ANIMAL MYTHOLOGY.
RÔLES ASSIGNED TO ANIMALS -- AUGURIES FROM THEIR MOVEMENTS --
THE ILL-OMENED OWL -- TUTELARY ANIMALS -- METAMORPHOSED MEN --
THE OGRESS-SQUIRREL OF VANCOUVER ISLAND -- MONKEYS AND BEAVERS
-- FALLEN MEN -- THE SACRED ANIMALS -- PROMINENCE OF THE BIRD
-- AN EMBLEM OF THE WIND -- THE SERPENT, AN EMBLEM OF THE
LIGHTNING -- NOT SPECIALLY CONNECTED WITH EVIL -- THE SERPENT
OF THE PUEBLOS -- THE WATER-SNAKE -- OPHIOLATRY -- PROMINENCE
OF THE DOG, OR THE COYOTE -- GENERALLY THOUGH NOT ALWAYS A
BENEVOLENT POWER -- HOW THE COYOTE LET SALMON UP THE KLAMATH --
DANSE MACABRE AND SAD DEATH OF THE COYOTE.
The reader must have already noticed the strange rôles filled by
animals in the creeds of the Native Races of the Pacific States.
Beasts and birds and fishes fetch and carry, talk and act, in a way
that leaves even Æsop's heroes in the shade; while a mysterious and
inexplicable influence over human destiny is often accorded to them.
It is of course impossible to say precisely how much of all this is
metaphorical, and how much is held as soberly and literally true.
Probably the proportion varies all the way from one extreme to the
other among different nations, and among peoples of different stages
of culture in the same nation. They spake only in part, these priests
and prophets of barbaric cults, and we can understand only in part; we
cannot solve the dark riddle of the past; we can oftenest only repeat
it, and even that in a more or less imperfect manner.
The Mexicans had their official augurs and soothsayers, who divined
much as did their brethren of classic times. The people also drew omen
and presage from many things: from the howling of wild beasts at
night; the singing of certain birds; the hooting of the owl; a weasel
crossing a traveler's path; a rabbit running into its burrow; from the
chance movements of worms, beetles, ants, frogs, and mice; and so on
in detail.[IV-1]
The owl seems to have been in many places considered a bird of ill
omen. Among all the tribes visited by Mr Lord, from the Fraser River
to the Saint Lawrence, this bird was portentously sacred, and was a
favorite decoration of the medicine-men. To come on an owl at an
unusual time, in daylight for example, and to hear its mystic cry,
were things not desirable of any that loved fulness of pleasure and
length of days.[IV-2] In California, by the tribes on the Russian
River, owls were held to be devils or evil spirits incarnate.[IV-3]
We often find an animal adopted in much the same way as a patron saint
was selected by the mediæval knight. The Hyperborean lad, for example,
when he reaches manhood, takes some beast or fish or bird to be his
patron, and the spirit connected with that animal is supposed to guard
him. Unlike most Indians, the Eskimo will have no hesitation in
killing an animal of his tutelary species: he is only careful to wear
a piece of its skin or bone, which he regards as an amulet, which it
were to him a serious misfortune to lose. Prolonged ill luck sometimes
leads a man to change his patron beast for another. The spirits
connected with the deer, the seal, the salmon, and the beluga are
regarded by all with special veneration.[IV-4]
The Mexicans used to allot certain animals to certain parts of the
body; perhaps in much the same way as astrologers and alchemists used
to connect the stars of heaven with different substances and persons.
The following twenty Mexican symbols were supposed to rule over the
various members of the human body: The sign of the deer, over the
right foot; of the tiger, over the left foot; of the eagle, over the
right hand; of the monkey, over the left hand; of death--represented
by a skull--over the skull; of water, over the hair; of the house,
over the brow; of rain, over the eyes; of the dog, over the nose; of
the vulture, over the right ear; of the rabbit, over the left ear; of
the earthquake, over the tongue; of flint, over the teeth; of air,
over the breath; of the rose, over the breast; of the cane, over the
heart; of wind, over the lungs--as appears from the plate in the Codex
Vaticanus, the Italian interpreter giving, however, "over the liver;"
of the grass, over the intestines; of the lizard, over the loins; and
of the serpent, over the genitals.[IV-5]
[Sidenote: THE HUMANITY OF ANIMALS.]
Sometimes the whole life and being of a man was supposed to be bound
up in the bundle with that of some animal. Thus, of the Guatemaltecs,
old Gage quaintly enough writes: "Many are deluded by the Devil to
believe that their life dependeth upon the life of such and such a
beast (which they take unto them as their familiar spirit) and think
that when that beast dieth they must die; when he is chased their
hearts pant; when he is faint they are faint; nay it happeneth that by
the devil's delusion they appear in the shape of that beast."[IV-6]
Animals are sometimes only men in disguise; and this is the idea often
to be found at the bottom of that sacredness which among particular
tribes is ascribed to particular animals.
The Thlinkeet will kill a bear only in case of great necessity, for
the bear is supposed to be a man that has taken the shape of an
animal. We do not know if they think the same of the albatross, but
they certainly will not kill this bird, believing, like mariners
ancient and modern, that such a misdeed would be followed by bad
weather.[IV-7]
Among the natives seen by Mr Lord on Vancouver Island, ill-luck is
supposed to attend the profane killing of the ogress-squirrel, and the
conjurers wear its skin as a strong charm among their other trumpery.
As tradition tells, there once lived there a monstrous old woman with
wolfish teeth, and finger-nails like claws. She ate children, this old
hag, wiling them to her with cunning and oily words, and many were the
broken hearts and empty cradles that she left. One poor Rachel,
weeping for her child and not to be comforted because it was not,
cries aloud: Oh, Great Spirit, Great Medicine, save my son, in any
way, in any form! And the great, good Father, looking down upon the
red mother pities her; lo, the child's soft brown skin turns to fur,
and there slides from the ogress's grip no child, but the happiest,
liveliest, merriest little squirrel of all the west--but bearing, as
its descendants still bear, those four dark lines along the back that
show where the cruel claws plowed into it escaping.[IV-8]
Where monkeys are found, the idea seems often to have occurred to men,
to account for the resemblance of the monkey to the man by making of
the first a fallen or changed form of the latter. We have already seen
how the third Quiché destruction of the human race terminated thus;
and how the hurricane-ended Sun of the Air in Mexican mythology, also
left men in the apish state. The intelligence of beavers may have been
the means of winning them a similar distinction. The Flathead says
these animals are a fallen race of Indians, condemned for their
wickedness to this form, but who will yet, in the fulness of time, be
restored to their humanity.[IV-9]
As we shall see more particularly, when we come to deal with the
question of the future life, it was a common idea that the soul of the
dead took an animal shape, sometimes inhabiting another world,
sometimes this. The Thlinkeets, for example, believed that their
shamáns used to have interviews with certain spirits of the dead that
appeared to them in two forms, some as land animals, some as
marine.[IV-10]
[Sidenote: SACREDNESS OF CERTAIN BRUTES.]
The Californians round San Diego will not eat the flesh of large game,
believing such animals are inhabited by the souls of generations of
people that have died ages ago; 'eater of venison!' is a term of
reproach among them.[IV-11]
The Pimos and Maricopas had, if Bartlett's account be correct, some
curious and unusual ideas regarding their future state; saying that
the several parts of the body should be changed into separate animals;
the head would perhaps take the form of an owl, the feet become
wolves, and so on.[IV-12] The Moquis supposed that at death they should
be severally changed into animals--bears, deer, and such beasts; which
indeed, as we have already seen, they believed to have been their
original form.[IV-13]
Different reasons are given by different tribes for holding certain
animals sacred; some of these we have already had occasion to notice.
Somewhat different from most, however, is that given by the
Northern-Indian branch of the Tinneh, for not eating the flesh of
foxes, wolves, ravens, and so on. This tribe are accustomed to abandon
the bodies of their dead wherever they happen to fall, leaving them to
the maws of kites or of any other animals of prey in the neighborhood;
therefore nothing but the extremest necessity can force any member of
the nation to make use of such animals as food.[IV-14]
Certain natives of Guatemala in the province of Acalán, called by
Villagutierre Mazotecas, kept deer in so tame a state that they were
easily killed by the least active soldiers. These deer were held as
sacred by the inhabitants; for tradition told them that their greatest
god had visited them in this figure.[IV-15] The Apaches greatly respect
the bear, neither killing him nor tasting his flesh. They think that
there are spirits of divine origin within or connected with the eagle,
the owl, and all birds perfectly white. Swine, they hold to be wholly
unclean.[IV-16] Some animals are sacred to particular gods: with the
Zuñis, the frog, the turtle, and the rattlesnake were either
considered as specially under the protection of Montezuma--here
considered as the god of rain--or they were themselves the lesser
divinities of water.[IV-17]
It is sometimes necessary to guard against being misled by names. Thus
the natives of Nicaragua had gods whose name was that of a rabbit or a
deer; yet these animals were not considered as gods. The identity of
name went only to say that such and such were the gods to be invoked
in hunting such and such animals.[IV-18]
[Sidenote: THE WIND OR THUNDER BIRD.]
The reader must have already noticed how important is the part
assigned to birds in our mythology, especially in creation-myths. A
great bird is the agent of the chief deity, perhaps the chief deity
himself. The sweep of his wings is thunder; the lightnings are the
glances of his eyes.[IV-19] Chipewyans, Thlinkeets, Atnas, Koltschanes,
Kenai, and other nations give this being great prominence in their
legends.
Brinton believes this bird to be the emblem of the wind, to be "a
relic of the cosmogonal myth which explained the origin of the world
from the action of the winds, under the image of the bird, on the
primeval ocean;"[IV-20] and his view is probably correct in many cases.
The savage is ever ready to be smitten by natural powers. Ignorant and
agape with wonder, is it unnatural that he should regard, with a
superstitious awe and respect, the higher and more peculiar animal
gifts, relating them to like physical powers, and managing to mix and
confuse the whole by a strange synthesis of philosophy? Birds flew,
the winds flew; the birds were of the kith of the winds, and the winds
were of the kin of the gods who are over all. Poor, weary, painted
man, who could only toil dustily along, foot-sore and perhaps
heart-sore, with strange longings that venison and bear-meat could not
satisfy--was it very wonderful if the throbbing music and upward
flight of the clear-throated and swift-winged were to him very
mysterious and sacred things? "All living beings," say the
north-eastern Eskimos, "have the faculty of soul, but especially the
bird." From the flight and song of birds, the Mexican divined and
shadowed forth the unborn shapes of the to-come. He died too, if he
died in an odor of warlike sanctity, in the strong faith that his soul
should ultimately take the form of a bird and twitter through the ages
in the purple shadows of the trees of paradise.[IV-21]
The Kailtas on the south fork of the Trinity in California, though
they do not turn the soul into a bird, do say that as it leaves the
body a little bird carries it up to the spirit-land.[IV-22]
The Spaniards of Vizcaino's expedition, in 1602, found the
Californians of Santa Catalina Island venerating two great black
crows, which, according to Señor Galan, were probably a species of
bird known in Mexico as _rey de los zopilotes_, or king of
turkey-buzzards; he adding that these birds are still the objects of
respect and devotion among most Californian tribes.[IV-23]
As another symbol, sign, or type of the supernatural, the serpent
would naturally suggest itself at an early date to man. Its stealthy,
subtle, sinuous motion, the glittering fascination of its eyes, the
silent deathly thrust of its channeled fangs--what marvel if the
foolishest of men, like the wisest of kings, should say "I know it
not; it is a thing too wonderful for me?" It seems to be immortal:
every spring-time it cast off and crept from its former skin, a
crawling unburnt phœnix, a new animal.
Schwartz, of Berlin, affirms, from deep research in Greek and German
mythology, that the paramount germinal idea in this wide-spread
serpent-emblem is the lightning, and Dr. Brinton develops the same
opinion at some length.[IV-24]
Tlaloc, the Aztec rain-god, held in his hand a serpent-shaped piece of
gold, representing most probably the lightning. Hurakan, of the Quiché
legends, is otherwise the Strong Serpent, he who hurls below,
referring in all likelihood to storm powers as thunderer.[IV-25] This
view being accepted, the lightning-serpent is the type of
fruitfulness; the thunder storm being inseparably joined with the
thick, fertilizing summer showers.[IV-26] Born, too, in the middle
heaven, of a cloud mother and of an Ixion upon whom science cannot yet
place her finger, amid moaning breeze and threatening tempest, the
lightning is surely also akin to the wind and to the bird that is
their symbol. The amalgamation of these powers in one deity seems to
be what is indicated by such names as Quetzalcoatl, Gucumatz,
Cukulcan, all titles of the God of the Air in different American
languages, and all signifying 'Bird-Serpent.'
[Sidenote: THE CROSS AND THE FOUR WINDS.]
In a tablet on the wall of a room at Palenque is a cross surmounted by
a bird, and supported by what appears to be the head of a serpent:
"The cross," says Brinton, "is the symbol of the four winds; the bird
and serpent, the rebus of the air god, their ruler."
It does not appear that savages attach any special significance of
evil to the snake, though the prepossessions of early writers almost
invariably blind them on this point.[IV-27] This rule is not without its
exceptions however; the Apaches hold that every rattlesnake contains
the soul of a bad man or is an emissary of the Evil Spirit.[IV-28] The
Piutes of Nevada have a demon-deity in the form of a serpent still
supposed to exist in the waters of Pyramid Lake. The wind when it
sweeps down among the nine islands of the lake drives the waters into
the most fantastic swirls and eddies, even when the general surface of
the lake is tolerably placid. This, say the Piutes, is the devil-snake
causing the deep to boil like a pot; this is the old serpent seeking
whom he may devour; and no native in possession of his five sober wits
will be found steering toward those troubled waters at such a
time.[IV-29]
In the Pueblo cities, among the Pecos especially, there existed in
early times an immense serpent, supposed to be sacred, and which,
according to some accounts, was fed with the flesh of his devotees.
Gregg heard an "honest ranchero" relate how, one snowy morning, he had
come upon this terrible reptile's trail, "large as that of a dragging
ox;" the ranchero did not pursue the investigation farther, not
obtruding his science, such as it was, upon his religion. This serpent
was supposed to be specially connected with Montezuma, and with rain
phenomena: it is often called "the great water-snake." It was
described to Whipple "as being as large round as a man's body; and of
exceeding great length, slowly gliding upon the water, with long wavy
folds" like the Nahant sea-serpent--to Möllhausen, as being a great
rattlesnake, possessor of power over seas, lakes, rivers and rain; as
thick as many men put together, and much longer than all the snakes in
the world; moving in great curves and destroying wicked men. The
Pueblo Indians prayed to it for rain and revered its mysterious
powers.[IV-30]
A people, called by Castañeda Tahus, apparently of Sinaloa in the
neighborhood of Culiacan, regarded certain large serpents with
sentiments of great veneration if not of worship.[IV-31] These reptiles
seem also to have been regarded with considerable reverence in
Yucatan. In 1517, Bernal Diaz noticed many figures of serpents in a
temple he saw at Campeche. Juan de Grijalva, also, found at the same
time many such figures at Champoton, among other idols of clay and
wood.[IV-32]
We have already spoken of the Mexican Tlaloc and of the frequent
appearance of the serpent in his worship; it does not appear, however,
notwithstanding Mr Squier's assertion to the contrary, that the
serpent was actually worshiped either in Yucatan or Mexico. Bernal
Diaz, indeed, says positively in one passage, speaking of a town
called Tenayuca, that "they worshiped here, in their chief temple,
three serpents;" but the stout soldier was not one to make fine
distinctions between gods and their attributes or symbols; nor, even
with the best intentions, was he or any other of the conquistadores in
a position to do justice to the faith of 'gentiles.'[IV-33]
We shall hereafter find the serpent closely connected with
Quetzalcoatl in many of his manifestations, as well as with others of
the Mexican gods.
* * * * *
[Sidenote: THE DOG OF AMERICAN MYTHOLOGY.]
From the serpent let us turn to the dog, with his relations the wolf
and coyote, an animal holding a respectable place in American
mythology. We have seen how many tribes derive, figuratively or
literally, their origin from him, and how often he becomes legendarily
important as the hero of some adventure or the agent of some deity. He
is generally brought before us in a rather benevolent aspect, though
an exception occurs to this in the case of the Chinooks at the mouth
of the Columbia. With these the coyote figures as the chosen medium
for the action of the Evil Spirit toward any given malevolent end--as
the form taken by the Evil One to counteract some beneficence of the
Good Spirit toward the poor Indian whom he loves.[IV-34]
Very different from this is the character of that Coyote of the
Cahrocs whose good deeds we have so often had occasion to set forth.
One feat of his yet remains to be told--how he stocked the river with
salmon. Chareya, the creator, had made salmon, but he had put them in
the big-water, and made a great fish-dam at the mouth of the Klamath,
so that they could not go up; and this dam was closed with something
of the nature of a white man's key, which key was given in charge to
two old hags, not wholly unfamiliar to us, to keep and watch over it
night and day, so that no Cahroc should get near it. Now fish being
wanting to the Cahrocs, they were sorely pushed by hunger, and the
voice of women and little children was heard imploring food. The
Coyote determined to help them; he swore by the stool of Chareya that
before another moon their lodges should drip with salmon, and the very
dogs be satisfied withal. So he traveled down the Klamath many days'
journey till he came to the mouth of the river and saw the big-water
and heard the thunder of its waves. Up he went to the hut of the old
women, rapped, and asked hospitality for the night; and he was so
polite and debonair that the crones could find no excuse for refusing
him. He entered the place and threw himself down by the fire, warming
himself while they prepared salmon for supper, which they ate without
offering him a bite. All night long he lay by the fire pretending to
sleep, but thinking over his plans and waiting for the event that
should put him in possession of the mighty key that he saw hanging so
high above his reach. In the morning one of the hags took down the key
and started off toward the dam to get some fish for breakfast. Like a
flash the Coyote leaped at her, hurling himself between her feet;
heels over head she pitched, and the key flew far from her hands.
Before she well knew what had hurt her the Coyote stood at the dam
with the key in his teeth, wrenching at the fastenings. They gave way;
and with a great roar the green water raced through, all ashine with
salmon, utterly destroying and breaking down the dam, so that ever
after fish found free way up the Klamath.
[Sidenote: COYOTES MUST NOT DANCE WITH STARS.]
The end of the poor Coyote was rather sad, considering his kindness of
heart and the many services he had rendered the Cahrocs. Like too many
great personages, he grew proud and puffed up with the adulation of
flatterers and sycophants--proud of his courage and cunning, and of
the success that had crowned his great enterprises for the good of
mankind--proud that he had twice deceived and outwitted the guardian
hags to whom Chareya had entrusted the fire and the salmon--so proud
that he determined to have a dance through heaven itself, having
chosen as his partner a certain star that used to pass quite close by
a mountain where he spent a good deal of his time. So he called out
to the star to take him by the paw and they would go round the world
together for a night; but the star only laughed, and winked in an
excessively provoking way from time to time. The Coyote persisted
angrily in his demand, and barked and barked at the star all round
heaven, till the twinkling thing grew tired of his noise and told him
to be quiet and he should be taken next night. Next night the star
came quite up close to the cliff where the Coyote stood, who leaping
was able to catch on. Away they danced together through the blue
heavens. Fine sport it was for a while; but oh, it grew bitter cold up
there for a Coyote of the earth, and it was an awful sight to look
down to where the broad Klamath lay like a slack bowstring and the
Cahroc villages like arrow-heads. Woe for the Coyote! his numb paws
have slipped their hold on his bright companion; dark is the partner
that leads the dance now, and the name of him is Death. Ten long snows
the Coyote is in falling, and when he strikes the earth he is "smashed
as flat as a willow-mat".--Coyotes must not dance with stars.[IV-35]
FOOTNOTES:
[IV-1] _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. ii., lib. v., pp. 1-14, ap. pp.
25-6.
[IV-2] _Lord's Naturalist in Vancouver Island_, vol. ii., pp. 32-4.
[IV-3] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV-4] _Dall's Alaska_, p. 145.
[IV-5] _Codex Vaticanus_ (_Mex._), in _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._,
vol. ii., plate 75; _Spiegazione delle Tavole del Codice Mexicano_
(Vaticano), in _Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq._, vol. v., p. 197, tav.
lxxv.; _Explanation of the Codex Vaticanus_, in _Kingsborough's Mex.
Antiq._, vol. vi., pp. 222-3, plate lxxv. It will be seen that I have
trusted more to the plate itself than to the Italian explanation. As
to Kingsborough's translation of that explanation, it is nothing but a
gloss with additions to and omissions from the original.
[IV-6] _Gage's New Survey_, p. 334.
[IV-7] _Holmberg_, _Ethn. Skiz._, p. 30.
[IV-8] _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 52-4.
[IV-9] _Cox's Adven._, vol. i., p. 253.
[IV-10] _Dall's Alaska_, pp. 422-3.
[IV-11] _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 215.
[IV-12] _Bartlett's Pers. Nar._, vol. ii., p. 222.
[IV-13] _Ten Broeck_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. iv., p. 86.
[IV-14] _Hearne's Journey_, p. 341.
[IV-15] _Villagutierre_, _Hist. Conq. Itza_, p. 43.
[IV-16] _Charlton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 209.
[IV-17] _Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner's Rept._, pp. 39-40, in _Pac. R. R.
Rept._, vol. iii.
[IV-18] _Oviedo_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iv., pp. 54-5.
[IV-19] Swinburne, _Anactoria_, has found an allied idea worthy of his
sublime verse:--
'Cast forth of heaven, with feet of awful gold,
And plumeless wings that make the bright air blind,
Lightning, with thunder for a hound behind,
Hunting through fields unfurrowed and unsown--'
[IV-20] _Brinton's Myths_, p. 205. The Norse belief is akin to this:--
'The giant Hrsuelgur,
At the end of heaven,
Sits in an eagle's form;
'Tis said that from his wings
The cold winds sweep
Over all the nations.'
_Vafthrudvers maal_; Grenville Pigott's translation, in _Scandinavian
Mythology_, p. 27.
Scott, _Pirate_, chap. v., in the 'Song of the Tempest,' which he
translates from Norna's mouth, shows that the same idea is still found
in the Shetland Islands:--
'Stern eagle of the far north-west,
Thou that bearest in thy grasp the thunderbolt,
Thou whose rushing pinions stir ocean to madness, ...
Cease thou the waving of thy pinions,
Let the ocean repose in her dark strength;
Cease thou the flashing of thine eyes,
Let the thunderbolt sleep in the armory of Odin.'
[IV-21] _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. i., lib. iii., p. 265;
_Clavigero_, _Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. ii., p. 5.
[IV-22] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.
[IV-23] _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. i., p. 713: 'The entire
tribes of the Californian Indiania [sic] appear to have had a great
devotion and veneration for the Condor or Yellow-headed Vulture.'
_Taylor_, in _Cal. Farmer_, May 25th, 1860. 'Cathartes Californianus,
the largest rapacious bird of North America.' _Baird's Birds of N.
Am._, p. 5. 'This bird is an object of great veneration or worship
among the Indian tribes of every portion of the state.' _Reid_, in
_Los Angeles Star_.
[IV-24] _Brinton's Myths_, p. 112.
[IV-25] _Torquemada_, _Monarq. Ind._, tom. ii., pp. 46-71; _Clavigero_,
_Storia Ant. del Messico_, tom. ii., pp. 14-15; _Gama_, _Dos Piedras_,
pt. ii., pp. 76-7.
[IV-26] _Müller_, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 500.
[IV-27] _Tylor's Prim. Cult._, vol. ii., p. 217.
[IV-28] _Charlton_, in _Schoolcraft's Arch._, vol. v., p. 209.
[IV-29] _Virginia City Chronicle_, in _S. F. Daily Ev'g Post_, of Aug.
12th, 1872.
[IV-30] _Gregg's Com. Prairies_, vol. i., pp. 271-2; _Whipple, Ewbank,
and Turner's Rept._, pp. 38-9, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. iii.;
_Möllhausen_, _Tagebuch_, p. 170; _Domenech's Deserts_, vol. i., pp.
164-5. Certain later travelers deny all the foregoing as 'fiction and
fable;' meaning, probably, that they saw nothing of it, or that it
does not exist at present. _Wand_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1864, p. 193;
_Meline's Two Thousand Miles_, p. 256.
[IV-31] _Castañeda_, _Voy. de Cibola_, in _Ternaux-Compans_, _Voyages_,
série i., tom. ix., p. 150.
[IV-32] _Bernal Diaz_, _Hist. Conq._, fol. 3, 8.
[IV-33] _Bernal Diaz_, _Hist. Conq._, fol. 136; _Schoolcraft's Arch._,
vol. v., p. 105.
[IV-34] _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 218.
[IV-35] _Powers' Pomo_, MS.; Boscana, in _Robinson's Life in Cal._, pp.
259-262, describes certain other Californians as worshiping for their
chief god something in the form of a stuffed coyote.