CONTRASTS AND COMPLEMENTS
Given a certain amount of any color, say normal or spectral red, and
wishing to make it look as bright as it can, what color shall we put
with it, and how much of that color, to attain our purpose? To answer
that question correctly, having in the last chapter studied the harmony
possible in what have been called self-tones, or one-color combinations,
we will take up contrasts, of which we have several kinds, as follows:
Simultaneous contrasts of tone, neutral.
Simultaneous contrasts of color on neutral grounds.
Successive contrasts.
Mixed contrasts.
Contrasts of complements.
Contrasts of other hues or lesser contrasts.
Contrasts of brightness.
Contrasts of purity.
Contrasts of cold and warm colors.
The first point to understand clearly is the law of simultaneous
contrast of tone as studied and written about by Chevreul in his
elaborate work on color. Church explains this law: “Contrast caused by
difference in brightness is commonly called contrast of tone. This kind
of contrast may occur alone or it may be associated with contrast of hue
and contrast of purity. It will be well to consider first the simplest
cases, in which contrast of tone is not accompanied by other contrasts.
It is impossible, however, to reduce experiments on tone-contrast to
their simplest expressions, because a third element always comes in,
namely, the background on which the pair of tones is placed for
examination. Whether this background be black, white, gray, or colored,
it must necessarily differ in some one direction from one or both the
trial pieces, and will therefore itself produce a contrast. To minimize
the complication thus introduced we may try an experiment for producing
the phenomena of tone-contrast in three ways, using three backgrounds
with identical trial pieces on each. We first take two strips of light
gray paper, A and A′, in Plate XV, and place them a few inches apart on
a large sheet of (white) paper in a good light. We then prepare two
similar strips of a considerably darker shade of gray, B and B′, and
place them, as shown in the diagram, B′ alongside of A′ and the other
the same distance from B′ as A is from A′. On close observation it will
be seen that A′ close to B′ appears lighter than A, which lies at some
distance, while B appears correspondingly darker than B′. The effect of
contrast in enhancing differences of tone may be studied thus: Make such
openings, five in number, in a piece of card, as will serve to divide
each of the strips A and B into three portions. When viewed through this
card, held between the trial pieces and the eye, it will be found that
the two adjoining parts of the strip are most contrasted in tone, and
the others less so in proportion to their distance from the line of
contact. The experiment should now be repeated with a background of
black velvet, and again with a background of gray paper lighter in tone
than either of the strips. The effect of contrast of tone is still
better seen in a series of toned strips placed next each other. In such
a case the effect on all the strips save the end ones is that of
_double_ contrast. For the second strip or second tone has one side of
it made apparently darker by reason of the contiguity of the lighter
tone of strip, while the other side seems lighter, owing to the
contiguity of the darker tone of strip 3. The general result of these
double contrasts is that the whole series or scale of tones gives the
appearance of a number of hollows, although, in fact, the apparent
hollows are perfectly flat areas of uniform shade. The effect of this
experiment is approximately represented in Plate XV, where the real
flatness of each tone of the six may be verified by covering up all the
others by a card. Tones of any one color instead of gray may be thus
employed to illustrate this kind of simultaneous contrast, but its
characteristic effect is not seen unless the contrasting tones differ
considerably in intensity, increase by regular gradations, and are near
each other, or in absolute contact. However, if tones of a color,
whether in tints or shades, be used, there is generally a complication
introduced, owing to the difficulty of getting a series of such tones
which shall be the same in hue.
“This phenomenon of simultaneous contrast of tone of course largely
affects ... all drawings in black and white and in monochrome.”
Following upon the law of simultaneous contrast of tone is the law of
simultaneous contrast of color formulated by Chevreul, as follows: “In
the case where the eye sees at the same time two contiguous (or
adjoining) colors, they will appear as dissimilar as possible, both in
their optical composition and the height of their tone. We have, then,
at the same time simultaneous contrast of color, properly so called, and
contrast of tone.” Plate XVI gives the simplest examples of this
simultaneous contrast of color, the six spectral colors we have been
studying on grounds of white, black, and gray. The colors seem brighter
on the black ground and darker on the white, while with the gray the
yellow alone is much affected, it seeming to grow brighter. The
following plates (Nos. XVII, XVIII, and XIX) give the same coloring, but
reversed, the white, black, and gray being in spots or disks on the six
colored grounds. By covering the squares on Plate XIX. with the prepared
sheet of paper having a square opening just large enough to allow but
one of its six divisions to be seen at a time, we shall find that each
one of the disks or spots looks, not pure gray, but tinged with another
color. This result gives us our first hint of what is called a
complementary color. In the case of the gray on blue the gray will
appear rusty or yellowish, yellow being the complement of blue; the gray
on yellow will appear bluer, blue being the complement of yellow; on the
green the gray will look purplish-red, on the orange greenish-blue, on
red bluish-green, and on the violet yellowish-green.
Black lace over colors is always affected by them in a similar way. Over
yellow, its complement being blue, the lace will look at its best, that
is, blackest; over blue, the lace will tend to yellow, and will lose
something of its strength and the fulness of its black; over greens, it
will partake of their complement, red, and tend to look rusty.
In connection with this tinging of black with the color complementary to
that of the color of the ground on which it is placed, Chevreul tells an
interesting anecdote. A manufacturer was given black and colored wools
with which to make some goods, the pattern to be black on colored
grounds. When they were delivered the man who had ordered the goods
complained that he had not been given the same black wool, that the
blacks were not pure and clear. The manufacturer declared he had used
the same wools. A lawsuit followed, in the course of which Chevreul was
called upon to give his testimony as to color, when he proved that,
according to the law of simultaneous contrast of color, the black wool
was the same, but when woven in figures, as for instance, black on blue,
the complementary color to blue, namely, yellow, being called up by the
eye, made the black look a rusty-brownish black instead of pure clear
black. He added that the only way to make the black on blue look pure
would be to color it with a little of the blue so as to overcome its
yellowish complement.
This delicate impression of the color complementary to the one we are
looking at, is called up involuntarily by the eye, of which the nerve
fibrils become fatigued by the strong color, and incline to see the
extreme opposite or complementary color. The complement of a color may
also be called up or produced by looking fixedly at a round spot like
that on Plate XX for some time. After a while there may be seen a faint
image of its complement on the white paper around it. A still better way
of seeing the complement of a color is by looking fixedly for some time
at a disk of the selected color placed on white paper (Use Plate XXI);
then suddenly slip a sheet of white paper over it, and, continuing to
look at the place where it was, the same-sized image of its complement
will be seen. Here we have the answer to the question at the beginning
of the chapter: bluish-green is the color complementary to spectral red.
The eye becomes tired with looking at the red, and the nerve fibrils
excited by it incline to see its complement, bluish-green. We can,
however, prove this conclusion most correctly by means of what are
called Maxwell’s disks. If we cut out a disk or circular piece of
cardboard and paint it spectral red, then cut a second one just like it
but paint it bluish-green, cutting a slit in both from the edge to the
middle so we can slip one into the other as shown in Plate XXII, and
then turn them rapidly, the color in both will seem to fade away until,
when turning fast enough, we shall see no color at all,—simply a
complete disk of light gray. That result proves that spectral red and
bluish-green are true complements of each other, because a certain
number of parts of red neutralize a certain number of parts of
bluish-green. If, instead of using paints and paper we were able to use
colored light, the result would be even better; we should have white
light as the result of mixing the red and the bluish-green in the right
quantities. Pigments are so dull or non-luminous compared with light
that with them we can only produce gray, or as it has been called, dark
white, or white in shadow. To be quite sure that we have gray, let us
add in front of our disks two smaller ones of black and white, and we
will find the gray produced by the mixture of the black and white to
match perfectly the gray made of spectral red and bluish-green. To
measure the quantity of each color necessary, we can put behind the two
disks a white disk that is not slit, the circumference of which is
divided, as in Plates XXII, XXIII, XXIV, XXV, and XXVI, into one hundred
parts. These are plates of the six specified spectral colors with their
complements. The numbers give the quantity in one-hundredths of each
color. The “number of luminosity” means the quantity of white in
proportion to black, in one-hundredths necessary to make the gray of
that particular degree.
The Milton-Bradley Company, of Springfield, Massachusetts, make an
excellent little machine, including several sets of disks of different
sizes and good colors, and a stout frame on which to put the disks, with
a crank by which to turn them. It can be set up and screwed on a table,
so that any one can make for himself these delightful experiments. Plate
XXVII is an illustration of this machine. There is hardly a limit to the
number of the other complementary colors that can be made with this set
of disks. Study of this set of complementary colors is most important as
a foundation for all contrasts. Experiment has also proved that colors
have more than one complement.
“Complementary colors of full brightness and purity afford the most
striking examples of the effect called contrast. When each of a pair of
such colors differs as much as possible from its fellow in hue, but is
of the same degree of brightness, it is found, while the brightness of
both is enhanced, that the hue of both is unchanged by the close
neighborhood or contiguity of the two colors. But if the pair be not
truly complementary, or if in brightness or purity one color differ from
the other, then such difference will not be seen exactly as it is, but
such dissimilarity as exists, whether it be of one hue, of purity, or of
brightness, will be increased or enhanced by juxtaposition. This is the
primary law of contrast, which embraces three varieties dependent
respectively upon differences as to the three constants of color,
namely, hue, purity, and brightness (or luminosity). If two adjacent
colors differ in brightness, that which is the brighter, or, in other
words, the more luminous, will increase in brightness, while the less
luminous will have its brightness diminished. If two adjacent colors
differ in hue, such difference will be increased, each hue tending to
change as if it had been mixed with the complementary of the other. In
the case of complementaries no increase of difference in hue is,
however, possible.”[6]
Plate XXVIII shows us the six spectral colors with their complements,
not in quantity, but as a table. After thorough study of this table of
first and simplest contrasts, the practical advantage of Plates XXII to
XXVI will be apparent. To make it easier we give Plate XXIX, which shows
the same set of complements. Here they are arranged in a circle in which
each color is opposite its own complement. This circle leads us from the
strongest contrasts of complements to _lesser contrasts_. This should
also be studied till it can be remembered for future reference. Being in
simple spectral colors, it is easier than the more numerous tints of
shades of neutralized colors, and is also a key for understanding and
classifying them. It is well here to note how many complements are green
or greenish in hue.
Concerning the law of simultaneous contrast, with regard more especially
to lesser contrasts, Rood says: “When any two colors of the chromatic
circle are brought into competition or contrasted, the effect produced
is apparently to move them both farther apart. In the case, for example,
of orange and yellow, the orange is moved toward the red, and assumes
the appearance of reddish-orange; the yellow moves toward the green, and
appears for the time to be greenish-yellow. Colors which are
complementary are already as far apart in the chromatic circle as
possible; hence they are not changed in hue, but merely appear more
brilliant and saturated.” Plate XXX will be found of great assistance in
comparing pairs of colors with each other. Here we have a diagram of a
chromatic circle. By placing over it the transparent color screen found
at the end of the book, and moving it slowly in the same direction, it
will be seen that red when contrasted with greenish-blue causes this
last color to move away from the centre of the circle in a straight
line; hence, as the new point is on the same diameter, but farther from
the centre, we know that the greenish-blue is not made more or less blue
or green, but is simply caused to appear more saturated or brilliant.
The new point for the red lies also on the same diameter, but is nearer
the centre of the circle; that is, the color remains red, but appears
duller or less saturated. Experience confirms this. If a considerable
number of pieces of red cloth, for example, are examined in succession,
the last one will appear duller and inferior in brilliancy to the
others, but it will still appear red. Proceeding with the examination of
the effects produced on the other colors, we find that the orange has
been moved toward yellow and also toward the centre of the circle; hence
our diagram tells us that red, when put into competition with orange,
causes the latter to appear more yellowish and at the same time less
intense. So we can go on comparing one color with another and find out
the effect of each by moving the one circle over the other in different
directions, always finding that the complements as moved away from each
other only grow more brilliant but more changing in color. Church gives
us a list of the changes due to the principal pairs of lesser contrasts
from the observations of Chevreul, Rood, etc., as follows:
(It may be remarked that this table of changes as here given is more
easily understood than in its original form as given by Church.)
PAIRS OF COLORS. CHANGE DUE TO SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST.
Red with orange inclines to purple.
Orange with red „ yellow.
Red with yellow „ purple.
Yellow with red „ green.
Red with blue-green becomes more brilliant.
Blue-green with red „ „
Red with blue inclines to orange.
Blue with red „ green.
Red with violet „ orange.
Violet with red „ blue.
Red with purple „ orange.
Purple with red „ blue.
Orange with yellow „ red.
Yellow with orange „ green.
Orange with green „ red.
Green with orange „ blue-green.
Orange-yellow with turquoise becomes more brilliant.
Turquoise with orange-yellow „ „
Orange with violet inclines to yellow.
Violet with orange „ blue.
Orange with purple „ yellow.
Purple with orange „ blue.
Yellow with green „ orange.
Green with yellow „ blue-green.
Yellow with turquoise „ orange.
Turquoise with yellow „ blue.
Yellow with blue becomes more brilliant.
Blue with yellow „ „
Green with blue inclines to yellow-green.
Blue with green „ violet.
Green with violet „ yellow-green.
Violet with green „ purple.
Green with purple becomes more brilliant.
Purple with green „ „
Blue with violet inclines to green.
Violet with blue „ purple.
Violet with purple „ blue.
Purple with violet „ red.
“It must not be imagined that the changes enumerated in the above table
are at all equal to one another in amount. We have, indeed, always some
change, but it varies much in the case of different pairs. When the
chromatic interval (on the color-circle) is small, then the change of
_hue_, in virtue of simultaneous contrast, is large; when the interval
is large the change of hue is slight, but it is accompanied by change of
brightness; when the interval is as large as possible there is no change
of hue, but the brightness of both hues is increased.”
After simultaneous contrasts Chevreul gives us successive contrasts,
which latter “may be observed when we tire one set of retinal fibrils by
gazing for some time on a surface of a very decided color and
brightness. Afterward, on looking at a colorless surface of white, gray,
or black, it will be found to be tinctured with the complementary of the
first color.” If we stare at a piece of bright red paper and then look
at white paper we will see blue-green, the complement of the red. So, if
we look at a series of pieces of red cloth the first will appear the
brightest, the second less so, the third still less, but if the eye is
rested by looking at a piece of bluish-green cloth the red will then be
seen of its original brightness. When a black spot laid on red cloth is
looked at steadily for some time, then is taken suddenly away, the place
where the black spot was will appear to be of a brighter red than that
around it on account of the less fatigue there has been to that part of
the retina. A salesman who understood complementary colors could use
this law of successive contrasts with great effect in showing goods.
Still another form of contrast is called _mixed contrast_. “The
distinction of simultaneous and successive contrast renders it easy to
comprehend a phenomenon which we may call mixed contrast; because it
results from the fact that the eye, having seen for a time a certain
color, acquires an aptitude to see for another period the complementary
of that color and also a new color, presented to it by an exterior
object; the sensation then perceived is that which results from this new
color and the complementary of the first. The following is a very simple
method of observing this mixed contrast: One eye being closed, the right
for instance, let the left eye regard fixedly a piece of paper of the
color A; when this color appears dimmed, immediately direct the eye upon
a sheet of paper colored B; then we have the impression which results
from the mixture of this color B with the complementary color, C, of the
color A. To be satisfied of this mixed impression it is sufficient to
close the left eye, and to look at the color B with the right: not only
is the impression that produced by the color B, but it may appear
modified in a direction contrary to the mixed impression C + B, or, what
comes to the same thing, it appears to be more A + B.”[7]
That the complementary of a color exists in its shadow may be seen by
watching a stretch of snow when the sun is hidden by a cloud: the snow
is white, the shadow gray. When the cloud passes away, the light on the
snow makes it look yellow; the shadow will also be seen to be more or
less blue as the atmosphere is more or less clear and free from the
moisture which veils the sunlight. The same result in a greater or less
degree exists in all shadows, which shows how useful study of the
complementary colors is for painters.
The purple or violet shadows of the “impressionists” are in many cases
exaggerations. On snow, dust, or sand, violet shadows are to be found in
certain conditions of the atmosphere, but “impressionists” often do not
seem to take into sufficient account the color called by artists “local
color” of the substance or material on which the shadow is thrown, or
the color of the sky reflected in the shadow. A true colorist detects
these subtle varieties. An artist who has not a fine eye for color uses
the pure colors given by scientists, thus making the crude, harsh
pictures so much criticised. They are true to a great extent
scientifically, but are cold and glaring, and without the true spirit of
nature.
In studying the complements of these six spectral hues we come across
the theory that because a color and its complement together make white,
therefore they must prove to be an agreeable harmony. Now, is that true?
At first sight we answer, No. We do know that if we wish to make a color
as brilliant as possible, we must add to it its complement. Under
certain circumstances that may give us a good result, but artistic taste
declares that a pure spectral color and its complement make a
combination so strong and vivid as almost to amount to crudeness, and to
jar on a sensitive eye. Still, the theory that complementary colors make
a true and perfect harmony is well considered in the following extract
from Eastlake:
“Every treatise on the harmonious combination of colors contains the
diagram of the chromatic circle more or less elaborately constructed.
These diagrams, if intended to exhibit the contrasts produced by the
action and reaction of the retina, have one common defect. The opposite
colors are made equal in intensity; whereas the complemental color
pictured on the retina is always less vivid, and always darker or
lighter than the original color. This variety undoubtedly accords more
with harmonious effects in painting.
“The opposition of two pure hues of equal intensity, differing only in
the abstract quality of color, would immediately be pronounced crude and
inharmonious. It would not, however, be strictly correct to say that
such a contrast is too violent; on the contrary, it appears the contrast
is not carried far enough, for though differing in color, the two hues
may be exactly similar in purity and intensity. Complete contrast, on
the other hand, supposes dissimilarity in all respects. In addition to
the mere difference of hue, the eye, it seems, requires difference in
the lightness or darkness of the hue. The spectrum of a color relieved
as a dark on a light ground is a light color on a dark ground, and _vice
versa_. Thus, if we look at a bright red wafer on the whitish surface,
the complemental image will be still lighter than the white surface; if
the same wafer is placed on a black surface the complemental image will
be still darker. The color of both these spectra may be called greenish
(bluish-green), but it is evident that a color must be scarcely
appreciable as such, if it is lighter than white and darker than black.
It is, however, to be remarked, that the white surface round the light
greenish image seems tinged with a reddish hue, and the black surface
round the dark image becomes slightly illuminated with the same color,
thus in both cases assisting to render the image apparent.
“The difficulty or impossibility of describing degrees of color in words
has also had a tendency to mislead, by conveying the idea of more
positive hues than the physiological contrast warrants. Thus, supposing
scarlet to be relieved as a dark, the complemental color is so light in
degree and so faint in color that it should be called a pearly gray;
whereas the theorists, looking at the quality of color abstractedly,
would call it a green-blue, and the diagram would falsely present such a
hue equal in intensity to scarlet, or as nearly equal as possible.
“Even the difference of mass which good taste requires may be suggested
by the physiological phenomena, for unless the complemental image is
suffered to fall on a surface precisely as near to the eye as that on
which the original color was displayed, it appears larger or smaller
than the original object, and this in a rapidly increasing proportion.
Lastly, the shape itself soon becomes changed. That vivid color demands
the comparative absence of color, either on a lighter or darker scale,
as its contrast, may be inferred again from the fact that bright
colorless objects produce strongly colored spectra. In darkness the
spectrum, which is first white, or nearly white, is followed by red; in
light, the spectrum, which is first black, is followed by green. All
color, as the author observes, is to be considered as half light,
inasmuch as it is in every case lighter than black and darker than
white. Hence no contrast of color with color, or even of color with
black or white, can be so great (as regards lightness or darkness) as
the contrast of black and white, or dark and light abstractedly. This
distinction between the differences of degree and the differences of
kind is important, since a just application of contrast in color may be
counteracted by an undue difference in lightness or darkness. The mere
contrast of color is happily employed in some of Guido’s lighter
pictures, but if intense dark had been opposed to his delicate
carnations, their comparative whiteness would have been unpleasantly
apparent. On the other hand, the flesh-color in Giorgione, Sebastian del
Piombo (his best imitator), and Titian, was sometimes so extremely
glowing that the deepest colors and black were indispensable
accompaniments. The manner of Titian, as distinguished from his
imitation of Giorgione, is golden rather than fiery, and his biographers
are quite correct in saying that he was fond of opposing red (lake) and
blue to his flesh. The correspondence of these contrasts with the
physiological phenomena will be immediately apparent, while the
occasional practice of Rubens in opposing bright red to a still cooler
flesh-color will be seen to be equally consistent....
“It was before observed that the description of colors in words may
often convey ideas of too positive a nature, and it may be remarked
generally that the colors employed by the great masters are, in their
ultimate effect, more or less subdued or broken. The physiological
contrasts are, however, still applicable in the most comparatively
neutral scale.”
Chevreul gives us in his book, _Colour_ (a work published in 1835, which
has gone through many editions and translations, having finally been
edited and republished in 1889 by his son), an elaborate system of color
contrasts based upon the older theory of three primary colors, red,
yellow, and blue. There followed upon this in 1890 one by Charles La
Couture, _Répertoire Chromatique_, containing an ingenious and beautiful
system of color scales also founded upon the Brewster theory of red,
yellow, and blue as primary colors. Of these color charts it has been
well said that they are only able to display the effects, not of mixing
colored light, but colored pigments.
The following are rules to be used in regard to contrasting colors:
_Rule I._—A pair of complementary colors in their pure spectral tones in
the proportions in which they neutralize or complement each other, as in
Plates XXII to XXVI, should only be used if you wish to produce a bold,
striking, perhaps harsh effect; or if you wish to create a focus in your
picture, your room, or your decoration. In the latter case it will be
well to soften the effect (especially in the case of a picture) by
repeating the same colors in tints or shades in some other part of the
work.
_Rule II._—Harmony of contrast exists only in proportion to the changes
in quality or quantity in equal portions of pure spectral tones.
_Rule III._—The more neutral you make the tint or shade of one of the
pair of complements, so much the more may you add to its quantity. For
instance, a small quantity of bright spectral red will balance a large
quantity of pale blue-green.
_Rule IV._—By using two or more tints, or shades and tints, of one of
the pair of complements, so much the finer becomes the harmony. The
artist Turner sent to an exhibition of the Royal Academy in England a
marine which was accepted and hung, but which, being a quiet picture
consisting mainly of pale, grayish sea-greens, attracted little
attention. On varnishing day, however, he went to the Academy and
painted in the foreground of his picture a scarlet buoy, when to the
surprise of every one, owing to the correct balance of the quality and
quantity of his complementary contrast, the scarlet and blue-green so
intensified each other that the picture became a striking one, dulling
the others around it and drawing constant admiration.
From a dinner table set out at a flower show in the Madison Square
Garden, which took a first prize, Plate XXXI is taken. It was a harmony
of yellow and blue.
1. Yellow chrysanthemums.
2. Yellow lamp-shades.
3. Yellow satin centrepiece.
4. Yellow candies.
5. Yellow candies.
6. Yellow candies.
7. Yellow-brown almonds.
8. Gold ornament on glass, china, and candies.
9. Dark purple-blue grapes.
In this case some of the yellow was in pure spectral tones, the blue
very strong, dark, and neutralized.
_Rule VI._—The finest harmony of contrast will be found where tints and
shades of both the pair of complements can be combined. Then a small
amount of both in spectral tones may be introduced to give accent to the
rest. Plate XXXII gives a blue and yellow harmony taken from an English
china cup composed of two blues and two yellows, both neutral. The
ground, being of a pale tint of yellow, is greater in quantity according
to Rule III. The dainty pattern painted on it is in the two blues; the
delicate stems holding and uniting the conventional leaves and flowers
are of brown (or dark yellow). The brown, being the darkest color, is
the smallest in quantity, as the harmony is intended to be light and
cheerful.
Harmonies in blue and yellow have been used with great success in old
decoration, when blended, modified, and interchanged with each other,
and are one of the most useful combinations of colors that can be made.
They are largely used in Italian and Spanish tiles and other porcelains.
They are complementary colors strongly opposed to each other, but the
reason for their being more agreeable than other pairs of complements
seems to arise from the fact that one, the yellow, is so much more
luminous (or lighter) than the other that it affords a greater contrast
than appears in the other pairs of complements.
_Rule VII._—Even pure spectral colors may be used with good effect by
blending them in small portions, as in what are technically called
diaper patterns.
We have still a further power of adding to our harmony of contrasts by
the use of different materials, such as paper, paint, plaster, silk,
satin, velvet, plush, and metals, in which the variety of surfaces gives
an infinite number of tones, absorbing and reflecting, etc. These will
be considered in the chapter on color-harmonies, and seem really
inexhaustible. In that chapter is given a list of pairs of the lesser
contrasting colors, such as have been found by observation of historic
color to be the most agreeable to the eye.