequented by

the Venetians, the Pisans, the Genoese, and many other merchants. It is

a large city, and contains about four hundred Jewish inhabitants; of

whom the chief are R. Shiloh, R. Joseph the elder, and R. Solomon, the

president. One day to Bissina[144]; the principal of the hundred Jews

who reside here are the rabbi R. Shabtha, R. Solomon, and R. Jacob. The

town of Salunki[145] is distant two days by sea; it was built by king

Seleucus, one of the four Greek nobles who rose after Alexander, is a

very large city, and contains about five hundred Jewish inhabitants. The

rabbi R. Samuel and his sons are eminent scholars, and he is appointed

provost of the resident Jews by the king's command. His son-in-law R.

Shabthai, R. Elijah, and R. Michael, also reside there. The Jews are

much oppressed in this place, and live by the exercise of handicraft.

Mitrizzi[146], distant two days' journey, contains about twenty Jews. R.

Isaiah, R. Makhir, and R. Eliab are the principal of them. Drama[147],

distance from hence two days' journey, contains about one hundred and

forty Jews, of whom the chief are R. Michael and R. Joseph. From thence

one day's journey to Christopoli[148], which contains about twenty

Jewish inhabitants. Three days from thence by sea stands Abydos, on the

coast.

It is hence five days' journey through the mountains to the large city

of Constantinople, the metropolis of the whole Grecian empire, and the

residence of the emperor, king Manuel[149]. Twelve princely officers

govern the whole empire by his command, each of them inhabiting a palace

at Constantinople, and possessing fortresses and cities of his own. The

first of these nobles bears the title of Præpositus magnus; the second

is called Megas Domesticus, the third Dominus, the fourth Megas Ducas,

the fifth Œconomus magnus, and the names of the others are similar to

these[150].

The circumference of the city of Constantinople is eighteen miles; one

half of the city being bounded by the continent, the other by the sea,

two arms of which meet here; the one a branch or outlet of the Russian,

the other of the Spanish sea. Great stir and bustle prevails at

Constantinople in consequence of the conflux of many merchants, who

resort thither, both by land and by sea, from all parts of the world for

purposes of trade, including merchants, from Babylon and from

Mesopotamia, from Media and Persia, from Egypt and Palestine, as well as

from Russia, Hungary, Patzinakia, Budia, Lombardy, and Spain. In this

respect the city is equalled only by Bagdad, the metropolis of the

Mohammedans. At Constantinople is the place of worship called St.

Sophia, and the metropolitan seat of the pope of the Greeks, who are at

variance with the pope of Rome. It contains as many altars as there are

days of the year, and possesses innumerable riches, which are augmented

every year by the contributions of the two islands and of the adjacent

towns and villages. All the other places of worship in the whole world

do not equal St. Sophia in riches. It is ornamented with pillars of gold

and silver, and with innumerable lamps of the same precious materials.

The Hippodrome is a public place near the wall of the palace, set aside

for the king's sports. Every year the birthday of Jesus the Nazarene is

celebrated there with public rejoicings. On these occasions you may see

there representations of all the nations who inhabit the different

parts of the world, with surprising feats of jugglery. Lions, bears,

leopards, and wild asses, as well as birds, which have been trained to

fight each other, are also exhibited. All this sport, the equal of which

is nowhere to be met with, is carried on in the presence of the king and

the queen[151].

King Manuel has built a large palace for his residence on the sea-shore,

near the palace built by his predecessors; and to this edifice is given

the name of Blachernes. The pillars and walls are covered with pure

gold, and all the wars of the ancients, as well as his own wars, are

represented in pictures. The throne in this palace is of gold, and

ornamented with precious stones; a golden crown hangs over it, suspended

on a chain of the same material, the length of which exactly admits the

emperor to sit under it. This crown is ornamented with precious stones

of inestimable value. Such is the lustre of these diamonds, that, even

without any other light, they illumine the room in which they are kept.

Other objects of curiosity are met with here which it would be

impossible to describe adequately.

The tribute, which is brought to Constantinople every year from all

parts of Greece, consisting of silks, and purple cloths, and gold, fills

many towers. These riches and buildings are equalled nowhere in the

world. They say that the tribute of the city alone amounts every day to

twenty thousand florins, arising from rents of hostelries and bazaars,

and from the duties paid by merchants who arrive by sea and by land. The

Greeks who inhabit the country are extremely rich, and possess great

wealth in gold and precious stones. They dress in garments of silk,

ornamented with gold and other valuable materials. They ride upon

horses, and in their appearance they are like princes. The country is

rich, producing all sorts of delicacies, as well as abundance of bread,

meat, and wine. They are well skilled in the Greek sciences, and live

comfortably, "every man under his vine and his fig tree."[152] The

Greeks hire soldiers of all nations, whom they call barbarians, for the

purpose of carrying on their wars with the sultan of the Thogarmim, who

are called Turks. They have no martial spirit themselves, and, like

women, are unfit for warlike enterprises.

No Jews dwell in the city with them; they are obliged to reside beyond

the one arm of the sea, where they are shut in by the channel of Sophia

on one side, and they can reach the city by water only, when they want

to visit it for purposes of trade. The number of Jews at Constantinople

amounts to two thousand Rabbanites and five hundred Caraites[153], who

live on one spot, but divided by a wall. The principal of the

Rabbanites, who are learned in the law, are the rabbi R. Abtalion, R.

Obadiah, R. Aaron Khuspo, R. Joseph Sargeno, and R. Eliakim the elder.

Many of them are manufacturers of silk cloth, many others are merchants,

some being extremely rich; but no Jew is allowed to ride upon a horse,

except R. Solomon Hamitsri, who is the king's physician, and by whose

influence the Jews enjoy many advantages even in their state of

oppression, which is very severely felt by them; and the hatred against

them is increased by the practice of the tanners, who pour out their

filthy water in the streets and even before the very doors of the Jews,

who, being thus defiled, become objects of contempt to the Greeks. Their

yoke is severely felt by the Jews, both good and bad; for they are

exposed to be beaten in the streets, and must submit to all sorts of bad

treatment. Still the Jews are rich, good, benevolent, and religious men,

who bear the misfortunes of their exile with humility. The quarter

inhabited by the Jews is called Pera.

Two days from Constantinople stands Rodosto, containing a congregation

of about four hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Moses, R.

Abijah, and R. Jacob. From hence it is two days to Gallipoli. Of the two

hundred Jews of this city the principal are R. Elijah Kapid, R. Shabthai

the little, and R. Isaac Megas; this latter term in the Greek language

means tall. To (Kales, or) Kilia[154], two days. The principal of the

fifty Jews who inhabit this place are R. Juda, R. Jacob, and R.

Shemaiah. It is hence two days to Mitilene, one of the islands of the

sea. Ten places in this island contain Jewish congregations. Three days

from thence is situated the island of Chio, containing about four

hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Elijah, R. Theman, and R.

Shabthai. The trees which yield mastic are found here[155]. Two days

bring us to the island of Samos, which contains about three hundred

Jews, the chief of whom are R. Shemaria, R. Obadiah, and R. Joel. These

islands contain many congregations of Jews. It is three days hence by

sea to Rhodes. The principal of the four hundred Jews who reside here

are R. Aba, R. Chananel, and R. Elijah. Hence it is four days to Cyprus.

Besides the rabbanitic Jews in this island, there is a community of

heretic Jews called Kaphrosein, or Cyprians. They are epicureans, and

the orthodox Jews excommunicate them. These sectarians profane the

evening of the Sabbath and keep holy that of the Sunday. We next come in

two days to Corycus, the frontier of Aram, which is called Armenia. Here

are the confines of the empire of Toros, king of the mountains[156],

sovereign of Armenia, whose rule extends to the city of Dhuchia and the

country of the Togarmim, or Turks. Two days further is Malmistras[157],

which is Thersoos, situated on the coast. Thus far reaches the empire

of the Javanites, who are called Greeks.

The large city of Antioch is distant two days hence. It stands on the

banks of the Makloub, which river flows down from Mount Lebanon, from

the country of Hamah. The city was founded by king Antiochus, and is

overlooked by a very high mountain. A wall surrounds this height, on the

summit of which is situated a well. The inspector of the well

distributes the water by subterranean aqueducts, and thus provides the

houses of the principal inhabitants of the city. The other side of the

city is surrounded by the river. This place is very strongly fortified,

and in the possession of prince Boemond Poitevin, surnamed le

Baube[158]. It contains about ten Jews, who are glass manufacturers, and

the principal of whom are R. Mordecai, R. Chaiim, and R. Ishmael.

Two days bring us from thence to Lega, which is Latachia, and contains

about two hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Chiia and R.

Joseph. Hence it is two days to Jebilee, the Baal Gad of Scripture,

under Mount Lebanon.

In this vicinity reside the people called Assassins, who do not believe

in the tenets of Mohammedanism, but in those of one whom they consider

like unto the prophet Kharmath[159]. They fulfil whatever he commands

them, whether it be a matter of life or death. He goes by the name of

Sheikh-al-Hashishin, or their old man, by whose commands all the acts of

these mountaineers are regulated. His residence is in the city of

Kadmus[160], the Kedemoth of Scripture, in the land of Sichon. The

Assassins are faithful to one another by the command of their old man,

and make themselves the dread of every one, because their devotion leads

them gladly to risk their lives, and to kill even kings when commanded.

The extent of their country is eight days' journey. They are at war with

the Christians, called Franks, and with the count of Tripoli, which is

Tarablous el Sham. Some time ago Tripoli was visited by an earthquake,

which destroyed many Jews and Gentiles, numbers of the inhabitants being

killed by the falling houses and walls, under the ruins of which they

were buried. More than twenty thousand persons were killed in Palestine

by this earthquake.

One day's journey to the other Jebail, which was the Gebal of the

children of Ammon[161]; it contains about one hundred and fifty Jews,

and is governed by seven Genoese, the supreme command being vested in

one of them named Julianus Embriaco[162]. You there find the ancient

place of worship of the children of Ammon. The idol of this people is

seated on a cathedral or throne, constructed of stone and richly gilt;

two female figures occupy the seats on his side, one being on the right,

the other on the left, and before it stands an altar, upon which the

children of Ammon anciently offered sacrifices and burned incense. The

city contains about two hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Meir,

R. Jacob, and R. Szimchah. It stands on the coast of the sea of the Holy

Land. Two days hence is Beyrut, which is Beeroth[163]. The principal of

its fifty Jewish inhabitants are R. Solomon, R. Obadiah, and R. Joseph.

It is hence one day's journey to Saida, which is Sidon of Scripture, a

large city, with about twenty Jewish inhabitants.

Within twenty miles of this place reside a people who are at war with

the inhabitants of Sidon, and who are called Druses. They are called

heathens and unbelievers, because they confess no religion. Their

dwellings are on the summits of the mountains and in the ridges of the

rocks, and they are subject to no king or prince. Mount Hermon, a

distance of three days' journey, is the boundary of their territory.

This people live incestuously; a father cohabits with his own daughter,

and once every year all men and women assemble to celebrate a festival,

upon which occasion, after eating and drinking, they hold promiscuous

intercourse. They say that the soul of a virtuous man is transferred to

the body of a new-born child; whereas that of the wicked transmigrates

into a dog or some other animal. This their way is their folly. Jews

have no permanent residence among them, although some tradesmen and a

few dyers travel through the country occasionally, to carry on their

trades or sell goods, and return home when their business is done. The

Druses are friendly towards the Jews; they are so nimble in climbing

hills and mountains, that nobody can successfully carry on war against

them.

One day's journey to New Sur, a very beautiful city, the port of which

is in the town itself, and is guarded by two towers, within which the

vessels ride at anchor. The officers of the customs draw an iron chain

from tower to tower every night, thus effectually preventing any thieves

or robbers from escape by boats or by other means. There is no port in

the world equal to this. About four hundred Jews reside here, the

principal of whom are the judge R. Ephraim Mitsri, R. Meier of

Carcasson, and R. Abraham, the elder of the community. The Jews of Sur

are ship-owners and manufacturers of the celebrated Tyrian glass[164];

the purple dye is also found in this vicinity. If you mount the walls of

New Sur, you may see the remains of "Tyre the crowning,"[165] which was

inundated by the sea; it is about the distance of a stone's throw from

the new town, and whoever embarks may observe the towers, the markets,

the streets, and the halls at the bottom of the sea. The city of New Sur

is very commercial, and one to which traders resort from all parts.

It is one day hence to Acre, the Acco of Scripture, on the confines of

the tribe of Asher. It is the frontier town of Palestine; and, in

consequence of its situation on the shore of the Mediterranean and of

its large port, it is the principal place of disembarkation of all

pilgrims who visit Jerusalem by sea. A river called Kishon[166] runs

near the city. There are here about two hundred Jewish inhabitants, of

whom R. Zadok, R. Jepheth, and R. Jona are the principal. Three

parasangs further is Kaiffa, which is Gath Hachepher[167]. One side of

this city is situated on the coast, on the other it is overlooked by

Mount Carmel. Under the mountain are many Jewish sepulchres, and near

the summit is the cavern of Elija, upon whom be peace. Two Christians

have built a place of worship near this site, which they call St. Elias.

On the summit of the hill you may still trace the site of the altar

which was rebuilt by Elija of blessed memory, in the time of king

Ahab[168], and the circumference of which is about four yards. The river

Mukattua runs down the mountain and along its base. It is four parasangs

hence to Khephar Thanchum, which is Capernaum, identical with Meon, the

place of abode of Nabal the Carmelite. Six parasangs brings us to

Cesarea, the Gath of the Philistines of Scripture, inhabited by about

ten Jews and two hundred Cutheans. The latter are Samaritan Jews,

commonly called Samaritans. This city is very elegant and beautiful,

situated on the sea-shore, and was built by king Herod, who called it

Cesarea in honour of the emperor, or Cæsar. To Kakun, the Keilah of

Scripture[169], half a day's journey; in this place are no Jews. To St.

George, the ancient Luz[170], half a day's journey. One Jew only, a

dyer, lives here. To Sebaste, one day's journey. This is the ancient

Shomron, where you may still trace the site of the palace of Ahab, king

of Israel. It was formerly a very strong city, and is situated on a

mount, in a fine country, richly watered, and surrounded with gardens,

orchards, vineyards, and olive-groves. No Jews live here.

It is two parasangs further to Nablous, the ancient Sichem, on Mount

Ephraim. This place contains no Jewish inhabitants, and is situated in

the valley between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. It is the abode of

about one hundred Cutheans, who observe the Mosaic law only, and are

called Samaritans. They have priests, descendants of Aaron the priest

of blessed memory, whom they call Aaronim. These do not intermarry with

any other but priestly families; but they are priests only of their own

law, who offer sacrifices and burnt-offerings in their synagogue

on Mount Gerizim. They do this in accordance with the words of

Scripture[171], "Thou shalt put the blessing on Mount Gerizim," and they

pretend that this is the holy temple[172]. On passover and holidays they

offer burnt-offerings on the altar which they have erected on Mount

Gerizim, from the stones put up by the children of Israel after they had

crossed the Jordan. They pretend to be of the tribe of Ephraim, and are

in possession of the tomb of Joseph the righteous, the son of our father

Jacob, upon whom be peace, as is proved by the following passage of

Scripture[173], "The bones of Joseph, which the children of Israel

brought up with them from Egypt, they buried in Sichem." The Samaritans

do not possess the three letters He, Cheth, and Ain; the He of the name

of our father Abraham, and they have no glory; the Cheth of the name of

our father Isaac, in consequence of which they are devoid of piety; the

Ain of the name of Jacob, for they want humility. Instead of these

letters, they always put an Aleph, by which you may know that they are

not of Jewish origin, because, in their knowledge of the law of Moses,

they are deficient in three letters[174]. This sect carefully avoid

being defiled by touching corpses, bones, those killed by accident, or

graves; and they change their daily garments whenever they visit their

synagogue, upon which occasion they wash their body and put on other

clothes. These are their daily habits.

Mount Gerizim is rich in wells and orchards, whereas Mount Ebal is dry

like stone and rock. The city of Nablous lies in the valley between

these two hills. Four parasangs from thence is situated Mount Gilboa,

which Christians call Monto Jelbon. The country in this part is very

barren. Five parasangs further is the valley of Ajalon[175], called by

the Christians Val de Luna. One parasang to Gran David, formerly the

large city of Gibeon. It contains no Jewish inhabitants.

From thence it is three parasangs to Jerusalem, a small city strongly

fortified with three walls. It contains a numerous population, composed

of Jacobites, Armenians, Greeks, Georgians, Franks, and indeed of people

of all tongues. The dyeing-house is rented by the year, and the

exclusive privilege of dyeing is purchased from the king by the Jews of

Jerusalem, two hundred of whom dwell in one corner of the city, under

the tower of David. About ten yards of the base of this building are

very ancient, having been constructed by our ancestors; the remaining

part was added by the Mohammedans. The city contains no building

stronger than the tower of David. There are at Jerusalem two hospitals,

which support four hundred knights, and afford shelter to the sick;

these are provided with everything they may want, both during life and

in death; the second is called the hospital of Solomon, being the palace

originally built by king Solomon. This hospital also harbours and

furnishes four hundred knights[176], who are ever ready to wage war,

over and above those knights who arrive from the country of the Franks

and other parts of Christendom. These generally have taken a vow upon

themselves to stay a year or two, and they remain until the period of

their vow is expired. The large place of worship, called Sepulchre, and

containing the sepulchre of that man[177], is visited by all pilgrims.

Jerusalem has four gates, called the gates of Abraham, David, Sion, and

Jehoshaphat. The latter stands opposite the place of the holy temple,

which is occupied at present by a building called Templo Domino. Omar

Ben Al-Khataab erected a large and handsome cupola over it, and nobody

is allowed to introduce any image or painting into this place, it being

set aside for prayers only. In front of it you see the western wall, one

of the walls which formed the Holy of Holies of the ancient temple; it

is called the Gate of Mercy, and all Jews resort thither to say their

prayers near the wall of the court-yard. At Jerusalem you also see the

stables erected by Solomon[178], and which formed part of his house.

Immense stones have been employed in this fabric, the like of which are

nowhere else to be met with. You further see to this day vestiges of

the canal near which the sacrifices were slaughtered in ancient times;

and all Jews inscribe their name upon an adjacent wall. If you leave the

city by the gate of Jehoshaphat, you may see the pillar erected on

Absalom's place[179], and the sepulchre of king Uzziah[180], and the

great spring of Shiloah, which runs into the brook Kedron. Over this

spring is a large building erected in the times of our forefathers. Very

little water is found at Jerusalem; the inhabitants generally drink rain

water, which they collect in their houses.

From the Valley of Jehoshaphat the traveller immediately ascends the

Mount of Olives, as this valley only intervenes between the city and the

mount. From hence the Dead Sea is distinctly visible. Two parasangs from

the sea stands the salt pillar into which Lot's wife was metamorphosed;

and although the sheep continually lick it, the pillar grows again, and

retains its original state. You also have a prospect over the whole

valley of the Dead Sea, and of the brook of Shittim, even as far as

Mount Nebo. Mount Sion is also near Jerusalem, upon the acclivity of

which stands no building except a place of worship of the Nazarenes

(Christians). The traveller further sees there three Jewish cemeteries,

where formerly the dead were buried; some of the sepulchres had stones

with inscriptions upon them, but the Christians destroy these monuments,

and use the stones in building their houses.

Jerusalem is surrounded by high mountains. On Mount Sion are the

sepulchres of the house of David, and those of the kings who reigned

after him. In consequence of the following circumstance, however, this

place is at present hardly to be recognised. Fifteen years ago, one of

the walls of the place of worship on Mount Sion fell down, and the

patriarch commanded the priest to repair it. He ordered stones to be

taken from the original wall of Sion for that purpose, and twenty

workmen were hired at stated wages, who broke stones from the very

foundation of the walls of Sion. Two of these labourers, who were

intimate friends, upon a certain day treated one another, and repaired

to their work after their friendly meal. The overseer accused them of

dilatoriness, but they answered that they would still perform their

day's work, and would employ thereupon the time while their fellow

labourers were at meals. They then continued to break out stones,

until, happening to meet with one which formed the mouth of a cavern,

they agreed to enter it in search of treasure, and they proceeded until

they reached a large hall, supported by pillars of marble, encrusted

with gold and silver, and before which stood a table, with a golden

sceptre and crown. This was the sepulchre of David, king of Israel, to

the left of which they saw that of Solomon in a similar state, and so on

the sepulchres of all the kings of Juda, who were buried there. They

further saw chests locked up, the contents of which nobody knew, and

were on the point of entering the hall, when a blast of wind like a

storm issued forth from the mouth of the cavern so strong that it threw

them down almost lifeless on the ground. There they lay until evening,

when another wind rushed forth, from which they heard a voice like that

of a man calling aloud, "Get up, and go forth from this place." The men

rushed out full of fear, and proceeded to the patriarch to report what

had happened to them. This ecclesiastic summoned into his presence R.

Abraham el Constantini, a pious ascetic, one of the mourners of the

downfall of Jerusalem[181], and caused the two labourers to repeat what

they had previously reported. R. Abraham thereupon informed the

patriarch that they had discovered the sepulchres of the house of David

and of the kings of Juda. The following morning the labourers were sent

for again, but they were found stretched on their beds and still full of

fear; they declared that they would not attempt to go again to the cave,

as it was not God's will to discover it to any one. The patriarch

ordered the place to be walled up, so as to hide it effectually from

every one unto the present day. The above-mentioned R. Abraham told me

all this.

Two parasangs from Jerusalem is Bethlehem of Judea, called Beth-lehem;

and within half a mile of it, where several roads meet[182], stands the

monument which points out the grave of Rachel. This monument is

constructed of eleven stones, equal to the number of the children of

Jacob. It is covered by a cupola, which rests upon four pillars; and

every Jew who passes there inscribes his name on the stones of the

monument. Twelve Jews, dyers by profession[183], live at Bethlehem. The

country abounds with rivulets, wells, and springs of water. Six

parasangs further is Hebron. The ancient city of that name was situated

on the hill, and lies in ruins at present; whereas the modern town

stands in the valley, even in the field of Machpelah[184]. Here is the

large place of worship called St. Abraham, which during the time of the

Mohammedans was a synagogue. The Gentiles have erected six sepulchres in

this place, which they pretend to be those of Abraham and Sarah, of

Isaac and Rebecca, and of Jacob and Leah; the pilgrims are told that

they are the sepulchres of the fathers, and money is extorted from them.

But if any Jew come, who gives an additional fee to the keeper of the

cave, an iron door is opened, which dates from the times of our

forefathers who rest in peace, and with a burning candle in his hands,

the visitor descends into a first cave, which is empty, traverses a

second in the same state, and at last reaches a third, which contains

six sepulchres, those of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and of Sarah,

Rebecca, and Leah, one opposite the other. All these sepulchres bear

inscriptions, the letters being engraved: thus, upon that of Abraham, we

read, "This is the sepulchre of our father Abraham, upon whom be peace;"

and so on that of Isaac and upon all the other sepulchres. A lamp burns

in the cave and upon the sepulchres continually, both night and day; and

you there see tubs filled with the bones of Israelites, for unto this

day it is a custom of the house of Israel to bring thither the bones of

their relicts and of their forefathers, and to leave them there. On the

confines of the field of Machpelah stands the house of our father

Abraham[185], who rests in peace; before which house there is a spring,

and, out of respect to Abraham, nobody is allowed to construct any

building on that site.

It is five parasangs hence to Beit Jaberim, the ancient Mareshah[186],

where there are but three Jewish inhabitants. Five parasangs further

bring us to Toron de los Caballeros, which is Shunem[187], inhabited by

three hundred Jews. We then proceed three parasangs to St. Samuel of

Shiloh, the ancient Shiloh, within two parasangs of Jerusalem. When the

Christians took Ramleh, which is Ramah, from the Mohammedans, they

discovered the sepulchre of Samuel the Ramathi[188] near the Jewish

synagogue, and removed his remains to Shiloh, where they erected a large

place of worship over them, called St. Samuel of Shiloh to the present

day. Hence it is three parasangs to Pesipua, which is Gibeah of Saul, or

Geba of Benjamin; it contains no Jews. Three parasangs to Beith Nubi,

which is Nob, the city of the priests. In the middle of the road are the

two rocks of Jonathan[189], the name of one of which is Botsets, and of

the other Séné. The two Jews who live here are dyers.

It is three parasangs hence to Ramleh, which is Harama, where you still

find walls erected by our forefathers, as is evident from the

inscriptions upon the stones. The city contains about three Jews; but it

was formerly very considerable, for a Jewish cemetery in its vicinity is

two miles in extent. Five parasangs hence to Jaffa, the Japho of

Scripture, on the coast; one Jew only, a dyer by profession, lives here.

Three parasangs to Ibelin, the ancient Jabneh[190], where the site of

the schools may still be traced; it contains no Jews. Here was the

frontier of the tribe of Ephraim. Two parasangs to Palmis, or

Asdoud[191], formerly a city of the Philistines, at present in ruins,

and containing no Jews. Two parasangs to Ascalon, which is in fact the

New Ascalon, built on the coast by Esra the priest, of blessed memory,

and originally called Benebra, distant about four parasangs from ancient

Ascalon, which lies in ruins. This city is very large and handsome; and

merchants from all parts resort to it, on account of its convenient

situation on the confines of Egypt. There are here about two hundred

rabbanite Jews, of whom the principal are R. Tsemach, R. Aaron, and R.

Solomon, besides about forty Caraites, and about three hundred Cutheans

or Samaritans. In the city is a fountain called Bir Ibrahim-al-Khahil,

which was dug in the time of the Philistines. From hence back to St.

George, which is Lydda, and in one day and a half to Serain, the Jezreel

of Scripture[192], a city containing a remarkably large fountain. It has

one Jewish inhabitant, a dyer. Three parasangs to Sufurieh, the Tsippori

of antiquity[193]. The sepulchres of Rabenu Hakkadosh, of R. Chija, who

came back from Babylon, and of Jonah the son of Amittai the prophet, are

shown here; they are buried in the mountain, which also contains

numerous other sepulchres.

From hence it is five parasangs to Tiberias, a city situated on the

Jordan, which here bears the name of the Sea of Chinnereth[194], or Lake

of Tiberias. Here are the falls of the Jordan, in consequence of which

the place bears also the name of Ashdoth-Pisga[195], which means "the

place where the rapid rivers have their fall:" the Jordan afterwards

empties itself into Lake Asphaltes, or the Dead Sea. Tiberias

contains about fifty Jews, the principal of whom are R. Abraham the

astronomer[196], R. Muchthar, and R. Isaac. The hot waters, which spout

forth from under ground, are called the warm baths of Tiberias. In the

vicinity is the synagogue of Khaleb, son of Jepuneh; and among numerous

other Jewish sepulchres are those of R. Jochanan, son of Zakhai[197],

and of R. Jonathan, son of Levi. These are all in Lower Galilee. Two

parasangs bring us to Tebnin, the Thimnatha of Scripture[198], where you

find the sepulchre of Samuel (Simeon) the Just, and many other

sepulchres of Israelites. It is hence one day to Gish, which is Gush

Chaleb, and contains about twenty Jewish inhabitants. We go hence six

parasangs to Meroon, which is Maron[199]; in a cave near this place are

the sepulchres of Hillel and Shamai, and of twenty of their disciples,

as well as those of R. Benjamin, son of Jephet, and of R. Juda, son of

Bethera. Six parasangs to Alma, which contains fifty Jewish inhabitants,

and a large cemetery of the Israelites. Half a day brings you to Kades,

which is Kadesh Naphthali, on the banks of the Jordan. Here are the

sepulchres of R. Eleasar, son of Arach, of R. Eleasar, son of Asariah,

of Chuni Hamaagal, of R. Simeon, son of Gamaliel, of R. Jose Hagelili,

and of Barak the son of Abinoam[200]. This place contains no Jews.

A day's journey brings us to Belinas[201], the ancient Dan[202], where

the traveller may see a cave, from which the Jordan issues, and three

miles hence this river unites its waters with those of the Arnon, a

rivulet of the ancient land of Moab. In front of the cave you may still

trace vestiges of the altar of the image of Micha, which was adored by

the children of Dan in ancient times. Here also is the site of the altar

erected by Jeroboam, son of Nebat, in honour of the golden calf; and

here were the confines of the land of Israel toward the uttermost

sea[203].

Two days from this place brings you to Damascus, a large city and the

frontier town of the empire of Noureddin[204], king of the Thogarmim, or

Turks. This city is very large and handsome, and is inclosed with a wall

and surrounded by a beautiful country, which in a circuit of fifteen

miles presents the richest gardens and orchards, in such numbers and

beauty as to be without equal upon earth. The rivers Amana[205] and

Parpar[206], the sources of which are on Mount Hermon (on which the city

leans), run down here; the Amana follows its course through Damascus,

and its waters are carried by means of pipes into the houses of the

principal inhabitants, as well as into the streets and markets. A

considerable trade is carried on here by merchants of all countries. The

Parpar runs between the gardens and orchards in the outskirts, and

supplies them copiously with water. Damascus contains a Mohammedan

mosque, called "the Synagogue of Damascus," a building of unequalled

magnificence. They say that it was the palace of Ben-Hadad[207], and

that one wall of it is framed of glass by enchantment. This wall

contains as many openings as there are days in the solar year, and the

sun in gradual succession throws its light into the openings, which are

divided into twelve degrees, equal to the number of the hours of the

day, so that by this contrivance every body may know what time it is.

The palace contains vessels richly ornamented with gold and silver,

formed like tubs, and of a size to allow three persons to bathe in them

at once. In this building is also preserved the rib of a giant, which

measures nine spans in length, and two in breadth, and which belonged to

an ancient giant king named Abchamas, whose name was found engraved upon

a stone of his tomb, and it was further stated in the inscription that

he reigned over the whole world.

This city contains three thousand Jews, many of whom are learned and

rich men; it is the residence of the president of the university of

Palestine, named R. Esra, whose brother, Sar Shalom, is the principal of

the Jewish court of law. The other distinguished Jews are R. Joseph, who

ranges fifth in the university, R. Matsliach, the lecturer and master of

the schools, R. Meir, a flower of the learned, R. Joseph Ibn Pilath, who

may be called the prop of the university, R. Heman the elder, and R.

Zadok the physician. The city contains also two hundred Caraites and

about four hundred Samaritans, sects which here live upon friendly

terms, but they do not intermarry.

It is one day's journey thence to Jelaad, which is Gilead; it contains

about sixty Jews, the principal of whom is R. Zadok. The city is large,

well watered, and surrounded by gardens and orchards. Half a day's

journey further stands Salkhat, the city of Salcah of Scripture. From

thence to Baalbec is half a day's journey. This is the city mentioned in

Scripture as Baalath in the valley of Lebanon, which Solomon built for

the daughter of Pharaoh. The palace is constructed of stones of enormous

size, measuring twenty spans in length and twelve in breadth; no binding

material holds these stones together, and people pretend that the

building could have been erected only by the help of Ashmodai. A copious

spring takes its rise at the upper side of the city, through which its

waters rush like those of a considerable river. They are employed in the

working of several mills within the city, which also incloses numerous

gardens and orchards.

Tadmor in the desert was also built by Solomon of equally large stones;

this city is surrounded by a wall, and stands in the desert, far from

any inhabited place, being four days' journey distant from the

above-mentioned Baalath. It contains two thousand warlike Jews, who are

at war with the Christians and with the Arabian subjects of Noureddin,

and assist their neighbours the Mohammedans. Their chiefs are R. Isaac

Hajevani, R. Nathan, and R. Usiel. Half a day brings us to Cariyatin,

which is Kirjathaim; one Jew only, a dyer by profession, lives there.

One day hence is Hamah, the Hamath of Scripture, on the Orontes, under

Mount Lebanon. Some time ago this city was visited by an earthquake, in

consequence of which fifteen thousand men died in one day, leaving only

seventy survivors[208]. The principals of the Jews here are R. Ulah

Hacohen, the sheikh Abu al Galeb, and Muktar. Half a day to Reiha, which

is Hazor. Three parasangs to Lamdin, from whence it is a journey of two

days to Aleppo, the Aram Zoba of Scripture. This city is the residence

of king Noureddin, and contains his palace, a building fortified by an

extraordinarily high wall. There being neither spring nor river, the

inhabitants are obliged to drink rain-water, which is collected in every

house in a cistern called in Arabic, Algub. The principal of the fifteen

hundred Jews who live in Aleppo are R. Moses el-Constandini, R. Israel,

and R. Seth.

To Bales, which is Pethor[209] on the Euphrates, two days. Even at this

day you there still find remains of the tower of Balaam the son of Beor

(may the name of the wicked rot!) which he built in accordance with the

hours of the day. This place contains about ten Jews. Half a day hence

we come to Kala Jiaber[210], which is Sela Midbarah. This city remained

in the power of the Arabs even at the time when the Thogarmim (or Turks)

took their country and dispersed them in the desert. It contains about

two thousand Jews, of whom R. Zedekiah, R. Chia, and R. Solomon

are the principal. One day brings us to Racca, which is Calneh of

Scripture[211], on the confines of Mesopotamia, being the frontier town

between that country and the empire of the Thogarmim (or Turks); it

contains about seven hundred Jewish inhabitants, the principal of whom

are R. Sakhai, R. Nadib, who is blind, and R. Joseph. One of the

synagogues was built by Esra the scribe, when he returned to Jerusalem

from Babylon. It is one day hence to the ancient place of Haran[212],

which contains twenty Jewish inhabitants, who also possess a synagogue

erected by Esra. Nobody is allowed to construct any building on the spot

where the house of our father Abraham was situated; even the Mohammedans

pay respect to the place, and resort thither to pray. Two days' journey

from thence is ...[213] at the mouth of the El-Khabur, the Habor of

Scripture. This river takes its course through Media, and loses itself

in the Kizil Ozein. About two hundred Jews dwell near this place. Two

days to Nisibin, a large city plentifully watered, and containing about

one thousand Jews. Two days to Jezireh Ben Omar, an island in the

Tigris, at the foot of Mount Ararat[214], and four miles distant from

the spot where the ark of Noah rested; Omar Ben al-Khatab removed the

ark from the summit of the two mountains and made a mosque of it. There

still exists in the vicinity of the ark a synagogue of Esra the scribe,

which is visited by the Jews of the city on the 9th of Ab[215]. The city

of Jezireh Omar Ben al-Khatab contains about four thousand Jews, the

principals of whom are R. Mubchar, R. Joseph, and R. Chiia.

Two days from thence stands Mosul, mentioned in Scripture as Ashur the

great, which contains about seven thousand Jews, the principal of whom

are R. Sakhai, the prince, a descendant of King David, and R. Joseph,

surnamed Borhan-al-Phulkh, who is astronomer of Seifeddin, the brother

of Noureddin, king of Damascus. This city, situated on the confines of

Persia, is of great extent and very ancient; it stands on the banks of

the Tigris, and is joined by a bridge to Nineveh. Although the latter

lies in ruins, there are numerous inhabited villages and small towns on

its site. Nineveh is on the Tigris, distant one parasang from the town

of Arbil[216]. Mosul contains the synagogues of Obadiah, of Jonah, son

of Amittai, and of Nahum the Elkoshite. It is three days hence to

Rahabah, which is Rehoboth, by the river Euphrates, and contains about

two thousand Jews, the principal of whom are R. Ezekiah, R. Ehud, and R.

Isaac. The city is surrounded by a wall, it is very handsome, large, and

well fortified; and the environs abound with gardens and orchards. One

day to Karkisia[217], the Carchemish of Scripture, on the banks of the

Euphrates, containing about five hundred Jewish inhabitants, of whom the

principal are R. Isaac and R. Elchanan. Two days to Juba, which is

Pumbeditha, in Nehardea; it contains about two thousand Jews, some of

them eminent scholars. The rabbi R. Chen, R. Moses, and R. Eliakim are

the principal. Here the traveller may see the sepulchres of R. Juda and

R. Samuel, opposite two synagogues which they erected during their

lives; as well as the sepulchres of R. Bosthenai, the prince of the

captivity, of R. Nathan, and of R. Nachman, the son of Papa[218]. Five

days to Hardah (or Hadrah), containing fifteen thousand Jews, of whom R.

Saken, R. Joseph, and R. Nathaniel are the principal. Two days to

Akbara, the city which was built by Jeconiah, king of Juda; it contains

about ten thousand Jews, the principal of whom are R. Joshua and R.

Nathan.

Two days from thence stands Bagdad, the large metropolis of the khalif

Emir-al-Mumenin al Abassi, of the family of their prophet, who is the

chief of the Mohammedan religion[219]. All Mohammedan kings acknowledge

him, and he holds the same dignity over them which the pope enjoys over

the Christians. The palace of the khalif at Bagdad is three miles in

extent. It contains a large park filled with all sorts of trees, both

useful and ornamental, and all kinds of beasts, as well as a pond of

water carried thither from the river Tigris; and whenever the khalif

desires to enjoy himself and to sport and carouse, birds, beasts, and

fishes are prepared for him and for his courtiers, whom he invites to

his palace. This great Abasside is extremely friendly towards the Jews,

many of his officers being of that nation; he understands all languages,

is well versed in the Mosaic law, and reads and writes the Hebrew

tongue. He enjoys nothing but what he earns by the labour of his own

hands, and therefore manufactures coverlets, which he stamps with his

seal, and which his officers sell in the public market; these articles

are purchased by the nobles of the land, and from their produce his

necessaries are provided. The khalif is an excellent man, trustworthy

and kind-hearted towards every one, but generally invisible to the

Mohammedans. The pilgrims, who come hither from distant countries on

their way to Mecca in Yemen, desire to be presented to him, and thus

address him from the palace: "Our lord, light of the Mohammedans and

splendour of our religion, show us the brightness of thy countenance;"

but he heeds not their words. His servants and officers then approach

and pray: "O lord, manifest thy peace to these men who come from distant

lands and desire shelter in the shadow of thy glory." After this

petition, he rises and puts one corner of his garment out of the window,

which the pilgrims eagerly kiss. One of the lords then addresses them

thus: "Go in peace, for our lord, the light of the Mohammedans, is well

pleased and gives you his blessing." This prince being esteemed by them

equal to their prophet, they proceed on their way, full of joy at the

words addressed to them by the lord who communicated the message of

peace. All the brothers and other members of the khalif's family are

accustomed to kiss his garments. Every one of them possesses a palace

within that of the khalif, but they are all bound with chains of iron,

and a special officer is appointed over each household to prevent their

rising in rebellion against the great king. These measures are taken in

consequence of what occurred some time ago, when the brothers rebelled

and elected a king among themselves; to prevent which in future it was

decreed, that all the members of the khalif's family should be chained,

in order to prevent their rebellious intentions. Every one of them,

however, resides in his palace, and is there much honoured; and they

possess villages and towns, the rents of which are collected for them by

their stewards. They eat and drink, and lead a merry life. The palace of

the great king contains large buildings, pillars of gold and silver, and

treasures of precious stones.

The khalif leaves his palace but once every year, viz. at the time of

the feast called Ramadan; on which occasion many visitors assemble from

distant parts, in order to have an opportunity of beholding his

countenance. He then bestrides the royal mule, dressed in kingly robes,

which are composed of gold and silver cloth. On his head he wears a

turban, ornamented with precious stones of inestimable value; but over

this turban is thrown a black veil, as a sign of humility, and as much

as to say: "See all this worldly honour will be converted into darkness

on the day of death." He is accompanied by a numerous retinue of

Mohammedan nobles, arrayed in rich dresses and riding upon horses,

princes of Arabia, of Media, of Persia, and even of Tibet, a country

distant three months' journey from Arabia. The procession goes from the

palace to the mosque at the Bozra gate, which is the metropolitan

mosque. All who walk in procession, both men and women, are dressed in

silk and purple. The streets and squares are enlivened with singing and

rejoicing, and by parties who dance before the great king, called

khalif. He is saluted loudly by the assembled crowd, who cry: "Blessed

art thou, our lord and king." He thereupon kisses his garment, and by

holding it in his hand, acknowledges and returns the compliment. The

procession moves on into the court of the mosque, where the khalif

mounts a wooden pulpit and expounds their law unto them. The learned

Mohammedans rise, pray for him, and praise his great kindness and piety;

upon which the whole assembly answer, "Amen!" The khalif then

pronounces his blessing, and kills a camel, which is led thither for

that purpose, and this is their offering. It is distributed to the

nobles, who send portions of it to their friends, who are eager to taste

of the meat killed by the hands of their holy king, and are much

rejoiced therewith. The khalif, after this ceremony, leaves the mosque,

and returns alone, along the banks of the Tigris, to his palace, the

noble Mohammedans accompanying him in boats, until he enters this

building. He never returns by the way he came; and the path on the bank

of the river is carefully guarded all the year round, so as to prevent

any one treading in his footsteps. The khalif never leaves his palace

again for a whole year. He is a pious and benevolent man, and has

erected buildings on the other side of the river, on the banks of an arm

of the Euphrates, which runs on one side of the city. These buildings

include many large houses, streets, and hostelries for the sick poor,

who resort thither in order to be cured. There are about sixty medical

warehouses here, all well provided from the king's stores with spices

and other necessaries; and every patient who claims assistance is fed at

the king's expense, until his cure is completed.

There is further a large building, called Dar-al-Maraphtan[220], in

which are confined all the insane persons who are met with, particularly

during the hot season, every one of whom is secured by iron chains until

his reason returns, when he is allowed to return to his home. For this

purpose they are regularly examined once a month by officers appointed

by the king for that purpose; and when they are found to be possessed of

reason they are immediately liberated. All this is done by the king in

pure charity towards all who come to Bagdad, either ill or insane; for

the king is a pious man, and his intention is excellent in this respect.

Bagdad contains about one thousand Jews, who enjoy peace, comfort, and

much honour under the government of the great king. Among them are very

wise men and presidents of the colleges, whose occupation is the study

of the Mosaic law. The city contains ten colleges. The principal of the

great college is the rabbi R. Samuel, the son of Eli, principal of the

college Geon Jacob; the provost of the Levites is the president of the

second; R. Daniel, the master of the third college; R. Eleasar, the

fellow, presides over the fourth; R. Eleasar, the son of Tsemach, is

chief of the fifth college; he is master of the studies, and possesses a

pedigree of his descent from the prophet Samuel, who rests in peace, and

he and his brothers know the melodies that were sung in the temple

during its existence; R. Chasadiah, principal fellow, is the master of

the sixth, R. Chagai, the prince, the principal of the seventh, and R.

Esra, the president of the eighth college; R. Abraham, called Abu Tahir,

presides over the ninth, and R. Zakhai, son of Bosthenai, master of the

studies, is president of the tenth college. All these are called

Batlanim, _i. e._ the Idle: because their sole occupation consists in

the discharge of public business. During every day of the week they

dispense justice to all the Jewish inhabitants of the country, except

Monday, which is set aside for assemblies under the presidency of the

rabbi Samuel, master of the college Geon Jacob, who on that day

dispenses justice to every applicant, and is assisted therein by the

other Batlanim, presidents of the colleges.

The principal of all these, however, is R. Daniel, the son of Chisdai,

who bears the titles of Prince of the Captivity and Lord, and who

possesses a pedigree which proves his descent from king David. The Jews

call him "Lord, Prince of the Captivity," and the Mohammedans entitle

him Saidna Ben Daoud, noble descendant of David. He holds great

command over all Jewish congregations under the authority of the

Emir-al-Mumenin, the lord of the Mohammedans, who has commanded that he

shall be respected, and has confirmed his power by granting him a seal

of office. Every one of his subjects, whether he be Jew or Mohammedan or

of any other faith, is commanded to rise in the presence of the prince

of the captivity, and to salute him respectfully, under a penalty of one

hundred stripes. Whenever he pays a visit to the king, he is escorted by

numerous horsemen, both Jews and Gentiles, and a crier proclaims aloud:

"Make way before our lord the son of David, as becomes his dignity;" in

Arabic, _Amilu tarik la-saidna ben-Daud_. Upon these occasions he rides

upon a horse, and his dress is composed of embroidered silk; on his head

he wears a large turban covered with a white cloth, and surmounted by a

chain (or diadem). The authority of the prince of the captivity extends

over the countries of Mesopotamia, Persia, Khorassan, Seba, which is

Yemen, Diarbekh, all Armenia and the land of Kota near Mount Ararat,

over the country of the Alanians, which is shut in by mountains, and has

no outlet except by the iron gates which were made by Alexander, over

Sikbia and all the provinces of the Turkmans unto the Aspisian

mountains, over the country of the Georgians unto the river Oxus (these

are the Girgasim of Scripture, and believe in Christianity), and as far

as the frontiers of the provinces and cities of Tibet and India. All the

Jewish congregations of these different countries receive authority from

the prince of captivity to elect rabbis and ministers, all of whom

appear before him in order to receive consecration[221] and the

permission to officiate, upon which occasions presents and valuable

gifts are offered to him, even from the remotest countries. The prince

of the captivity possesses hostelries, gardens, and orchards in

Babylonia, and extensive landed property inherited from his forefathers,

of which nobody can deprive him. He enjoys a certain yearly income from

the Jewish hostelries, the markets, and the merchandise of the country,

which is levied in form of a tax, over and above what is presented to

him from foreign countries. He is very rich, an excellent scholar, and

so hospitable, that numerous Israelites dine at his table every day. At

the time of the installation of the prince of the captivity he expends

considerable sums in presents to the king (or khalif), and to his

princes and nobles. This ceremony is performed by the king or khalif,

who lays his hands on the prince, after which the latter rides home from

the king's abode to his own house, seated in a royal state carriage, and

accompanied with the sound of various musical instruments; he afterwards

lays his hands on the gentlemen of the university, to reinstal them.

Many of the Jews of Bagdad are good scholars and very rich. The city

contains twenty-eight Jewish synagogues, situated partly in Bagdad and

partly in Al-Khorkh, on the other side of the river Tigris, which runs

through and divides the city. The metropolitan synagogue of the prince

of the captivity is ornamented with pillars of richly coloured marble,

plated with gold and silver; on the pillars are inscribed verses of the

Psalms in letters of gold. The ascent to the holy ark[222] is composed

of ten marble steps, on the uppermost of which are the stalls set apart

for the prince of the captivity and the other princes of the house of

David.

The city of Bagdad is three miles in circumference; the country in which

it is situated is rich in palm-trees, gardens, and orchards, so that

nothing equals it in Mesopotamia. Merchants of all countries resort

thither for purposes of trade, and it contains many wise philosophers,

well skilled in sciences, and magicians proficient in all sorts of

enchantment.

Two days from hence stands Gihiagin, or Ras-al-Ain, which is Resen, "the

great city;"[223] it contains about five thousand Jews and a large

synagogue. In a house near the synagogue is the sepulchre of[224] ...;

and, in a cave below it, that of his twelve disciples. From hence it is

one day to Babylon. This is the ancient Babel, and now lies in ruins;

but the streets still extend thirty miles. The ruins of the palace of

Nebuchadnezzar are still to be seen; but people are afraid to venture

among them on account of the serpents and scorpions with which they are

infested. Twenty thousand Jews live within about twenty miles from this

place, and perform their worship in the synagogue of Daniel, who rests

in peace. This synagogue is of remote antiquity, having been built by

Daniel himself; it is constructed of solid stones and bricks. Here the

traveller may also behold the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, with the burning

fiery furnace into which were thrown Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah; it

is a valley well known to every one[225]. Hillah, which is at a distance

of five miles, contains about ten thousand Jews and four synagogues, one

of which is that of R. Meier, whose sepulchre is in front of it; another

is that of R. Seiri, son of Hama, and R. Miri[226]. Public worship is

performed daily in these synagogues. Four miles from hence is the tower

built by the dispersed generation[227]. It is constructed of bricks

called al-ajurr; the base measures two miles, the breadth two hundred

and forty yards, and the height about one hundred canna. A spiral

passage, built into the tower (in stages of ten yards each), leads up to

the summit, from which we have a prospect of twenty miles, the country

being one wide plain and quite level. The heavenly fire, which struck

the tower, split it to its very foundation.

Half a day from hence, at Napacha[228], which contains two hundred Jews,

is the synagogue of R. Isaac Napacha, in front of which is his

sepulchre. Three parasangs hence, on the banks of the Euphrates, stands

the synagogue of the prophet Ezekiel, who rests in peace[229]. The place

of the synagogue is fronted by sixty towers, the space between every two

of which is also occupied by a synagogue; in the court of the largest

stands the ark, and behind it is the sepulchre of Ezekiel, the son of

Buzi the priest. This monument is covered with a large cupola, and the

building is very handsome; it was erected by Jechoniah, king of Juda,

and the thirty five thousand Jews who went along with him, when

Evil-Merodach released him from the prison[230], which was situated

between the river Chaboras and another river. The names of Jechoniah and

of all those who came with him are inscribed on the wall, the king's

name first, that of Ezekiel last. This place is considered holy even to

the present day, and is one of those to which people resort from remote

countries in order to pray, particularly at the season of new year and

atonement day[231]. There are great rejoicings here at that time, which

are attended even by the prince of the captivity and the presidents of

the colleges of Bagdad. The assembly is so large, that their temporary

abodes cover twenty-two miles of open ground, and attract many Arabian

merchants, who keep a market or fair. On the day of atonement the proper

lesson of the day is read from a very large manuscript Pentateuch in

Ezekiel's own handwriting. A lamp burns night and day on the sepulchre

of the prophet, and has always been kept burning since the day he

lighted it himself; the oil and wicks are renewed as often as necessary.

A large house belonging to the sanctuary contains a very numerous

collection of books, some of them as ancient as the second, some even

coeval with the first temple, it being the custom that whoever dies

childless bequeaths his books to this sanctuary. The inhabitants of the

country lead to the sepulchre all foreign Jews, who come from Media and

Persia to visit it in fulfilment of vows. The noble Mohammedans also

resort thither to pray, because they hold the prophet Ezekiel, on whom

be peace! in great veneration, and they call this place Dar Melicha (the

agreeable abode); the sepulchre is also visited by all devout Arabs.

Within half a mile of the synagogue are the sepulchres of Hananiah,

Mishael, and Azariah, each covered with a large cupola. Even in times of

war, neither Jew nor Mohammedan ventures to despoil and profane the

sepulchre of Ezekiel.

Three miles from hence stands the city of Al-Kotsonaath, containing

three hundred Jewish inhabitants and the sepulchres of R. Papa, R. Huna,

R. Joseph Sinai, and R. Joseph, the son of Hama, in front of each of

which is a synagogue in which Jews daily pray. Three parasangs to Ain

Japhata, which contains the sepulchre of the prophet Nahum the

Elkoshite, who rests in peace. In a Persian village, a day from thence,

are the sepulchres of R. Chisdai, R. Akiba, and R. Dossa; and in another

village, half a day's distance in the desert, are those of R. David, R.

Juda, R. Kubreh, R. Sechora, and R. Aba; and on the river Lega, a

distance of one day, that of king Zedekiah[232], who rests in peace; the

latter is ornamented by a large cupola[233]. It is one day hence to the

city of Kufa, which contains about seventy thousand Jews; and in it is

the sepulchre of king Jechoniah, which consists of a large building with

a synagogue in front. One day and a half to Sura, the place called in

the Talmud Matha-Mechasia, formerly the residence of the princes of the

captivity and of the principals of the colleges. At Sura are the

sepulchres of R. Shrira and his son Rabenu Hai, Rabenu Sadiah-al-Fajumi,

R. Samuel, the son of Chophni the priest, and Zephaniah, the son of

Khushi, the son of Gedaliah the prophet, and of many other princes of

the captivity, descendants of the house of David, who formerly resided

there before the city was ruined. Two days from thence is Shafjathib,

where there is a synagogue, which the Israelites erected with earth and

stones brought from Jerusalem, and which they called "the transplanted

of Nehardea." One day and a half from thence is El Jubar, or Pombeditha,

on the river Euphrates, containing about three thousand Jews, and the

synagogues, sepulchres, and colleges of Rab and Samuel.

At twenty-one days' journey through the desert of Sheba, or Al-Yemen,

from which Mesopotamia lies in a northerly direction, are the abodes of

the Jews who are called Beni (children of) Rechab, men of Thema. The

seat of their government is at Thema (or Tehama), where their prince and

governor rabbi Chanan resides. This city is large, and the extent of

their country is sixteen days' journey towards the northern mountain

range. They possess large and strong cities and are not subject to any

of the Gentiles, but undertake warlike expeditions into distant

provinces with the Arabians, their neighbours and allies, to take the

spoil and the prey. These Arabians are Bedouins, who live in tents in

the deserts and have no fixed abode, and who are in the habit of

undertaking marauding expeditions into the province of Yemen. The Jews

are a terror to their neighbours. Their country being very extensive,

some of them cultivate the land and rear cattle. A number of studious

and learned men, who spend their lives in the study of the law, are

maintained by the tithes of all produce, part of which is also employed

towards sustaining the poor and the ascetics, called "Mourners of Sion"

and "Mourners of Jerusalem." These eat no meat and abstain from wine,

dress always in black, and live in caves or in low houses, and keep

fasts all their lives except on Sabbaths and holy-days[234]. They

continually implore the mercy of God for the Jews in exile, and devoutly

pray that he may have compassion on them for the sake of his own great

name; and they also include in their prayers all the Jews of Tehama and

of Telmas. The latter contains about one hundred thousand Jews, who are

governed by prince Salomon, who, as well as his brother, prince Chanan,

are descendants of the royal house of David, who rests in peace, which

is proved by their pedigrees. In doubtful cases they solicit the

decisions of the prince of the captivity, and set aside forty days of

every year, during which they go in rent clothes, and keep fasts, and

pray for all the Jews who live in exile.

The province of which Thanaejm is the metropolis contains forty cities,

two hundred villages, and one hundred small towns, and is inhabited by

about three hundred thousand Jews. Thanaejm is a very strong city,

fifteen square miles in extent, and large enough to allow agriculture to

be carried on within its boundaries; within which are also situated the

palace of prince Salomon, and many gardens and orchards. Telmas is also

a city of considerable magnitude; it contains about one hundred thousand

Jews, is strongly fortified, and situated between two very high

mountains. Many of its inhabitants are well informed, wise, and rich.

The distance from Telmas to Chaibar is three days' journey. It is

reported that these Jews are of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half the

tribe of Manasseh, who were led away captives by Shalmaneser, king of

Ashur, and who repaired into these mountainous regions, where they

erected the above-named large and strong cities. They carry on war with

many kingdoms, and are not easily to be reached because of their

situation, which requires a march of eighteen days through uninhabited

deserts, and thus renders them difficult of access.

Chaibar is also a very large city, and contains among its fifty thousand

Jewish inhabitants many learned scholars. The people of this city are

valiant, and engaged in wars with the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, with

those of the northern districts, and with those of Yemen, who live near

them; the latter province borders on India. It is a distance of

twenty-five days' journey from the country of these Jews to ...[235] on

the river Virah, in Yemen, which place contains about three thousand

Jews. Waset[236] is distant seven days, and contains about ten thousand

Jews, among whom is R. Nedain. Five days hence bring us to Bassora on

the Tigris, which contains two thousand Israelites, many of whom are

learned and wealthy. From hence it is two days to ...[237] on the river

Samarra, or Shat-el-Arab. This is the frontier of Persia, and contains

fifteen hundred Jews. The sepulchre of Ezra the priest and scribe is in

this place, where he died on his journey from Jerusalem to king

Artaxerxes. In front of the sepulchre a large synagogue and a Mohammedan

mosque have been erected, the latter as a mark of the veneration in

which Ezra is held by the Mohammedans, who are very friendly towards the

Jews, and resort thither to pray.

Four miles from thence begins Khuzistan, the Elam of Scripture, a large

province, which, however, is but partially inhabited, a portion of it

lying in ruins. Among the latter are the remains of Shushan[238], the

metropolis and palace of king Ahasuerus, which still contains very large

and handsome buildings of ancient date. It has seven thousand Jewish

inhabitants, with fourteen synagogues; in front of one of which is the

sepulchre of Daniel, who rests in peace. The river Ulai divides the city

into two parts, which are connected by a bridge; that portion of it

which is inhabited by the Jews contains the markets, to which all trade

is confined, and there all the rich dwell; on the other side of the

river they are poor, because they are deprived of the above-named

advantages, and have even no gardens or orchards. These circumstances

gave rise to jealousy, which was fostered by the belief that all honour

and riches originated in the possession of the remains of the prophet

Daniel, who rests in peace, and who was buried on the favoured side of

the river. A request was made by the poor for permission to remove the

sepulchre to the other side, but it was rejected; upon which a war

arose, and was carried on between the two parties for a length of time;

this strife lasted until "their souls become loath," and they came to a

mutual agreement, by which it was arranged that the coffin which

contained Daniel's bones should be deposited alternately every year on

either side. Both parties faithfully adhered to this arrangement, until

it was interrupted by the interference of Sanjar Shah ben Shah[239], who

governs all Persia, and holds supreme power over forty-five of its

kings. This prince is called in Arabic Sultan-al-Fars-al-Khabir (Supreme

Commander of Persia), and his empire extends from the banks of the

Shat-el-Arab to the city of Samarkand and the Kizil Ozein, inclosing the

city of Nishapur, the cities of Media, and the Chaphton mountains, and

reaches as far as Thibet, in the forests of which country that quadruped

is found which yields the musk. The extent of his empire is four months

and four days' journey. When this great emperor, Sanjar king of Persia,

came to Shushan and saw that the coffin of Daniel was removed from one

side to the other, he crossed the bridge with a very numerous retinue,

accompanied by Jews and Mohammedans, and inquired into the reason of

those proceedings. Upon being told what we have related, he declared it

to be derogatory to the honour of Daniel, and commanded that the

distance between the two banks should be exactly measured, that Daniel's

coffin should be deposited in another coffin, made of glass, and that it

should be suspended from the centre of the bridge by chains of iron. A

place of public worship was erected on the spot, open to every one who

desired to say his prayers, whether he be Jew or Gentile; and the coffin

of Daniel is suspended from the bridge unto this very day. The king

commanded that, in honour of Daniel, nobody should be allowed to fish in

the river one mile on each side of the coffin.

It is three days hence to Rudbar, which contains twenty thousand Jews,

among whom are many scholars and rich men, but they generally live under

great oppression. Two days hence bring us to the river Holwan, near

which you find the abodes of about four thousand Jews. Four days to the

district of Mulehet[240], possessed by a sect who do not believe in the

tenets of Mohammed, but live on the summit of high mountains, and pay

obedience to the commands of the Old Man in the country of the

Assassins. Four congregations of Jews dwell among them, and combine with

them in their wars. They do not acknowledge the authority of the kings

of Persia, but live on their mountains, whence they occasionally descend

to make booty and to take spoil, with which they retire to their

mountain fortresses, beyond the reach of their assailants. Some of the

Jews who live in this country are excellent scholars, and all

acknowledge the authority of the prince of the captivity, who resides at

Bagdad in Babylonia.

Five days from hence is Amaria, which contains five-and-twenty thousand

Jews. This congregation forms part of those who live in the mountains of

Chaphton, and which amount to more than a hundred, extending to the

frontiers of Media. These Jews are descendants of those who were

originally led into captivity by king Shalmaneser; they speak the Syriac

language, and among them are many excellent Talmudic scholars; they are

neighbours to those of the city of Amaria, which is situated within one

day's journey of the empire of Persia, to the king of which they are

tributary. This tribute is collected by a deputy, and amounts here, as

well as in all Mohammedan countries, to one amiri of gold, equal to one

golden maravedi and one-third, for each male inhabitant of the age of

fifteen and upwards.

Ten years ago[241] there rose a man of the name of David El-Roy, of the

city of Amaria, who had studied under the prince of the captivity,

Chisdai, and under Eli, the president of the college of Geon Jacob in

the city of Bagdad, and who became an excellent scholar, being well

versed in the Mosaic law, in the decisions of the rabbins, and in the

Talmud; understanding also the profane sciences, the language and the

writings of the Mohammedans, and the scriptures of the magicians and

enchanters. He made up his mind to rise in rebellion against the king of

Persia, to unite and collect the Jews who live in the mountains of

Chaphton, and with them to engage in war with all Gentiles, making the

conquest of Jerusalem his final object. He gave signs to the Jews by

false miracles, and assured them, "the Lord has sent me to conquer

Jerusalem, and to deliver you from the yoke of the Gentiles." Some of

the Jews did believe in him, and called him Messiah. When the king of

Persia became acquainted with these circumstances, he sent and summoned

David into his presence. The latter went without fear, and when brought

before the court he was asked, "Art thou the king of the Jews?" to

which he made answer and said, "I am." Upon this the king immediately

commanded that he should be secured and put into the prison where the

captives are kept who are imprisoned for life, situated in the city of

Dabaristan, on the banks of the Kizil Ozein, which is a broad river.

After a lapse of three days, when the king sat in council to take the

advice of his nobles and officers respecting the Jews who had rebelled

against his authority, David appeared among them, having liberated

himself from prison without human aid. When the king beheld him he

inquired, "Who has brought thee hither, or who has set thee at liberty?"

To which David made answer, "My own wisdom and subtility; for verily I

fear neither thee nor thy servants." The king immediately commanded that

he should be seized, but his servants answered and said, "We see him

not, and are aware of his presence only by hearing the sound of his

voice." The king was very much astonished at David's exceeding

subtility, who thus addressed him: "I now go my own way;" and he went

out, followed by the king and all his nobles and servants to the banks

of the river, where he took his shawl, spread it upon the water, and

crossed it thereupon. At that moment he became visible, and all the

servants of the king saw him cross the river on his shawl. He was

pursued by them in boats, but without success, and they all confessed

that no magician upon earth could equal him. He that very day travelled

to Amaria, a distance of ten days' journey, by the help of the Shem

Hamphorash[242], and related to the astonished Jews all that

had happened to him. The king of Persia afterwards sent to the

Emir-el-Mumenin, the khalif of Bagdad, principal of the Mohammedans, to

solicit the influence of the prince of the captivity, and of the

presidents of the colleges, in order to check the proceedings of David

El-Roy, and threatening to put to death all Jews who inhabited his

empire. The congregations of Persia were very severely dealt with about

that time, and sent letters to the prince of the captivity and the

presidents of the colleges at Bagdad to the following purpose: "Why will

you allow us to die, and all the congregations of this empire? Restrain

the deeds of this man, and prevent thereby the shedding of innocent

blood." The prince of the captivity and the president of the colleges

hereupon addressed David in letters which run thus: "Be it known unto

thee that the time of our redemption has not yet arrived, and that we

have not yet seen the signs by which it is to manifest itself,

and that by strength no man shall prevail. We therefore command

thee to discontinue the course thou hast adopted, on pain of being

excommunicated from all Israel." Copies of these letters were sent to

Sakhai, the prince of the Jews in Mosul, and to R. Joseph the

astronomer, who is called Borhan-al-Fulkh, and also resides there, with

the request to forward them to David El-Roy. The last mentioned prince

and the astronomer added letters of their own, in which they advised and

exhorted him; but he nevertheless continued in his criminal career. This

he carried on until a certain prince of the name of Sin-el-Din, a vassal

of the king of Persia, and a Turk by birth, cut it short by sending for

the father-in-law of David El-Roy, to whom he offered ten thousand

florins if he would secretly kill David El-Roy. This agreement being

concluded, he went to David's house while he slept, and killed him on

his bed, thus destroying his plans and evil designs. Notwithstanding

this, the wrath of the king of Persia still continued against the Jews

who lived in the mountains and in his country, who in their turn craved

the influence of the prince of the captivity with the king of Persia.

Their petitions and humble prayers were supported by a present of one

hundred talents of gold, in consideration of which the anger of the king

of Persia was subdued, and the land was tranquillized.

From that mountain to Hamadan[243] is a journey of ten days; this was

the metropolis of Media, and contains about fifty thousand Jews. In

front of one of the synagogues is the sepulchre of Mordecai and Esther.

Four days from thence stands Dabaristan[244], on the river Kizil Ozein;

it contains about four thousand Jewish inhabitants. The city of Ispahan

is distant seven days' journey; it is the metropolis of Persia, and

residence of the king, being twelve miles in extent, and containing

about fifteen thousand Jews. Sar Shalom, the rabbi of this city and of

all other towns of the Persian empire, has been promoted to the dignity

by the prince of the captivity.

Four days distant stands Shiraz, or Fars, a large city, containing about

ten thousand Jews. It is seven days thence to Giva[245], a large city on

the banks of the Oxus, containing about eight thousand Jews. Very

extensive commerce is carried on in this place, to which traders of all

countries and languages resort; the country about it is very flat. Five

days from thence, on the frontiers of the kingdom, stands Samarkand, a

city of considerable magnitude, which contains about fifty thousand

Jews. The prince rabbi Obadiah is the governor of the community, which

includes many wise and learned men. Four days from thence is the

province of Tibet, in the forests of which country that beast is found

which yields the musk. To the mountains of Khazvin, on the river Kizil

Ozein, it is a journey of eight-and-twenty days. Jews of those parts,

who live in Persia at present, report that the cities of Nisapour are

inhabited by four tribes of Israel, viz., the tribe of Dan, that of

Zebulon, and that of Naphthali, being part of the first exiles who were

carried into captivity by Shalmaneser, king of Ashur, as reported in

Scripture[246]. He banished them to Halah and Habor, the mountains of

Gozan, and the mountains of Media. The extent of their country is twenty

days' journey, and they possess many towns and cities in the mountains.

The river Kizil Ozein forms their boundary on one side, and they are

subject to no nation, but are governed by their own prince, who bears

the name of rabbi Joseph Amarkhela Halevi[247]. Some of these Jews are

excellent scholars; others carry on agriculture; and many of them are

engaged in war with the country of Cuth, by way of the desert. They are

in alliance with the Caphar Tarac, or infidel Turks[248], who adore the

wind and live in the desert. This is a people who eat no bread and

drink no wine, but devour the meat raw and quite unprepared; they have

no noses, but draw breath through two small holes, and eat all sorts of

meat, whether from clean or unclean beasts. They are on very friendly

terms with the Jews.

About eighteen years ago this nation invaded Persia with a numerous

host, and took the city of Rai, which they smote with the edge of the

sword, carrying off the spoil to their deserts. Nothing similar had been

seen before in the kingdom of Persia; and when the king of that country

was made acquainted with this occurrence, his wrath was kindled, for,

said he, "in the time of my predecessors no host like this ever issued

from the desert; I will go and will extinguish their name from the

earth." He raised the war-cry in the whole empire, collected all his

troops, and made inquiry whether he could find any guide that would show

him the place where his enemies pitched their tents. A man was met with,

who spoke thus to the king: "I will show thee the place of their

retreat, for I am one of them." The king promised to enrich him if he

would fulfil his promise, and show him the way. Upon inquiry how many

provisions would be necessary for this long march through the desert,

the spy answered: "take with you bread and water for fifteen days, as

you will find no provisions whatever before you reach their country."

This advice being acted upon, they travelled fifteen days in the desert,

and as they met with nothing that could serve for sustenance, they

became extremely short of provisions, and men and beasts began to die.

The king sent for the spy, and thus spoke to him: "What is become of thy

promise to show us our enemy?" No other reply being made than "I have

mistaken my way," the head of the spy was cut off by the king's command.

Orders were issued that every one who had any provisions left should

share them with his companion; but every thing eatable was consumed,

even the beasts, and after travelling thirteen additional days in the

desert, they at last reached the mountains of Khazvin, where the Jews

dwell. They encamped in the gardens and orchards, and near the springs,

which are in the vicinity of the river Kizil Ozein. It being the fruit

season, they made free with it and destroyed much, but no living being

came forward. They saw, however, cities and many towers on the

mountains, and the king commanded two of his servants to go and inquire

the name of the nation which inhabited these mountains, and to cross

over to them, either in boats or by swimming the river. They at last

discovered a large bridge, fortified by towers, and secured by a gate

which was locked, and on the other side of the bridge a considerable

city. They shouted on their side of the bridge until at last a man came

forth to inquire what they wanted or to whom they belonged. They could

not, however, make themselves understood, but brought an interpreter who

spoke both languages; the questions being repeated, they replied: "We

are the servants of the king of Persia, and have come to inquire who you

are and whose subjects." The answer was: "We are Jews, we acknowledge no

king or prince of the Gentiles, but are subjects of a Jewish prince."

Upon inquiries after the Ghuzi, the Caphar Tarac or infidel Turks, the

Jews made answer: "Verily they are our allies, and whoever seeks to harm

them we consider our own enemy." The two men returned and reported this

to the king of Persia, who became much afraid, and particularly so when,

after a lapse of two days, the Jews sent a herald to offer him battle.

The king said, "I am not come to make war against you, but against the

Caphar Tarac, or infidel Turks, who are my enemies; and if you attack me

I will certainly take my vengeance, and will destroy all the Jews in my

own kingdom, for I am well aware of your superiority over me in my

present position; but I entreat you to act kindly and not to harass me,

but allow me to fight with the Caphar Tarac, my enemy, and also to sell

me as much provision as I want for the maintenance of my host." The Jews

took counsel among themselves, and determined to comply with the request

of the king of Persia for the sake of his Jewish subjects. The king and

all his host were consequently admitted into the country of the Jews,

and during his stay of fifteen days he was treated with most honourable

distinction and respect. The Jews, however, meanwhile sent information

to their allies, the Caphar Tarac, and made them acquainted with the

above-mentioned circumstances; these took possession of all the mountain

passes, and assembled a considerable host, consisting of all the

inhabitants of that desert and when the king of Persia went forth to

give them battle, the Caphar Tarac conquered, killing and slaying so

many of the Persians, that the king escaped to his country with only

very few followers. One of the horsemen of the retinue of the king

enticed a Jew of that country, named R. Moses, to go along with him; he

carried this man with him into Persia, and there made him a slave. Upon

a certain day, when the king was the spectator of sports carried on for

his amusement, and consisting principally of the exercise of handling

the bow, among all competitors none excelled this R. Moses. The king

thereupon inquired after this man by means of an interpreter, and was

told what had happened to him, and how he had been forcibly carried away

from his country by the horseman; upon learning which the king not only

immediately granted him his liberty, but gave him a dress of honour,

composed of silk and fine linen, and many other presents. A proposal was

also made to R. Moses, that if he would renounce his religion for that

of the Persians, he should be treated with the utmost kindness, should

gain considerable riches, and be made the king's steward; but he

refused, and said, "I cannot make up my mind to any such step." The

king, however, placed him in the house of the rabbi Sar Shalom,

of the Ispahan congregation, who in the course of time became his

father-in-law. This very R. Moses related all these things unto me.

From thence I returned to the country of Khuzistan, which lies on the

Tigris. This river runs downward and falls into the Indian Sea (Persian

Gulf), in the vicinity of an island called Kish. The extent of

this island is six miles, and the inhabitants do not carry on any

agriculture, for they have no rivers, nor more than one spring in the

whole island, and are consequently obliged to drink rain water. It is,

however, a considerable market, being the spot to which the Indian

merchants and those of the islands bring their commodities. While the

traders of Mesopotamia, Yemen, and Persia import all silk and purple

cloths, flax, cotton, hemp, mash[249], wheat, barley, millet, rye, and

all other sorts of comestibles and pulse, which articles form objects of

exchange, those from India import great quantities of spices, and the

inhabitants of the island live by what they gain in their capacity of

brokers to both parties. The island contains about five hundred Jews. It

is ten days passage by sea to El-Katif, a city with about five

thousand Israelites. In this vicinity the pearls are found: about the

twenty-fourth of the month of Nisan[250] large drops of rain are

observed upon the surface of the water, which are swallowed by the

reptiles, which thereupon close their shells and fall to the bottom of

the sea; about the middle of the month of Thishri[251] people dive with

the assistance of ropes, collect these reptiles from the bottom, and

bring them up, after which they are opened and the pearls taken out.

Seven days from thence is Chulam[252], on the confines of the country of

the sun-worshippers, who are descendants of Kush[253], are addicted to

astrology, and are all black. This nation is very trustworthy in matters

of trade; and whenever foreign merchants enter their port, three

secretaries of the king immediately repair on board their vessels, write

down their names, and report them to him. The king thereupon grants them

security for their property, which they may even leave in the open

fields without any guard. One of the king's officers sits in the market,

and receives goods that may have been found any where, and which he

returns to those applicants who can minutely describe them. This custom

is observed in the whole empire of the king. From Easter to new

year[254], during the whole of the summer, the heat is extreme. From the

third hour of the day[255] people shut themselves up in their houses

until the evening, at which time every body goes out. The streets and

markets are lighted up, and the inhabitants employ all the night upon

their business, which they are prevented from doing in the daytime by

the excessive heat.

Pepper grows in this country; the trees which bear this fruit are

planted in the fields, which surround the towns, and every one knows his

plantation. The trees are small, and the pepper is originally white, but

when they collect it they put it into basons and pour hot water upon it;

it is then exposed to the heat of the sun, and dried, in order to make

it hard and more substantial, in the course of which process it becomes

of a black colour. Cinnamon, ginger, and many other kinds of spices also

grow in this country. The inhabitants do not bury their dead, but embalm

them with certain spices, put them upon stools, and cover them with

cloths, every family keeping apart. The flesh dries upon the bones; and

as these corpses resemble living beings, every body recognises his

parents and all the members of his family for many years to come. These

people worship the sun[256]. About half a mile from every town they have

large places of worship, and every morning they run towards the rising

sun; every place of worship contains a representation of that luminary,

so constructed by enchantment that upon the rising of the sun it turns

round with a great noise, at which moment both men and women take up

their censors and burn incense in honour of this their deity. "This

their way is their folly."[257] All the cities and countries inhabited

by these people contain only about one hundred Jews, who are of black

colour, as well as the other inhabitants. The Jews are good men,

observers of the law, and possess the Pentateuch, the prophets, and some

little knowledge of the Talmud and its decisions.

The island of Khandy[258] is distant twenty-two days' journey. The

inhabitants are fire worshippers called Druzes, and twenty-three

thousand Jews live among them. These Druzes have priests everywhere in

the houses consecrated to their idols, and these priests are expert

necromancers, the like of whom are to be met with nowhere. In front of

the altar of their house of prayer is a deep ditch, in which a large

fire is continually kept burning; this they call Elahuta, Deity. They

pass their children through it, and into this ditch they also throw

their dead. Some of the great of this country take a vow to burn

themselves alive; and if any such devotee declares to his children and

kindred his intention to do so, they all applaud him and say, "Happy

shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee." When the appointed day

arrives, they prepare a sumptuous feast, place the devotee upon his

horse, if he be rich, or lead him on foot, if he be poor, to the brink

of the ditch. He then throws himself into the fire, and all his kindred

manifest their joy by the playing of instruments until he is entirely

consumed. Within three days of this ceremony two of the principal

priests repair to his house, and thus address his children: "Prepare the

house, for to-day you will be visited by your father, who will manifest

his wishes unto you." Witnesses are selected among the inhabitants of

the town, and lo! the devil appears in the image of the dead. The wife

and children inquire after his state in the other world, and he answers:

"I have met my companions, but they will not admit me into their

company, before I have discharged my debts to my friends and

neighbours;" he then makes a will, divides his goods among his children,

and commands them to discharge all debts he owes and to receive what

people owe him; this will is written down by the witnesses ...[259] to

go his way, and he is not seen any more. In consequence of this

falsehood and deceit, which the priests pass off by magic, they retain a

strong hold upon the people, and make them believe that their equal is

not to be met with upon earth.

From hence the passage to China[260] is effected in forty days. This

country lies eastward, and some say that the star Orion predominates in

the sea which bounds it, and which is called the Sea of Nikpha.

Sometimes this sea is so stormy that no mariner can conduct his vessel;

and whenever a storm throws a ship into this sea, it is impossible to

govern it; the crew and the passengers consume their provisions, and

then die miserably. Many vessels have been lost in this way; but people

have learned how to save themselves from this fate by the following

contrivance: they take bullocks' hides along with them, and whenever

this storm arises and throws them into the Sea of Nikpha, they sow

themselves up in the hides, taking care to have a knife in their hand,

and being secured against the sea-water, they throw themselves into the

ocean; here they are soon perceived by a large eagle called a griffin,

which takes them for cattle, darts down, seizes them in his gripe, and

carries them upon dry land, where he deposits his burden on a hill or in

a dale, there to consume his prey. The man, however, now makes use of

his knife to kill the bird, creeps forth from the hide, and tries to

reach an inhabited country. Many people have been saved by this

stratagem.

Gingaleh is but three days distant by land, whereas it requires a

journey of fifteen days to reach it by sea; this place contains about

one thousand Israelites. To Khulan, seven days by sea; no Jews live

there. Twelve days from thence to Sebid, which contains but few Jews.

Eight days from thence is Middle India[261], which is called Aden, and

in Scripture Eden in Thelasar[262]. This country is very mountainous,

and contains many independent Jews, who are not subject to the power of

the Gentiles, but possess cities and fortresses on the summits of the

mountains, from whence they descend into the country of Maatum, with

which they are at war. Maatum, also called Nubia, is a Christian

kingdom, and the inhabitants are called Nubians. The Jews generally take

spoil and plunder from them, which they carry into their mountain

fastnesses, the possession of which makes them almost unconquerable.

Many of the Jews of Aden visit Egypt and Persia.

To the country of Assuan twenty days' journey, through the desert of

Sheba, on the banks of the Nile (Pison), which comes down here from the

country of the blacks. This country is governed by a king, whom they

call Sultan-al-Habash, and some of the inhabitants resemble beasts in

every respect. They eat the herbs which grow on the banks of the Nile,

go naked in the fields, and have no notions like other men; for

instance, they cohabit with their own sisters and with any body they

find. The country is excessively hot; and when the people of Assuan

invade their country, they carry wheat, raisins, and figs, which they

throw out like bait, thereby alluring the natives. These are made

captive, and sold in Egypt and in the adjoining countries, where they

are known as black slaves, being the descendants of Ham.

From Assuan to Chaluah it is twelve days. This place contains about

three hundred Jews, and is the starting point of the caravans which

traverse the desert Al-Zahara in fifty days on their way to Zavila, the

Havilah of Scripture[263], which is in the country of Ganah[264]. This

desert contains mountains of sand; and, whenever a storm arises, the

caravans are exposed to the imminent danger of being buried alive by the

sand; those which escape, however, carry iron, copper, different sorts

of fruits, pulse, and salt. Gold and precious stones are brought from

thence in exchange. This country lies westward of Kush, or Abyssinia.

Thirteen days' journey from Chaluah stands Kuts, a city on the frontiers

of Egypt, containing thirty thousand Jewish inhabitants. To Fayuhm five

days; this is Pithom[265]; it contains about twenty Jews, and has some

remains of the buildings erected by our forefathers even to this day.

Four days from thence brings us to Mizraim, or Memphis, commonly called

Old Cairo. This large city stands on the banks of the Nile, called

Al-Nil, and contains about two thousand Jews. Here are two synagogues,

one of the congregation of Palestine, called the Syrian, the other of

the Babylonian Jews (or those of Irac). They follow different customs

regaining the division of the Pentateuch into Parashioth and

Sedarim[266]. The Babylonians read one Parasha every week, as is the

custom throughout Spain, and finish the whole of the Pentateuch every

year, whereas the Syrians have the custom of dividing every Parasha

into three Sedarim, and concluding the lecture of the whole once in

three years. They keep, however, the long-established custom of

assembling both congregations to perform public service together, as

well on the day of the joy of the law as on that of the dispensation of

the law[267]. Rabbi Nathaniel, the lord of lords, is the president of

the Jewish university, and, in his capacity of primate of all the Jewish

congregations of Egypt, exercises the right of electing Rabanim and

ministers. He is one of the officers of the great king, who resides in

the fortress of Zoan in the city of Mizraim, which is the metropolis of

all those Arabians who obey the Emir-al-Mumenin[268] of the sect of Ali

ben Abitaleb. All the inhabitants of his country are called rebels,

because they rebelled against the Emir-al-Mumenin al-Abassi who resides

at Bagdad, and there is continual hatred between them.

The residence of Zoan was selected for its convenience. The prince

appears in public twice every year; once at the time of their great

holiday, and the second time at the moment of the inundation of the

Nile. Zoan is inclosed by a wall, whereas Mizraim is open, and the Nile

washes one portion of it. The city is large, containing many markets and

bazaars, and very wealthy Jewish inhabitants.

Rain, frost, and snow are almost unknown here, the climate being very

warm. The river overflows once every year, in the month of Elul[269],

and, inundating the whole country, irrigates it to the extent of fifteen

days' journey. The water remains standing on the land during that and

the following month, whereby it is moistened and made fit for

agriculture. A marble pillar, constructed with great skill, has been

erected in front of an island; twelve yards of this pillar protrude

above the level of the river; and whenever the water rises to a height

sufficient to cover the pillar, people know that it has inundated the

whole land of Egypt to the extent of fifteen days' journey, whereas if

one-half only of the pillar be covered, it shows that one-half of the

country is yet dry. A certain officer measures the rise of the river

every day, and makes proclamation in Zoan and in Mizraim in these words:

"Praise God, for the river has risen so and so much!" The measurement

and the proclamation is repeated every day. Whenever the water submerges

the whole pillar, it produces great plenty in the whole land of Egypt.

The river rises by degrees until the whole country is inundated to the

extent of fifteen days' journey. The proprietors of land cause ditches

to be dug along their fields, into which the fishes are swept with the

rising waters; and when the river retires into its bed, the fish

remaining in the trenches are collected by the proprietors and used for

food. Others sell them to merchants, by whom they are cured, and sold in

this state all over the country. The fat of these fishes, with which

they abound, is used by the rich of the land instead of oil, and they

light their lamps therewith. Those who eat of the fish, and drink Nile

water after it, need not fear any bad consequences, the water being an

excellent preventive. Persons who inquire the reason of the rise of the

Nile are told by the Egyptians that it is caused by the heavy rains

which fall in the country of Abyssinia, the Havilah of Scripture, which

is elevated above the level of Egypt. This forces the river out of its

bed, and inundates the whole country. Whenever the overflowing of the

Nile is suspended, they can neither sow nor reap, "and the famine is

sore in the land."[270] The time for sowing in Egypt is the month of

Marcheshvan[271], after the river has retired into its usual bed; in

Adar[272] they cut barley, and in Nissan[273] the wheat. In the same

month the following fruits are ripe: a kind of acid plum called cherry,

nuts, cucumbers, gourds, St. John's bread[274], beans, spelt-corn,

chick-pease, as well as all sorts of herbs, such as purslain, asparagus

(or fennel), grapes, lettuce, coriander, succory, cabbage, and wine.

Upon the whole the country abounds with good things. The gardens and

orchards are watered partly from wells and partly from the Nile.

Above Mizraim the Nile is divided into four arms, one of which proceeds

to Damietta, which is Caphtor of Scripture, and there falls into the

sea; a second flows towards Rashid (or Rosetta), which is near

Alexandria, and there falls into the sea; the third takes the direction

of Ashmun, the large city on the frontier of Egypt. The banks of these

four arms are lined on both sides with cities, towns, and villages; and

are enlivened by numerous travellers who journey both by river and by

land. In fact, upon the whole earth there is no country so populous and

well cultivated as Egypt, which is of ample territory and full of all

sorts of good things.

From New to Old Mizraim is a distance of two parasangs. The latter lies

in ruins, but the sites of the walls and the houses may still be traced

at this day, as also the granaries of Joseph, of which there is a large

number. The pyramids, which are seen here, are constructed by magic; and

in no other country or other place is any thing equal to them. They are

composed of stones and cement, and are very substantial. In the

outskirts of the city is the very ancient synagogue of our great master

Moses, upon whom be peace. An old and very learned man is the overseer

and clerk of this place of public worship; he is called Al-Sheikh

Abunasar. Old Mizraim is three miles in extent. From thence to the land

of Goshen, eight parasangs. It is called Belbeis, is a large city, and

contains about three thousand Jewish inhabitants. Half a day to Iskiil

Ain-al-Shems, the ancient Raamses, which is in ruins. Here are remains

of the buildings erected by our forefathers, and tower-like buildings

constructed of bricks. One day's journey to Al-Boutidg; about two

hundred Jews live here. Half a day to Sefita, which contains about two

hundred Jews. To Damira, four parasangs; this place contains about seven

hundred Jews. Five days to Mahaleh, which contains about five hundred

Israelites[275]. Two days from thence stands Alexandria, which Alexander

the Macedonian, who built this extremely strong and handsome city,

called after his own name. In the outskirts of the city was the school

of Aristotle, the preceptor of Alexander. The building is still very

handsome and large, and is divided into many apartments by marble

pillars. There are about twenty schools, to which people flocked from

all parts of the world in order to study the Aristotelian philosophy.

The city is built upon arches, which are hollow below. The streets are

straight, and some of them are of such extent that the eye cannot

overlook them at once; that which runs from the Rosetta to the sea-gate

is a full mile in length. The port of Alexandria is formed partly by a

pier, which extends a mile into the sea. Here is also a high tower,

called lighthouse, in Arabic, Minar of Alexandria, on the summit of

which was placed a glass mirror. All vessels which approached with

hostile intentions, from Greece and from the western side, could be

observed at fifty days' distance by means of this glass mirror, and

precautions were taken against them. Many years after the death of

Alexander there arrived a Grecian vessel commanded by a man of the name

of Theodoros, who was extremely cunning. The Grecians were subject to

the Egyptians at the time, and the above-named shipper brought a

valuable present to the king of Egypt, consisting of silver, gold, and

silk garments. He rode at anchor in view of the mirror, the customary

station of all merchantmen who arrived, and the keeper of the

lighthouse, as well as his servants, were invited every day by him,

until they became very intimate and paid one another frequent visits.

Upon a certain day the keeper and all his servants were invited to a

sumptuous meal, and were plied so much with wine that both he and his

servants became drunk and fell into a sound sleep. This opportunity was

seized by the shipper and his crew to break the mirror, after which

exploit they left the port the same night. From that time the Christians

began to visit Alexandria with small and large vessels, and took the

large island of Crete, as well as Cyprus, which are in possession of the

Greeks unto this day; and the Egyptians have not been able to withstand

the Greeks ever since[276]. The lighthouse is still a mark to all

seafaring men. It is observed at the distance of one hundred miles by

day, and at night bears a light which serves as a guide to all mariners.

The city is very mercantile, and affords an excellent market to all

nations. People from all Christian kingdoms resort to Alexandria, from

Valentia, Tuscany, Lombardy, Apulia, Amalfi, Sicilia, Rakuvia,

Catalonia, Spain, Roussillon, Germany, Saxony, Denmark, England,

Flandres, Hainault, Normandy, France, Poitou, Anjou, Burgundy, Mediana,

Provence, Genoa, Pisa, Gascony, Arragon, and Navarre. From the west you

meet Mohammedans from Andalusia, Algarve, Africa, and Arabia, as well as

from the countries towards India, Savila, Abyssinia, Nubia, Yemen,

Mesopotamia, and Syria, besides Greeks and Turks[277]. From India they

import all sorts of spices, which are bought by Christian merchants. The

city is full of bustle, and every nation has its own fonteccho (or

hostelry) there.

On the sea-shore is a marble sepulchre, upon which are depicted all

sorts of birds and beasts, all in very ancient characters, which nobody

can decipher; but it is supposed that it is the tomb of a king of very

ancient date, who reigned even before the flood. The length of the tomb

is fifteen spans by six in breadth.

Alexandria contains about three thousand Jews.

From hence we reach Damietta, which is Caphtor[278], in two days; this

place contains about two hundred Jews. Half a day from thence to Sunbat,

the inhabitants of which sow flax and weave fine linen, which forms a

very considerable article of exportation. Four days to Ailah, which is

Elim of Scripture; it belongs to the Bedouin Arabs. Two days to

Rephidim, which is inhabited by Arabians, and contains no Jews. One day

to Mount Sinai, on the summit of which the Syrian monks possess a place

of worship. At the base of the mountain is a large village; the

inhabitants, who speak the Chaldean language, call it Tour Sinai. The

mountain is small, is in possession of the Egyptians, and is distant

five days from Mizraim. The Red Sea is one day's journey from Mount

Sinai; this sea is an arm of the Indian Sea.

Back to Damietta, from whence by sea to Tennis, the Chanes of Scripture,

an island of the sea, containing about forty Israelites; here is the

boundary of the empire of Egypt. From thence we go, in twenty days, by

sea to Messina, on the coast of the island of Sicily, situated on the

strait called Lunir, an arm of the sea which divides Calabria from

Sicily. This city contains about two hundred Jews, and is beautifully

situated in a country abounding with gardens and orchards, and full of

good things. Most of the pilgrims who embark for Jerusalem assemble

here, because this city affords the best opportunity for a good passage.

Two days from thence stands Palermo, a large city, two square miles in

extent. It contains the extensive palace of king William[279], and is

inhabited by about fifteen hundred Jews and many Christians and

Mohammedans. The country is rich in wells and springs, grows wheat and

barley, and is covered with gardens and orchards; it is, in fact, the

best in the whole island of Sicily. This city is the seat of the

viceroy, whose palace is called Al-Hacina, and contains all sorts of

fruit trees, as also a great spring, surrounded by a wall, and a

reservoir called Al-Behira, in which abundance of fish are preserved.

The king's vessels are ornamented with silver and gold, and are ever

ready for the amusement of himself and his women. There is also a large

palace, the walls of which are richly ornamented with paintings and with

gold and silver. The pavement is of marble and rich mosaic, representing

all sorts of figures; in the whole country there is no building equal to

this.

The island begins at Messina, where many pilgrims meet, and extends to

Catania, Syracuse, Masara, Pantaleone, and Trapani, being six days in

circumference. Near Trapani is found the stone called coral, in Arabic,

al-murgan[280]. From thence you cross over and reach Rome in three

days; from Rome by land in five days to Lucca, from whence you get in

twelve days to Bardin, by Mount Maurienne, and over the passes of Italy.

Here are the confines of Germany, a country full of hills and

mountains. The Jewish congregations of Germany inhabit the banks

of the great river Rhine, from Cologne, where the empire commences, unto

Cassanburg, the frontier of Germany, which is fifteen days' journey, and

is called Ashkenas by the Jews. These are the cities of Germany which

contain congregations of Israelites, all situated on the river

Moselle—Coblence, Andernach, Kaub, Kartania, Bingen, Worms, and

Mistran. In fact, the Jews are dispersed over all countries, and whoever

hinders Israel from being collected, shall never see any good sign, and

shall not live with Israel. And at the time which the Lord has appointed

to be a limit of our captivity and to exalt the horn of his anointed,

every one shall come forth and shall say, "I will lead the Jews and I

will assemble them."

These cities contain many eminent scholars; the congregations are on the

best terms with one another, and are friendly towards strangers.

Whenever a traveller visits them they are rejoiced thereat and

hospitably receive him. They are full of hopes, and say—"Be of good

spirit, dear brethren, for the salvation of the Lord will be quick, like

the twinkling of an eye; and, indeed, were it not that we had doubted

hitherto that the end of our captivity had not yet arrived, we should

have assembled long ago; but this is impossible before the time of song

arrive, and the sound of the cooing turtle gives warning[281]; then will

the message arrive, and we will say, The name of the Lord be

exalted!"[282] They send letters to one another, by which they exhort to

hold firm in the Mosaic law. Those that spend their time as mourners of

the downfall of Sion and the destruction of Jerusalem, are always

dressed in black clothes, and pray for mercy before the Lord, for the

sake of their brethren.

Beside the cities which we have already mentioned as being in Germany,

there are, further, Astransburg, Duidisburg, Mantern, Pisingas, Bamberg,

Zor, and Regensburg, on the confines of the empire; all these cities

contain many rich and learned Jews. Further on is the country of

Bohemia, called Prague. Here begins Sclavonia, called by the Jews who

inhabit it Khenaan, because the inhabitants sell their children to all

nations, which is also applicable to the people of Russia. The latter

country is very extensive, reaching from the gates of Prague to those of

Kiev, a large city on the confines of the empire. The country is very

mountainous and full of forests; in the latter the beasts called

vaiverges[283] are met, which yield the sable fur or ermine. In winter

the cold is so intense that nobody ventures to leave his house. So far

the kingdom of Russia.

The kingdom of France, called by the Jews Tsarphat, reaches from the

town of Alsodo to Paris, the metropolis, and is six days in extent. This

city, situated on the river Seine, belongs to king Louis[284], and

contains many learned men, the equal of which are to be met with at

present nowhere upon earth: they employ all their time upon the study of

the law, are hospitable to all travellers, and on friendly terms with

all their Jewish brethren.

May the Lord in his mercy be full of compassion towards them and us, and

may he fulfil towards both the words of his Holy Scripture (Deut. xxx.

3), "Then the Lord thy God will turn thy captivity, and have compassion

upon thee, and will return and gather thee from all the nations, whither

the Lord thy God hath scattered thee."—Amen, Amen, Amen.

FOOTNOTES:

[125] The expression "of blessed memory" is generally added by Jews when

mentioning the "honoured dead," (see Proverbs x. 7,) and recurs

frequently in the following narrative.

[126] This city was one of great antiquity; and at this time the remains

of its ancient walls appear to have been very remarkable. Destroyed at

an earlier period by the Saracens, Tarragona was rebuilt in the twelfth

century.

[127] The church of St. Egidius, or Giles, in this town, was a

celebrated place of pilgrimage in the middle ages. It was the birthplace

and first appanage of the celebrated Raymond, count of St. Gilles and

Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence, whose family were

so active in the crusades. The count Raymond here mentioned, in whose

household R. Abba Mari held office, was Raymond V., son of Alphonso, who

had the title of count of St. Gilles during his father's life.

[128] Alexander III., who held the papacy from 1159 to 1181. The

employment of Jews in the service of the pope is a circumstance worthy

of remark.

[129] The book Aruch was a celebrated dictionary, completed by rabbi

Nathan at Rome, in A.D. 1101.

[130] These singular legends relating to the ancient buildings in Rome

are chiefly taken from the writings of Josephus Ben Gorion. Some of them

may be compared with similar tales which are found in Christian writers,

and of which several examples are inserted in William of Malmesbury's

History.

[131] The time of the destruction of both temples at Jerusalem. The day

is still one of fast and mourning to all Jews, and is celebrated as such

by all synagogues.

[132] These were ten ancient teachers of the Mishna, who suffered

violent death in the period between Vespasian and Hadrian. A late legend

not only connected these persecutions as one event, but assigned to the

victims a common sepulchre at Rome. The legend contains a conversation

of the ten martyrs with the emperor. Several of the ten were certainly

not buried in Rome; the sepulchres of three, Akiba, Ishmael, and Juda

Ben Thema, were shown in Palestine in the thirteenth and sixteenth

centuries. Antipatris is said by others to be the place of the sepulchre

of R. Akiba. A more recent catalogue notices, as known in Palestine, the

sepulchres of R. Juda, son of Baba, and Simon, son of Gamaliel, two

others of the "ten martyrs."

[133] This account of Puzzuolo is also chiefly taken from Josephus

Gorionides. Modern researches prove that some Roman villas on the

sea-coast are now covered by the sea; and this led to the story of the

submerged city.

[134] See Isaiah, lxvi. 19. This, it need hardly be observed, is one of

the erroneous identifications of Scriptural names which have so

frequently arisen from a false importance given to their similarity of

sound.

[135] This title was given to a man conversant with the Hagada, or

ancient manner of expounding the holy scripture. The Hebrew appellation

is "darschan."

[136] Bari, which was taken and almost destroyed by the Greeks during

the reign of William of Sicily, was called St. Nicholas, in honour of

the celebrated church and priory of that saint, which are its most

remarkable ornaments. They were built in 1098, and richly endowed by

Roger, duke of Apulia; and they escaped the great and general

destruction with which the city was visited.

[137] This island, though for some time subject to Roger and William,

kings of Sicily, was reconquered by the emperor Manuel in 1149; and the

words of our author are probably intended to express that this was the

first spot at which he touched after leaving the kingdom of Sicily.

[138] This erroneous account of the foundation of Patras is taken from

Josephus Gorionides.

[139] Thebes contained, at this time, the greatest number of Jews of any

city in Greece, some of whom are stated to have been eminent

manufacturers, principally of silk and purple cloths. Gibbon states that

artists employed upon these trades enjoyed exemption from personal

taxes. "These arts, which were exercised at Corinth, Thebes, and Argos,

afforded food and occupation to a numerous people: the men, women, and

children were distributed according to their age and strength; and if

many of these were domestic slaves, their masters, who directed the work

and enjoyed the profits, were of a free and honourable condition." At

present the whole population of Thebes does not amount to above 3500

individuals.

[140] No place of this name is now known. Mr. Asher conjectures, from

the Sclavonic sound of the word, that it was a town of the Wallachians,

and that it has been destroyed in the perpetual wars of which this part

of Greece was the scene.

[141] Rabenica is mentioned by several medieval writers, though its

exact situation is not now known. Henri de Valencienne, Chronique,

edited by Buchon, p. 259, says "Ensi comme jou devant vous dys, fut li

parlemens ou val de Ravenique."

[142] Gardiki, or Cardiki, a small town on the coast of the gulf of

Volo, and the seat of a bishop. The time at which it was ruined, or the

occasion upon which its destruction took place, cannot be ascertained.

[143] Armyro, also on the coast of the gulf of Volo. By the writers of

the middle ages it was called Amire, Amiro, and Almyro. Poucqueville

(iii. 72) mentions it as the principal town of a district which bears

its name.

[144] This place is not now known, but it is mentioned by medieval

writers under the name of Vissena, Vessena, and Bezena. As our author

embarked at or near this station, it cannot have been Velestino, which

we meet with by following his route on a map of Greece, because,

although in the vicinity of Armyro, and on the road to Saloniki, it is

an inland town.

[145] The ancient Thessalonica; the modern Saloniki, contained, at our

author's time, more Jewish inhabitants than any town in Greece, Thebes

alone excepted. It is stated by good authorities to contain at present

20,000 Israelites, a large proportion of the whole population, amounting

altogether to but 70,000 souls. Some popular tradition probably induced

our author to ascribe the origin of the city to Seleucus. The favourable

situation of Saloniki, which has made it one of the most commercial

towns of the Turkish empire, was probably the cause of its considerable

Jewish population.

[146] This place, which has vanished from the modern maps of Greece, was

called correctly Dimitritzi, and was situated near Amphipolis, on the

Cercinian Sea.

[147] Villehardouin mentions this place as belonging to the king of

Thessalonica, and calls it "Dramine el val de Phelippe." Another MS.

reads Draimes, which is more in conformity with the appellation given to

it by Nicephorus Gregoras, who, like our author, frequently calls it

Drama. It stands in a valley, near the site of the ancient city of

Philippi, the ruins of which are still to be seen.

[148] The original word is [Hebrew: קנישתולי]; but there can hardly be

any doubt that our author wrote it so only because he did not like to

mention the name of Christ. We observe this in several other instances

in the course of this work. Christopoli was on the direct road from

Thessalonica to Constantinople. It was situated on the frontiers of

Macedonia and Thracia, on the European shore of the Propontis, opposite

the island of Thaso; and here travellers from Macedonia to

Constantinople generally embarked.

[149] Manuel Comnenus, emperor from 1143 to 1180.

[150] The best account of the imperial officers of state will be found

in Gibbon, "Decline and Fall," chap. liii. The Præpositus magnus was one

of the principal officers, governor of the city and of the forces

stationed in it; the Megas Domesticus was the commander in chief of the

army; the Dominus, court marshal, lord steward of the household; Megas

Ducas, the commander of the naval forces, or lord high admiral of the

empire; Œconomos magnus, a clerical officer of high rank.

[151] The Hippodrome is now known by the Turkish paraphrased name of the

At-Meidan, _i. e._ the horse-market. It was the site chosen for the

display of the games by which the emperor Manuel entertained the sultan

Azeddin Kilidscharslan, on his visit to Constantinople in 1159; and Mr.

Asher observes that Benjamin was probably an eyewitness of the public

rejoicings and games which took place in honour of the celebration of

the marriage of the emperor Manuel with Maria, daughter of the prince of

Antiochia, on "the birth-day of Jesus," A.D. 1161, which he seems to

describe here. Compare the account of the games at Constantinople

exhibited to the Northmen, pp. 60, 61.

[152] Micah, iv. 4.

[153] The former respect and conform with the authority of the rabbinic

explanations, which are rejected by the latter.

[154] This is the Cœla of Ptolemy, and the Celus of Pliny and Mela, a

sea-port-town on the eastern coast of the peninsula of Gallipoli, still

bearing the Turkish name of Kilia.

[155] The island of Chio is still celebrated for its mastic; and the

population of twenty villages are employed exclusively in cultivating

the tree and gathering its produce. These villages are situated in the

mountainous parts; and the Christian cultivators of the mastic not only

paid no tithe nor tribute, but enjoyed certain privileges.

[156] This prince first resided with the emperor Johannes

Porphyrogenitus, with whom he was a great favourite; but on his death,

and the succession of Manuel Comnenus to the throne, Thoros left

Constantinople, disguised as a merchant, and proceeded by water to

Antioch, from whence he went to Cilicia, and with the assistance of the

priests and nobles found himself at the head of a formidable army, and

soon established himself on the throne of his ancestors. When these news

reached Constantinople, Manuel became highly incensed; and, raising a

numerous force, he sent Andronicus Cæsar into Cilicia with the command

to extirpate all Armenians; but the imperial general was defeated, and

Thoros was subsequently reconciled with the emperor. He died in 1167.

[157] Malmistras is the ancient Mopsuestia, on the Pyramus, at present

Messis on the Jeihan. Under the former name it appears in William of

Tyre and his contemporaries.

[158] Boemond III., prince of Antioch, surnamed le Baube (or the

Stammerer), succeeded his mother in the principality of Antioch in 1163,

and died in 1200.

[159] Kharmath was a famous impostor, founder of a sect called

Carmathians, very similar to that of the Assassins. One of the tenets of

this sect was, that the soul of the founder transmigrates into the body

of his successor, and that the person who held the office of chief among

them was the personification of the original founder of the sect.

[160] Kadmus is enumerated by Burckhardt in a list of old castles, on

the mountains of Szaffyta, in the territory of the Anzeiry.

[161] Joshua, xiii. 5. 1 Kings, v. 32.

[162] This passage was entirely misunderstood by the earlier

translators. The family of the Embriaci was one of the most ancient of

the patricians of Genoa; and one of its members, Guillelmus Embriacus,

was named commander of the fleet which was sent to aid the Christian

princes of Syria, and which, in 1109, took Byblus, of which he became

the feudal lord. The jealousy of the other patrician families was

subsequently roused, but the family of the Embriaci succeeded in

retaining their feudal tenure. The supreme government of the city,

however, at this time, appears to have been vested in a committee of

seven persons, six of whom were delegated by the republic, the place of

president being always filled by one of the Embriaci. William of Tyre

(xi. 9) relates the conquest of Byblus by the Genoese, and informs us

that the Christian name of the Embriacus who governed when he wrote

(about 1180) was Hugo, "a grandson of the Hugo who conquered it;" but

all other historians call the conqueror Guillelmus, and Mr. Asher thinks

that we ought to read, in Benjamin's text, [Hebrew: גוליימו], which

stands for William, instead of Julianus.

[163] Joshua, xviii. 25.

[164] It is well known from other sources that Tyre was celebrated in

the middle ages for the manufacture of glass.

[165] Isaiah, xxiii. 8.

[166] The modern Nahr-el-Mukattua. See Judges, v. 21.

[167] Joshua, xix. 13. Modern writers identify Kaiffa with the ancient

Ephah, and not with Gath.

[168] Kings, xviii. 30.

[169] Joshua, xv. 44.

[170] Judges, i. 26.

[171] Deut. xi. 29.

[172] To which place, according to the tenets of the Talmudic Jews, the

offerings are confined, and since the destruction of which they have

been discontinued.

[173] Joshua, xxiv. 32.

[174] Modern critics and travellers appear to confirm this statement

relating to the peculiar pronunciation of the three letters by the

Samaritans.

[175] At present Yâlo.

[176] The knights templars.

[177] Jesus is thus called in the Talmud.

[178] 1 Kings, iv. 26.

[179] 2 Sam. xviii. 18.

[180] 2 Kings, xv. 1-7.

[181] After the slaughter of the Jews of Jerusalem by the crusaders, the

few that were saved from destruction were dispersed in all directions.

Those persons who mourned over these unhappy circumstances were called

"mourners of Jerusalem," and are mentioned under that title more than

once by Benjamin. We find these mourners even among the Caraites about

1147. We read in several ancient Jewish writers of the danger incurred

by the Jews who visited Jerusalem while it remained in the power of the

Christians. Pethachia found only one Jew at Jerusalem, whereas Benjamin

speaks of 200. A numerous congregation was again to be met with there

about 1190; but about 1216 great discord prevailed among them in

consequence of the pretensions of the different congregations.

[182] Gen. xxxv. 19, 20.

[183] It may be observed that most of the richer stuffs, the siclatons,

&c., used in the west of Europe during the middle ages, came from the

east, which accounts for the number of dyers mentioned by the traveller.

[184] Gen. xxiii. 19.

[185] The "House of Abraham" is still shown to travellers, about an

hour's ride from Hebron, the site being occupied by the ruins of a small

convent.

[186] Joshua, xv. 44. It is the Bethogabris of the Greek and Latin

writers, and supposed to be the Eleutheropolis of the early Christian

fathers.

[187] Joshua, xix. 18.

[188] 1 Sam. i. 1.

[189] The rocks of Jonathan, mentioned (1 Sam. xiv. 5) as being between

Gibeah and Michmash, and which formed a narrow path between the two

places, were also seen by Robinson and Smith. "Directly between Jeba and

Mukhmâs are two conical hills, not very high, which are probably the

scene of Jonathan's romantic adventure against the Philistines, recorded

in 1 Sam. xiv."

[190] 2 Chron. xxvi. 6.

[191] The Azotus of the ancient geographers.

[192] The Esdraela of the Greeks, called by the historians of the

crusades Gerinum and Zarain.

[193] Now called Sephoury.

[194] Numbers, xxxiv. 11.

[195] Deut. iii. 17.

[196] During the middle ages Jews were not unfrequently employed as

astrologers by the Arabian princes. R. Isaac, the son of Baruch (A.D.

1080), appears, among others, to have rendered services of this kind to

Almohammad. King Alphonso of Castile also entertained Jews who were

proficients in astrology. The surname [Hebrew: חוזה], astrologer, was

borne by Abraham in Tiberias. Eliezer, author of an astrological book of

chances, lived in 1559. We also find mention of Joseph, astrologer of

Seifeddin, sultan of Mosul; R. Isaac, an astronomer of the twelfth

century in France; and Salomon, an astronomer in Nineveh.

[197] Jochanan, son of Zakhai, was a celebrated teacher of the Mishna in

the time of Vespasian; later catalogues mention his sepulchre in

Tiberias. The Jews have a legend relating to him full of extraordinary

fables. Some persons have supposed him to be the "John" mentioned in

Acts iv. 6.

[198] This identification is evidently an error, as Thimnatha was in

Judea, far to the south of Tiberias, and could not be Tebnin. Benjamin

falls into another error in placing here the sepulchre of Samuel, who

was buried in Ramah. Mr. Asher proposes to read Simeon.

[199] Meirûn is still a place of pilgrimage to the Jews of the vicinity,

who resort thither on certain days to say prayers on the sepulchres of

some rabbis; and this corroborates our text, according to which Hillel

and Shamai, the two most celebrated teachers of the Talmud, who

flourished before the birth of our Saviour, are interred in a cave near

Merûn. This legend must have been very prevalent at our author's time,

as it is also reported by Pethachia, who adds that a large stone vase,

situated in the cave of the sepulchre, filled itself spontaneously with

water whenever a worthy man entered it for the purpose of devotion, but

remained empty if the visitor was a man of doubtful character. The two

other persons whose sepulchres are mentioned here were celebrated

teachers of the law, who flourished in the third and second centuries;

but Jewish writers appear to differ as to the places of their burial.

The second of them is said to have traced his descent from one of the

skeletons restored to life by the prophet Ezekiel.

[200] All the persons mentioned here were celebrated rabbis of the first

century before, and the three centuries after Christ, except Barak, who

is well known by the fourth chapter of the book of Judges.

[201] This is Paneas, or Baneas, the ancient Cæsarea Philippi.

[202] This identification is not quite correct, the ancient Dan having

been situated on another small rivulet, still called Dan, and distant

about four Roman miles west of Paneas on the way to Tyre. William of

Tyre also identifies Dan with Cæsarea. The apparent source of the Jordan

flows from under a cave at the foot of a precipice, in the sides of

which are several niches with Greek inscriptions, which Benjamin has

mistaken for the altar of Micha.

[203] This is a mistake of rabbi Benjamin, as this term, used in Deut.

xi. 24, means the Mediterranean.

[204] It is hardly necessary to state that this was the celebrated

sultan of Damascus, Aleppo, and Egypt, so well known in the history of

the crusades. He reigned from 1145 to 1173.

[205] 2 Kings, v. 12. The ancient Greek name of the river was

Chrysorrhoas; in modern Arabic it is called the Barady.

[206] 2 Kings v. 12. It is now called El Faige.

[207] Jerem. xlix. 27; Amos, i. 4.

[208] The earthquake alluded to visited this part of Syria in 1157, at

which period Hamah, Antiochia, Emessa, Apamea, Laodicea, and many other

cities, were laid in ruins. R. Benjamin calls the river Orontes Jabbok;

the Arabians call it Oroad, or Asi. Rieha, or Reiha, is a name still

borne by a place and mountain in this part of the road from Damascus to

Aleppo. Burckhardt mentions ruins of numerous towns still visible on the

mountain, among which we must look for Lamdin, mentioned in our text,

but by no other traveller or geographer. The road between Damascus and

Aleppo, pursued even by all modern travellers, goes by Homs and Tadmor.

Burckhardt was the first to deviate from this route.

[209] Numb. xxii. 5. Deut. xxiii. 4. It is the Barbarissus of the

Romans. Bales was taken by the crusaders under Tancred in 1111.

[210] The Dauses, or Davana, of the Greeks. In the history of the

crusades, Kalat (or fort) Jiaber is often mentioned; and the

circumstances alluded to by our author are told at length by Desguignes.

In Abulfeda's time this place was a deserted ruin; but the castle, built

on a mound of marl and gypsum, still stands, thirty-five miles below

Bir, on the left bank of the Euphrates.

[211] The Callinicus of the Greeks, afterwards called Nicephorium.

[212] The Carrhæ of the ancients. The site of the house of Abraham is

still pointed out as an object of veneration. Mr. Asher observes that,

from Aleppo to Racca, our author, like most modern and ancient

travellers, followed the course of the Euphrates; but being probably

attracted, like Marco Polo, by the considerable trade then carried on at

Mosul, he proceeded thither from Racca, by way of Haran, Nisibis, and

Jezireh, a route pointed out as probably used by Alexander on Rennel's

map of the retreat of the Ten Thousand.

[213] It appears that the name of a city is omitted here. Our author

probably wrote "from thence to Ras-el-Ain," at which place the Khabur

becomes a formidable river.

[214] This is of course not the true Ararat. It is called Jebel Judi.

The island is the ancient Bezebde.

[215] See p. 68, note.

[216] The ancient Erbela.

[217] The ancient Cercusium.

[218] All these were celebrated Jewish rabbis in the earlier centuries

of the Christian era.

[219] The khalif alluded to by Benjamin was either Moktafi, who died in

1160, or Mostanjeh-abul-Modhaffer, who reigned from his death to 1170.

It is probable that Benjamin was at Bagdad in 1164.

[220] Dar-al-Morabittan in Arabic; literally, abode of those who require

being chained, _i. e._ of the raving mad.

[221] The ceremony of consecration, performed by the prince of

captivity, consisted in his laying his hands on the heads of the

candidates.

[222] The place where the rolls of the Pentateuch are deposited. It is

generally elevated above the seats of the congregation.

[223] Gen. x. 12. Ras-al-Ain is the Ressaina of the Romans; it is

erroneously identified with Resen.

[224] The name is omitted in all editions.

[225] This tradition of the burning furnace is mentioned by the Arabian

geographers, by whom we are further informed that the ashes still

remained.

[226] These are also some of the early rabbis concerning whom the Jews

possess many legends; the places of burial of others are mentioned

further on.

[227] Benjamin here alludes to the Birs Nimrud, which is, however, more

than four miles from Hillah. _Al-ajurr_ is the Persian word for these

bricks.

[228] Perhaps the Nachaba of Ptolemy. It is not found in modern maps.

[229] This celebrated sepulchre is still a place of pilgrimage to the

Jews and Mohammedans in the east.

[230] 2 Kings, xxv. 27. Jerem. lii. 31.

[231] Celebrated on the first and tenth of Thishri (about the end of

September or the beginning of October).

[232] 2 Kings, xxiv. 17.

[233] The sites of Ain Japhata, and the other places mentioned here,

have not yet been traced by modern travellers. Colonel Shiel ('Journal

of the Geog. Soc.,' vol. viii. p. 93) found a tomb near Elkoth, east of

the Tigris, at the foot of the mountains which border Kurdistan, which

the natives described as that of Nahum.

[234] Fasting being prohibited on these days by the Talmud. This proves

Niebuhr's supposition, that they were Talmudists, to be correct.

[235] The name of a city appears to be omitted here.

[236] Waset is the ancient Cybate. The Hebrew text reads Naset, which

Mr. Asher has rightly corrected.

[237] The name of a city is omitted here; no doubt Kornah, on the

Samarra, or ancient Delos. The sepulchre of Ezra is described by various

modern travellers; it is still an object of pilgrimage to the Jews of

the east.

[238] The exact site of Shushan (Susa) is a subject of some doubt among

modern geographers. The old Arabian writers give a variety of legends

relating to Daniel's tomb.

[239] Sanjar was a very celebrated and powerful prince. He conquered

Samarkand in 1140, and died in 1157, shortly before Benjamin visited the

east.

[240] Benjamin's account of the Assassins, and their residence at

Mulehet, coincides very closely with that given by Marco Polo. It has

been supposed that the sect of the Assassins originated in this district

of Persia.

[241] That is, probably, in A.D. 1155; for 1165 appears to be about the

year in which Benjamin of Tudela visited Persia. The history of David

El-Roy, and the scene of his imposture, have been illustrated by Major

Rawlinson in a memoir communicated to the Geographical Society of

London, and printed in its Transactions.

[242] Shem Hamphorash, literally, the explained name, the letters of the

word Jehovah in their full explanation, a mystery known but to very few,

and by which it is believed wonders may be executed. The wonders

performed by Jesus are ascribed in the Talmud to his knowledge of this

mystery.

[243] Hamadan, which is now in a state of ruin, is said to stand on or

near the site of the ancient Ecbatana. The sepulchre of Mordecai and

Esther is still shown there.

[244] This town is conjectured to be Farahabad.

[245] The city of Khiva.

[246] 2 Kings, xvii. 6, and xviii. 11. And the king of Assyria did carry

away Israel unto Assyria, and put them in Halah and in Habor, by the

river Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes.

[247] Of the tribe of Levi, the descendants of which are divided into

Leviim and Khohanim, and are the only Jews who to this day claim the

descent from a certain tribe, all others having mixed and become extinct

in the course of time.

[248] These were the Ghuzes, a Turkish tribe who emigrated in the

twelfth century from the country to the north of the Oxus. The events

mentioned in the text seem to have occurred in 1153, when the Ghuzes

revolted against the Persians, defeated the sultan, and plundered Mero

and Nishabour. The sultan was made a prisoner, and only escaped and

returned to his own country in 1156.

[249] A sort of pea. See Lee's Ibn-Batuta, p. 106.

[250] In April.

[251] In October.

[252] Chulam, the Koulam of Marco Polo and Ibn-Batuta, was an important

place on the coast of Malabar, but is much reduced in modern times.

[253] Negroes.

[254] _i. e._ From April to October.

[255] Nine o'clock in the morning.

[256] Mr. Asher observes, upon this passage, "Our author states the

ancient inhabitants of Chulam to be fire worshippers. Edrisi, however,

(i. 176,) says of the king, 'he adores the idol of Boudha,' and

Ibn-Batuta reports him to be 'an infidel.' Although the latter

appellation was applied by the Mohammedans to the fire worshippers, we

have no sufficient proof to show that Edrisi's information is wrong, or

that the majority of the population adored the sun as a deity. There is

no doubt, however, that Malabar became the asylum of this ancient sect

after it had been vanquished by the Mohammedans, and had been forced by

persecution, not only to seek refuge in the mountainous and less

accessible parts of Persia (Kerman and Herat), but to toil on to distant

regions. They found a resting place beyond the Indus, which they crossed

in fear of their unrelenting pursuers; and here we still find their

descendants, the Parsees, who form 'a numerous and highly respectable

class of the population.' Very able papers on the history, religion, and

worship of the Guebres, will be found in vols. i. and iii. of Ouseley's

'Travels,' and in Ritter's 'Erdkunde,' v. 615."

[257] Psalms, xlix. 14.

[258] The modern Ceylon. Benjamin appears to call the inhabitants Druzes

because he had been told that, like the Druzes of Syria, they believed

in the metempsychosis. We learn from the Arabian geographer, Edrisi,

that there was a large population of Jews in Ceylon at this time.

[259] A blank occurs here in the two early editions.

[260] Our author is the first European who mentions China by this name.

[261] Literally, continental India.

[262] 2 Kings, xix. 12.

[263] Gen. x. 7; 1 Chron. i. 9.

[264] Chalua or Aloua, the Ghalua of Edrisi (i. 33), is mentioned by the

Arabian writers as the starting point for the caravans which traversed

the desert of Saharah, and carried on the trade with northern Africa.

Zavila, Zuila, Zuela of our maps, Zavila of Edrisi (i. 258-9), was

remarkable for the splendour of its bazaars and buildings, as well as

for its beautiful streets and thoroughfares. From Zuila the caravans

proceeded almost due south to Ganah, in the interior of Africa.

[265] Exod. i. 11.

[266] The Pentateuch is divided into fifty-four Parashioth, of seven

portions each; and the custom of the Babylonians, as described in the

text, is practised at present almost universally.

[267] The former is celebrated on the last day of the feast of

tabernacles, (Deut. xvi. 13-15,) the latter with the feast of weeks

(ibid. 9).

[268] Benjamin of Tudela does not mention the name of the Fatimite

khalif of Egypt who reigned at the time of his visit; but as that

dynasty was overthrown in 1171, and as the authority of the last khalif

of that family had previously been annihilated by the conquests of the

armies of Noureddin, to which Benjamin makes no allusion, it is probable

that his visit to Egypt may be placed as early as 1168 or 1169.

[269] August.

[270] A phrase taken from Gen. xliii. 1.

[271] November.

[272] March.

[273] April.

[274] "Carob-Siliqua in Latin; Caroube, or Carouge, French. This

translation is traditional among Jews, and it has been employed,

although Abdol-latif does not mention this fruit as one indigenous in

Egypt."—ASHER.

[275] It may be observed that Benjamin's object appears to have been

only to mention those towns in Egypt which contained Jews, and he

follows no direct course.

[276] This story is one version of a popular tradition which is

mentioned by the Arabian writers; and a story similar to it, though not

applied to the Pharos of Alexandria, is found among the collections

current in the west of Europe during the middle ages, but no doubt

brought from the east. See the old English poem of the Seven Sages.

[277] Mr. Asher has first given a clear and intelligible translation of

the names of the different countries who traded to Alexandria; and he

observes that, in drawing it up, Benjamin probably follows some list of

the fontecchi, or hostelries of the merchants of different nations, made

for the use of captains arriving there.

[278] This appears to be an error of our traveller.

[279] William II. king of Sicily, who reigned from 1166 to 1189. On his

accession he was only twelve years of age; and during his minority

Stephen, archbishop of Palermo, governed Sicily as chancellor under the

queen dowager. It is to him that Benjamin alludes under the title of

viceroy; in 1169 the viceroy was driven from Sicily by a revolt of the

inhabitants of Palermo, and it was therefore probably early in that year

that Benjamin was in the island.

[280] Coral (Arabic, bessed; Persian, merjan). The Sicilian coral is

mentioned by several old writers. The produce of the fishery at Messina

is stated by Spallanzani ("Travels in the Two Sicilies," vol. iv. p.

308, &c.) to amount to twelve quintals of 250 lbs. each. Edrisi mentions

the fishery of this production to have been carried on by the Sicilians,

and states that it was inferior to the species found on the African

coast.

[281] Solom. Song, ii. 12.

[282] Psalms, xxxv. 27.

[283] Vaiverges, Polish wiewiórka, the white squirrel, a quadruped, the

skins of which were considered to be of great value.

[284] Louis le Jeune, who reigned from 1137 to 1185.

THE BOOK OF SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE.

A.D. 1322-1356.

THE PROLOGUE.

Forasmuch as the land beyond the sea, that is to say, the Holy Land,

which men call the land of promise or of behest, passing all other

lands, is the most worthy land, most excellent, and lady and sovereign

of all other lands, and is blessed and hallowed with the precious body

and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ; in the which land it pleased him to

take flesh and blood of the Virgin Mary, to environ that holy land with

his blessed feet; and there he would of his blessedness shadow him in

the said blessed and glorious Virgin Mary, and become man, and work many

miracles, and preach and teach the faith and the law of Christian men

unto his children; and there it pleased him to suffer many reprovings

and scorns for us; and he that was king of heaven, of air, of earth, of

sea, and of all things that are contained in them, would only be called

king of that land, when he said, "Rex sum Judeorum," that is to say, I

am king of the Jews; and that land he chose before all other lands, as

the best and most worthy land, and the most virtuous land of all the

world; for it is the heart and the middle of all the world; by witness

of the philosopher, who saith thus "Virtus rerum in medio consistit:"

that is to say, The virtue of things is in the middle; and in that land

he would lead his life, and suffer passion and death from the Jews for

us, to redeem and deliver us from the pains of hell and from death

without end, which was ordained for us for the sin of our first father

Adam, and for our own sins also; for, as for himself, he had deserved no

evil: for he thought never evil nor did evil, and he that was king of

glory and of joy might best in that place suffer death, because he chose

in that land, rather than in any other, to suffer his passion and his

death: for he that will publish any thing to make it openly known, he

will cause it to be cried and proclaimed in the middle place of a town;

so that the thing that is proclaimed and pronounced may equally reach to

all parts: right so, he that was creator of all the world would suffer

for us at Jerusalem, that is the middle of the world, to the end and

intent that his passion and his death, which was published there, might

be known equally to all parts of the world. See, now, how dearly he

bought man, that he made after his own image, and how dearly he redeemed

us for the great love that he had to us, and we never deserved it of

him. For more precious goods or greater ransom might he not put for us,

than his blessed body, his precious blood, and his holy life, which he

enthralled for us; and he offered all for us, that never did sin. Oh!

dear God! what love had he to us his subjects, when he that never

trespassed would for trespassers suffer death! Right well ought we to

love and worship, to dread and serve such a Lord, and to worship and

praise such a holy land, that brought forth such fruit, through which

every man is saved, unless it be his own fault. Well may that land be

called delectable and a fruitful land, that was made moist with the

precious blood of our Lord Jesus Christ; which is the same land that our

Lord promised us in heritage. And in that land he would die, as

seised[285] to leave it to us, his children. Wherefore every good

Christian man, that is of power, and hath whereof, should labour with

all his strength to conquer our right heritage, and drive out all the

unbelieving men. For we are called Christian men, after Christ our

father. And if we be right children of Christ, we ought to claim the

heritage that our father left us, and take it out of heathen men's

hands. But now pride, covetousness, and envy have so inflamed the hearts

of worldly lords, that they are busier to disinherit their neighbours

than to claim or conquer their right heritage aforesaid. And the common

people, that would put their bodies and their goods to conquer our

heritage, may not do it without the lords. For an assembly of people

without a chieftain, or a chief lord, is as a flock of sheep without a

shepherd; the which departeth and disperseth, and know never whither to

go. But would God, that the temporal lords and all worldly lords were at

good accord, and with the common people would take this holy voyage over

the sea! Then I believe confidently, that, within a little time, our

right heritage aforesaid should be recovered and put in the hands of the

right heirs of Jesus Christ.

And forasmuch as it is long time past that there was no general passage

or voyage over the sea, and many men desiring to hear speak of the Holy

Land, and have thereof great solace and comfort, I, John Maundeville,

knight, albeit I be not worthy, who was born in England, in the town of

Saint Albans, passed the sea in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ 1322,

on the day of St. Michael; and hitherto have been a long time over the

sea, and have seen and gone through many divers lands, and many

provinces, and kingdoms, and isles, and have passed through Tartary,

Persia, Ermony, (Armenia) the Little and the Great; through Lybia,

Chaldea, and a great part of Ethiopia; through Amazonia, India the Less,

and the Greater, a great part; and throughout many other isles that are

about India; where dwell many divers folks, and of divers manners and

laws, and of divers shapes of men. Of which lands and isles I shall

speak more plainly hereafter. And I shall devise you some part of things

that are there, when time shall be as it may best come to my mind; and

especially for them that will and are in purpose to visit the holy city

of Jerusalem, and the holy places that are thereabout. And I shall tell

the way that they shall hold thither; for I have oftimes passed and

ridden the way, with good company of many lords: God be thanked!

And ye shall understand that I have put this book out of Latin into

French, and translated it again out of French into English, that every

man of my nation may understand it; and that lords and knights and other

noble and worthy men that know Latin but little, and have been beyond

the sea, may know and understand, if I err from defect of memory, and

may redress it and amend it. For things passed out of long time from a

man's mind or from his sight turn soon into forgetting: because a man's

mind may not be comprehended or withheld, on account of the frailty of

mankind.

CHAPTER I.

TO TEACH YOU THE WAY OUT OF ENGLAND TO CONSTANTINOPLE.

In the name of God, glorious and Almighty. He that will pass over the

sea to go to the city of Jerusalem may go many ways, both by sea and

land, according to the country that he cometh from: many ways come to

one end. But you must not expect that I will tell you all the towns, and

cities, and castles, that men shall go by; for then should I make too

long a tale: but only some countries and the principal places that men

shall go through to go the right way. First, if a man come from the

west side of the world, as England, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, or Norway,

he may, if he will, go through Almaine (Germany) and through the kingdom

of Hungary, which borders on the land of Polaine (Poland), and to the

land of Pannonia, and so to Silesia. And the king of Hungary is a great

and mighty lord, and possesses great lordships and much land. For he

holds the kingdom of Hungary, Sclavonia, and a great part of Comania and

Bulgaria, which men call the land of Bougres, and the realm of Russia a

great part, whereof he hath made a duchy, that extendeth unto the land

of Nyflan, and borders on Prussia. And we go through the land of this

lord, through a city that is called Cypron, and by the castle of

Neaseborough, and by the evil town, which is situated towards the end of

Hungary. And there men pass the river Danube, which is a very great

river, and it goeth into Almaine, under the hills of Lombardy; and it

receives forty other rivers, and runs through Hungary and through Greece

and through Thrace, and entereth into the sea, towards the east, so

roughly and so sharply, that the water of the sea is fresh and keeps its

sweetness twenty miles from shore.

And after, men go to Belgrave, and enter the land of Bougres; and there

men pass a bridge of stone, which is upon the river Marrok. And men pass

through the land of Pyncemartz, and come to Greece to the city of Nye,

and to the city of Fynepape, and after to the city of Adrianople, and

then to Constantinople, which was formerly called Byzantium, where the

emperor of Greece usually dwells. And there is the fairest and noblest

church in the world, that of St. Sophia. And before the church is the

image of the emperor Justinian, covered with gold, and he sits crowned

upon a horse; and he formerly held a round apple of gold in his hand,

but it is fallen down; and they say there, that it is a token that the

emperor hath lost a great part of his lands and lordships. For he was

emperor of Romania and of Greece, of all Asia the Less, and of the land

of Syria, of the land of Judea, in which is Jerusalem, and of the land

of Egypt, of Persia, and of Arabia; but he hath lost all but Greece; and

men would many times restore the apple to the hand of the image, but it

will not hold it. This apple betokens the lordship which he had over all

the world, which is round; and the other hand he lifts up towards the

east, in token to menace the misdoers. This image stands upon a pillar

of marble at Constantinople.