In isolated cases and by special treaty provisions a few of the Indians

had been permitted to acquire lands and be blended in the body of

American citizens. But no general statute existed until the passage

of the Dawes bill in February, 1887. In this year the Commissioner

estimated that there were 243,299 Indians in the United States,

occupying a total of 213,117 square miles of land, nearly a section

apiece. By the Dawes bill the President was given authority to divide

the reserves among the Indians located on them, distributing the

lands on the basis of a quarter section or 160 acres to each head

of a family, an eighth section to single adults and orphans, and a

sixteenth to each dependent child. It was provided also that when the

allotments had been made, tribal ownership should cease, and the title

to each farm should rest in the individual Indian or his heirs. But to

forestall the improvident sale of this land the owner was to be denied

the power to mortgage or dispose of it for at least twenty-five years.

The United States was to hold it in trust for him for this time.

Besides allowing the Indian to own his farm and thus take his

step toward economic independence, the Dawes bill admitted him to

citizenship. Once the lands had been allotted, the owners came within

the full jurisdiction of the states or territories where they lived,

and became amenable to and protected by the law as citizens of the

United States.

The policy which had been recommended since the time of Schurz became

the accepted policy of the United States in 1887. "I fail to comprehend

the full import of the allotment act if it was not the purpose of the

Congress which passed it and the Executive whose signature made it

a law ultimately to dissolve all tribal relations and to place each

adult Indian on the broad platform of American citizenship," wrote

the Commissioner in 1887. For the next twenty years the reports of

the office were filled with details of subdivision of reserves and

the adjustment of the legal problems arising from the process. And in

the twenty-first year the old Indian Country ceased to exist as such,

coming into the Union as the state of Oklahoma.

The progress of allotment under the Dawes bill steadily broke down the

reserves of the so-called Indian Territory. Except the five civilized

tribes, Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles, the

inhabitants who had been colonized there since the Civil War wanted to

take advantage of the act. The civilized tribes preferred a different

and more independent system for themselves, and retained their tribal

identity until 1906. In the transition it was found that granting

citizenship to the Indian in a way increased his danger by opening him

to the attack of the liquor dealer and depriving him of some of the

special protection of the Indian Office. To meet this danger, as the

period of tribal extinction drew near, the Burke act of 1906 modified

and continued the provisions of the Dawes bill. The new statute

postponed citizenship until the expiration of the twenty-five-year

period of trust, while giving complete jurisdiction over the allottee

to the United States in the interim. In special cases the Secretary of

the Interior was allowed to release from the period of guardianship

and trusteeship individual Indians who were competent to manage their

own affairs, but for the generality the period of twenty-five years

was considered "not too long a time for most Indians to serve their

apprenticeship in civic responsibilities."

Already the opening up to legal white settlement had begun. In the

Dawes bill it was provided that after the lands had been allotted in

severalty the undivided surplus might be bought by the United States

and turned into the public domain for entry and settlement. Following

this, large areas were purchased in 1888 and 1889, to be settled in

1890. The territory of Oklahoma, created in this year in the western

end of Indian Territory, and "No Man's Land," north of Texas, marked

the political beginning of the end of Indian Territory. It took nearly

twenty years to complete it, through delays in the process of allotment

and sale; but in these two decades the work was done thoroughly, the

five civilized tribes divided their own lands and abandoned tribal

government, and in November, 1908, the state of Oklahoma was admitted

by President Roosevelt.

The Indian relations, which were most belligerent in the sixties, had

changed completely in the ensuing forty years. In part the change was

due to a greater and more definite desire at Washington for peace, but

chiefly it was environmental, due to the progress of settlement and

transportation which overwhelmed the tribes, destroying their capacity

to resist and embedding them firmly in the white population. Oklahoma

marked the total abandonment of Monroe's policy of an Indian Country.

CHAPTER XXI

THE LAST STAND OF CHIEF JOSEPH AND SITTING BULL

The main defence of the last frontier by the Indians ceased with the

termination of the Indian wars of the sixties. Here the resistance had

most closely resembled a general war with the tribes in close alliance

against the invader. With this obstacle overcome, the work left to

be done in the conquest of the continent fell into two main classes:

terminating Indian resistance by the suppression of sporadic outbreaks

in remote byways and letting in the population. The new course of the

Indian problem after 1869 led it speedily away from the part it had

played in frontier advance until it became merely one of many social or

race problems in the United States. It lost its special place as the

great illustration of the difficulties of frontier life. But although

the new course tended toward chronic peace, there were frequent

relapses, here and there, which produced a series of Indian flurries

after 1869. Never again do these episodes resemble, however remotely, a

general Indian war.

Human nature did not change with the adoption of the so-called peace

policy. The government had constantly to be on guard against the

dishonest agent, while improved facilities in communication increased

the squatters' ability to intrude upon valuable lands. The Sioux treaty

of 1868, whereby the United States abandoned the Powder River route and

erected the great reserve in Dakota, west of the Missouri River, was

scarcely dry before rumors of the discovery of gold in the Black Hills

turned the eyes of prospectors thither.

Early in 1870 citizens of Cheyenne and the territory of Wyoming

organized a mining and prospecting company that professed an intention

to explore the Big Horn country in northern Wyoming, but was believed

by the Sioux to contemplate a visit to the Black Hills within their

reserve. The local Sioux agent remonstrated against this, and General

C. C. Augur was sent to Cheyenne to confer with the leaders of the

expedition. He found Wyoming in a state of irritation against the

Sioux treaty, which left the Indians in control of their Powder River

country--the best third of the territory. He sympathized with the

frontiersmen, but finally was forced by orders from Washington to

prevent the expedition from starting into the field. Four years later

this deferred reconnoissance took place as an official expedition under

General Custer, with "great excitement among the whole Sioux." The

approach from the northeast of the Northern Pacific, which had reached

a landing at Bismarck on the Missouri before the panic of 1873, still

further increased the apprehension of the tribes that they were to be

dispossessed. The Indian Commissioner, in the end of 1874, believed

that no harm would come of the expedition since no great gold finds

had been made, but the Montana historian was nearer the truth when

he wrote: "The whole Sioux nation was successfully defied." It was a

clear violation of the tribal right, and necessarily emboldened the

frontiersmen to prospect on their own account.

[Illustration: POSITION OF RENO ON THE LITTLE BIG HORN

From a photograph made by Mr. W. R. Bowlin, of Chicago, and reproduced

by his permission]

Still further to disquiet the Sioux, and to give countenance to the

disgruntled warrior bands that resented the treaties already made, came

the mismanagement of the Red Cloud agency. Professor O. C. Marsh, of

Yale College, was stopped by Red Cloud, while on a geological visit to

the Black Hills, in November, 1874, and was refused admission to the

Indian lands until he agreed to convey to Washington samples of decayed

flour and inferior rations which the Indian agent was issuing to the

Oglala Sioux. With some time at his disposal, Professor Marsh proceeded

to study the new problem thus brought to his notice, and accumulated

a mass of evidence which seemed to him to prove the existence of big

plots to defraud the government, and mismanagement extending even to

the Secretary of the Interior. He published his charges in pamphlet

form, and wrote letters of protest to the President, in which he

maintained that the Indian officials were trying harder to suppress

his evidence than to correct the grievances of the Sioux. He managed

to stir up so much interest in the East that the Board of Indian

Commissioners finally appointed a committee to investigate the affairs

of the Red Cloud agency. The report of the committee in October, 1875,

whitewashed many of the individuals attacked by Professor Marsh, and

exonerated others of guilt at the expense of their intelligence,

but revealed abuses in the Indian Office which might fully justify

uneasiness among the Sioux.

To these tribes, already discontented because of their compression

and sullen because of mismanagement, the entry of miners into the

Black Hills country was the last straw. Probably a thousand miners

were there prospecting in the summer of 1875, creating disturbances

and exaggerating in the Indian mind the value of the reserve, so that

an attempt by the Indian Bureau to negotiate a cession in the autumn

came to nothing. The natural tendency of these forces was to drive the

younger braves off the reserve, to seek comfort with the non-treaty

bands that roamed at will and were scornful of those that lived in

peace. Most important of the leaders of these bands was Sitting Bull.

In December the Indian Commissioner, despite the Sioux privilege to

pursue the chase, ordered all the Sioux to return to their reserves

before February 1, 1876, under penalty of being considered hostile. As

yet the mutterings had not broken out in war, and the evidence does not

show that conflict was inevitable. The tribes could not have got back

on time had they wanted to; but their failure to return led the Indian

Office to turn the Sioux over to the War Department. The army began by

destroying a friendly village on the 17th of March, a fact attested not

by an enemy of the army, but by General H. H. Sibley, of Minnesota, who

himself had fought the Sioux with marked success in 1862.

With war now actually begun, three columns were sent into the field to

arrest and restrain the hostile Sioux. Of the three commanders, Cook,

Gibbon, and Custer, the last-named was the most romantic of fighters.

He was already well known for his Cheyenne campaigns and his frontier

book. Sherman had described him in 1867 as "young, _very_ brave, even

to rashness, a good trait for a cavalry officer," and as "ready and

willing now to fight the Indians." La Barge, who had carried some

of Custer's regiment on his steamer _De Smet_, in 1873, saw him as

"an officer ... clad in buckskin trousers from the seams of which a

large fringe was fluttering, red-topped boots, broad sombrero, large

gauntlets, flowing hair, and mounted on a spirited animal." His showy

vanity and his admitted courage had already got him into more than one

difficulty; now on June 25, 1876, his whole column of five companies,

excepting only his battle horse, Comanche, and a half-breed scout, was

destroyed in a battle on the Little Big Horn. If Custer had lived,

he might perhaps have been cleared of the charge of disobedience, as

Fetterman might ten years before, but, as it turned out, there were

many to lay his death to his own rashness. The war ended before 1876

was over, though Sitting Bull with a small band escaped to Canada,

where he worried the Dominion Government for several years. "I know of

no instance in history," wrote Bishop Whipple of Minnesota, "where a

great nation has so shamelessly violated its solemn oath." The Sioux

were crushed, their Black Hills were ceded, and the disappointed tribes

settled down to another decade of quiescence.

In 1877 the interest which had made Sitting Bull a hero in the

Centennial year was transferred to Chief Joseph, leader of the

non-treaty Nez Percés, in the valley of the Snake. This tribe had been

a friendly neighbor of the overland migrations since the expedition

of Lewis and Clark. Living in the valleys of the Snake and its

tributaries, it could easily have hindered the course of travel along

the Oregon trail, but the disposition of its chiefs was always good.

In 1855 it had begun to treat with the United States and had ceded

considerable territory at the conference held by Governor Stevens with

Chief Lawyer and Chief Joseph.

The exigencies of the Civil War, failure of Congress to fulfil treaty

stipulations, and the discovery of gold along the Snake served to

change the character of the Nez Percés. Lawyer's annuity of five

hundred dollars, as Principal Chief, was at best not royal, and when

its vouchers had to be cashed in greenbacks at from forty-five to

fifty cents on the dollar, he complained of hardship. It was difficult

to persuade the savage that a depreciated greenback was as good as

money. Congress was slow with the annuities promised in 1855. In 1861,

only one Indian in six could have a blanket, while the 4393 yards of

calico issued allowed under two yards to each Indian. The Commissioner

commented mildly upon this, to the effect that "Giving a blanket to one

Indian works no satisfaction to the other five, who receive none." The

gold boom, with the resulting rise of Lewiston, in the heart of the

reserve, brought in so many lawless miners that the treaty of 1855 was

soon out of date.

In 1863 a new treaty was held with Chief Lawyer and fifty other

headmen, by which certain valleys were surrendered and the bounds of

the Lapwai reserve agreed upon. Most of the Nez Percés accepted this,

but Chief Joseph refused to sign and gathered about him a band of

unreconciled, non-treaty braves who continued to hunt at will over the

Wallowa Valley, which Lawyer and his followers had professed to cede.

It was an interesting legal point as to the right of a non-treaty chief

to claim to own lands ceded by the rest of his tribe. But Joseph,

though discontented, was not dangerous, and there was little friction

until settlers began to penetrate into his hunting-grounds. In 1873,

President Grant created a Wallowa reserve for Joseph's Nez Percés,

since they claimed this chiefly as their home. But when they showed no

disposition to confine themselves to its limits, he revoked the order

in 1875. The next year a commission, headed by the Secretary of the

Interior, Zachary Chandler, was sent to persuade Joseph to settle down,

but returned without success. Joseph stood upon his right to continue

to occupy at pleasure the lands which had always belonged to the Nez

Percés, and which he and his followers had never ceded. The commission

recommended the segregation of the medicine-men and dreamers,

especially Smohalla, who seemed to provide the inspiration for Joseph,

and the military occupation of the Wallowa Valley in anticipation of an

outbreak by the tribe against the incoming white settlers. These things

were done in part, but in the spring of 1877, "it becoming evident to

Agent Monteith that all negotiations for the peaceful removal of Joseph

and his band, with other non-treaty Nez Percé Indians, to the Lapwai

Indian reservation in Idaho must fail of a satisfactory adjustment,"

the Indian Office gave it up, and turned the affair over to General O.

O. Howard and the War Department.

The conferences held by Howard with the leaders, in May, made it clear

to them that their alternatives were to emigrate to Lapwai or to fight.

At first Howard thought they would yield. Looking Glass and White

Bird picked out a site on the Clearwater to which the tribe agreed to

remove at once; but just before the day fixed for the removal, the

murder of one of the Indians near Mt. Idaho led to revenge directed

against the whites and the massacre of several. War immediately

followed, for the next two months covering the borderland of Idaho

and Montana with confusion. A whole volume by General Howard has been

devoted to its details. Chief Joseph himself discussed it in the

_North American Review_ in 1879. Dunn has treated it critically in

his _Massacres of the Mountains_, and the Montana Historical Society

has published many articles concerning it. Considerably less is known

of the more important wars which preceded it than of this struggle of

the Nez Percés. In August the fighting turned to flight, Chief Joseph

abandoning the Salmon River country and crossing into the Yellowstone

Valley. In seventy-five days Howard chased him 1321 miles, across the

Yellowstone Park toward the Big Horn country and the Sioux reserve.

Along the swift flight there were running battles from time to time,

while the fugitives replenished their stores and stock from the country

through which they passed. Behind them Howard pressed; in their front

Colonel Nelson A. Miles was ordered to head them off. Miles caught

their trail in the end of September after they had crossed the Missouri

River and had headed for the refuge in Canada which Sitting Bull had

found. On October 3, 1877, he surprised the Nez Percé camp on Snake

Creek, capturing six hundred head of stock and inflicting upon Joseph's

band the heaviest blow of the war. Two days later the stubborn chief

surrendered to Colonel Miles.

"What shall be done with them?" Commissioner Hayt asked at the end of

1877. For once an Indian band had conducted a war on white principles,

obeying the rules of war and refraining from mutilation and torture.

Joseph had by his sheer military skill won the admiration and respect

of his military opponents. But the murders which had inaugurated the

war prevented a return of the tribe to Idaho. To exile they were sent,

and Joseph's uprising ended as all such resistances must. The forcible

invasion of the territory by the whites was maintained; the tribe was

sent in punishment to malarial lands in Indian Territory, where they

rapidly dwindled in number. There has been no adequate defence of the

policy of the United States from first to last.

The Modoc of northern California, and the Apache of Arizona and New

Mexico fought against the inevitable, as did the Sioux and the Nez

Percés. The former broke out in resistance in the winter of 1872-1873,

after they had long been proscribed by California opinion. In March of

1873 they made their fate sure by the treacherous murder of General E.

R. S. Canby and other peace commissioners sent to confer with them.

In the war which resulted the Modoc, under Modoc Jack and Scar-Faced

Charley, were pursued from cave to ravine among the lava beds of the

Modoc country until regular soldiers finally corralled them all. Jack

was hanged for murder at Fort Klamath in October, but Charley lived to

settle down and reform with a portion of the tribe in Indian Territory.

The Apache had always been a thorn in the flesh of the trifling

population of Arizona and New Mexico, and a nuisance to both army and

Indian Office. The Navaho, their neighbors, after a hard decade with

Carleton and the Bosque Redondo, had quieted down during the seventies

and advanced towards economic independence. But the Apache were long

in learning the virtues of non-resistance. Bell had found in Arizona

a young girl whose adventures as a fifteen-year-old child served to

explain the attitude of the whites. She had been carried off by Indians

who, when pressed by pursuers, had stripped her naked, knocked her

senseless with a tomahawk, pierced her arms with three arrows and a leg

with one, and then rolled her down a ravine, there to abandon her. The

child had come to, and without food, clothes, or water, had found her

way home over thirty miles of mountain paths. Such episodes necessarily

inspired the white population with fear and hatred, while the continued

residence of the sufferers in the Indians' vicinity illustrates the

persistence of the pressure which was sure to overwhelm the tribes in

the end. Tucson had retaliated against such excesses of the red men

by equal excesses of the whites. Without any immediate provocation,

fourscore Arivapa Apache, who had been concentrated under military

supervision at Camp Grant, were massacred in cold blood.

General George Crook alone was able to bring order into the Arizona

frontier. From 1871 to 1875 he was there in command,--"the beau-ideal

Indian fighter," Dunn calls him. For two years he engaged in constant

campaigns against the "incorrigibly hostile," but before 1873 was over

he had most of his Apache pacified, checked off, and under police

supervision. He enrolled them and gave to each a brass identification

check, so that it might be easier for his police to watch them. The

tribes were passed back to the Indian Office in 1874, and Crook

was transferred to another command in 1875. Immediately the Indian

Commissioner commenced to concentrate the scattered tribes, but was

hindered by hostilities among the Indians themselves quite as bitter as

their hatred for the whites. First Victorio, and then Geronimo was the

centre of the resistance to the concentration which placed hereditary

enemies side by side. They protested against the sites assigned them,

and successfully defied the Commissioner to carry out his orders. Crook

was brought back to the department in 1882, and after another long war

gradually established peace.

Sitting Bull, who had fled to Canada in 1876, returned to Dakota in the

early eighties in time to witness the rapid settlement of the northern

plains and the growth of the territories towards statehood. After his

revolt the Black Hills had been taken away from the tribe, as had

been the vague hunting rights over northern Wyoming. Now as statehood

advanced in the later eighties, and as population piled up around the

edges of the reserve, the time was ripe for the medicine-men to preach

the coming of a Messiah, and for Sitting Bull to increase his personal

following. Bad crops which in these years produced populism in Kansas

and Nebraska, had even greater menace for the half-civilized Indians.

Agents and army officers became aware of the undercurrent of danger

some months before trouble broke out.

The state of South Dakota was admitted in November, 1889. Just a year

later the Bureau turned the Sioux country over to the army, and General

Nelson A. Miles proceeded to restore peace, especially in the vicinity

of the Rosebud and Pine Ridge agencies. The arrest of Sitting Bull,

who claimed miraculous powers for himself, and whose "ghost shirts"

were supposed to give invulnerability to his followers, was attempted

in December. The troops sent out were resisted, however, and in the

mêlée the prophet was killed. The war which followed was much noticed,

but of little consequence. General Miles had plenty of troops and

Hotchkiss guns. Heliograph stations conveyed news easily and safely.

But when orders were issued two weeks after the death of Sitting Bull

to disarm the camp at Wounded Knee, the savages resisted. The troops

within reach, far outnumbered, blazed away with their rapid-fire guns,

regardless of age or sex, with such effect that more than two hundred

Indian bodies, mostly women and children, were found dead upon the

field.

With the death of Sitting Bull, turbulence among the Indians,

important enough to be called resistance, came to an end. There had

been many other isolated cases of outbreak since the adoption of the

peace policy in 1869. There were petty riots and individual murders

long after 1890. But there were, and could be, no more Indian wars.

Many of the tribes had been educated to half-civilization, while lands

in severalty had changed the point of view of many tribesmen. The

relative strength of the two races was overwhelmingly in favor of the

whites.

CHAPTER XXII

LETTING IN THE POPULATION[3]

[3] This chapter follows, in part, F. L. Paxson, "The Pacific

Railroads and the Disappearance of the Frontier in

America," in Ann. Rep. of the Am. Hist. Assn., 1907, Vol.

I, pp. 105-118.

"Veil them, cover them, wall them round--

Blossom, and creeper, and weed--

Let us forget the sight and the sound,

The smell and the touch of the breed!"

Thus Kipling wrote of "Letting in the Jungle," upon the Indian village.

The forces of nature were turned loose upon it. The gentle deer nibbled

at the growing crops, the elephant trampled them down, and the wild

pig rooted them up. The mud walls of the thatched huts dissolved in

the torrents, and "by the end of the Rains there was roaring Jungle

in full blast on the spot that had been under plough not six months

before." The white man worked the opposite of this on what remained of

the American desert in the last fifteen years of the history of the old

frontier. In a decade and a half a greater change came over it than the

previous fifty years had seen, and before 1890, it is fair to say that

the frontier was no more.

The American frontier, the irregular, imaginary line separating the

farm lands and the unused West, had become nearly a circle before

the compromise of 1850. In the form of a wedge with receding flanks

it had come down the Ohio and up the Missouri in the last generation.

The flanks had widened out in the thirties as Arkansas, and Missouri,

and Iowa had received their population. In the next ten years Texas

and the Pacific settlements had carried the line further west until

the circular shape of the frontier was clearly apparent by the middle

of the century. And thus it stood, with changes only in detail, for a

generation more. In whatever sense the word "frontier" is used, the

fact is the same. If it be taken as the dividing line, as the area

enclosed, or as the domain of the trapper and the rancher, the frontier

of 1880 was in most of its aspects the frontier of 1850.

The pressure on the frontier line had increased steadily during these

thirty years. Population moved easily and rapidly after the Civil War.

The agricultural states abutting on the line had grown in size and

wealth, with a recognition of the barrier that became clearer as more

citizens settled along it. East and south, it was close to the rainfall

line which divides easy farming country from the semi-arid plains;

west, it was a mountain range. In either case the country enclosed was

too refractory to yield to the piecemeal process which had conquered

the wilderness along other frontiers, while its check to expansion

and hindrance to communication became of increasing consequence as

population grew.

Yet the barrier held. By 1850 the agricultural frontier was pressing

against it. By 1860 the railway frontier had reached it. The former

could not cross it because of the slight temptation to agriculture

offered by the lands beyond; the latter was restrained by the

prohibitive cost of building railways through an entirely unsettled

district. Private initiative had done all it could in reclaiming the

continent; the one remaining task called for direct national aid.

The influences operating upon this frontier of the Far West, though

not making it less of a barrier, made it better known than any of the

earlier frontiers. In the first place, the trails crossed it, with the

result that its geography became well known throughout the country.

No other frontier had been the site of a thoroughfare for many years

before its actual settlement. Again, the mining discoveries of the

later fifties and sixties increased general knowledge of the West, and

scattered groups of inhabitants here and there, without populating it

in any sense. Finally the Indian friction produced the series of Indian

wars which again called the wild West to the centre of the stage for

many years.

All of these forces served to advertise the existence of this frontier

and its barrier character. They had coöperated to enlarge the railway

movement, as it respected the Pacific roads, until the Union Pacific

was authorized to meet the new demand; and while the Union Pacific

was under construction, other roads to meet the same demands were

chartered and promoted. These roads bridged and then dispelled the

final barrier.

Congress provided the legal equipment for the annihilation of the

entire frontier between 1862 and 1871. The charter acts of the Northern

Pacific, the Atlantic and Pacific, the Texas Pacific, and the Southern

Pacific at once opened the way for some five new continental lines and

closed the period of direct federal aid to railway construction. The

Northern Pacific received its charter on the same day that the Union

Pacific was given its double subsidy in 1864. It was authorized to

join the waters of Lake Superior and Puget Sound, and was to receive a

land grant of twenty sections per mile in the states and forty in the

territories through which it should run. In the summer of 1866 a third

continental route was provided for in the South along the line of the

thirty-fifth parallel survey. This, the Atlantic and Pacific, was to

build from Springfield, Missouri, by way of Albuquerque, New Mexico,

to the Pacific, and to connect, near the eastern line of California,

with the Southern Pacific, of California. It likewise was promised

twenty sections of land in the states and forty in the territories.

The Texas Pacific was chartered March 3, 1871, as the last of the land

grant railways. It received the usual grant, which was applicable only

west of Texas; within that state, between Texarkana and El Paso, it

could receive no federal aid since in Texas there were no public lands.

Its charter called for construction to San Diego, but the Southern

Pacific, building across Arizona and New Mexico, headed it off at El

Paso, and it got no farther.

To these deliberate acts in aid of the Pacific railways, Congress

added others in the form of local or state grants in the same years,

so that by 1871 all that the companies could ask for the future was

lenient interpretation of their contracts. For the first time the

federal government had taken an active initiative in providing for

the destruction of a frontier. Its resolution, in 1871, to treat no

longer with the Indian tribes as independent nations is evidence of a

realization of the approaching frontier change.

The new Pacific railways began to build just as the Union Pacific was

completed and opened to traffic. In the cases of all, the development

was slow, since the investing public had little confidence in the

existence of a business large enough to maintain four systems,

or in the fertility of the semi-arid desert. The first period of

construction of all these roads terminated in 1873, when panic brought

transportation projects to an end, and forbade revival for a period of

five years.

Jay Cooke, whose Philadelphia house had done much to establish public

credit during the war and had created a market of small buyers

for investment securities on the strength of United States bonds,

popularized the Northern Pacific in 1869 and 1870. Within two years he

is said to have raised thirty millions for the construction of the

road, making its building a financial possibility. And although he

may have distorted the isotherm several degrees in order to picture

his farm lands as semi-tropical in their luxuriance, as General

Hazen charged, he established Duluth and Tacoma, gave St. Paul her

opportunity, and had run the main line of track through Fargo, on the

Red, to Bismarck, on the Missouri, more than three hundred and fifty

miles from Lake Superior, before his failure in 1873 brought expansion

to an end.

For the Northwest, the construction of the Northern Pacific was of

fundamental importance. The railway frontier of 1869 left Minnesota,

Dakota, and much of Wisconsin beyond its reach. The potential grain

fields of the Red River region were virgin forest, and on the main

line of the new road, for two thousand miles, hardly a trace of

settled habitation existed. The panic of 1873 caught the Union

Pacific at Bismarck, with nearly three hundred miles of unprofitable

track extending in advance of the railroad frontier. The Atlantic

and Pacific and Texas Pacific were less seriously overbuilt, but not

less effectively checked. The former, starting from Springfield,

had constructed across southwestern Missouri to Vinita, in Indian

Territory, where it arrived in the fall of 1871. It had meanwhile

acquired some of the old Missouri state-aided roads, so as to get track

into St. Louis. The panic forced it to default, Vinita remained its

terminus for several years, and when it emerged from the receiver's

hands, it bore the new name of St. Louis and San Francisco.

The Texas Pacific represented a consolidation of local lines which

expected, through federal incorporation, to reach the dignity of a

continental railroad. It began its construction towards El Paso from

Shreveport, Louisiana, and Texarkana, on the state line, and reached

the vicinity of Dallas and Fort Worth before the panic. It planned to

get into St. Louis over the St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and Southern, and

into New Orleans over the New Orleans Pacific. The borderland of Texas,

Arkansas, and Missouri became through these lines a centre of railway

development, while in the near-by grazing country the meat-packing

industries shortly found their sources of supply.

The panic which the failure of Jay Cooke precipitated in 1873 could

scarcely have been deferred for many years. The waste of the Civil War

period, and the enthusiasm for economic development which followed it,

invited the retribution that usually follows continued and widespread

inflation. Already the completion of a national railway system was

foreshadowed. Heretofore the western demand had been for railways at

any cost, but the Granger activities following the panic gave warning

of an approaching period when this should be changed into a demand for

regulation of railroads. But as yet the frontier remained substantially

intact, and until its railway system should be completed the Granger

demand could not be translated into an effective movement for federal

control. It was not until 1879 that the United States recovered from

the depression following the crisis. In that year resumption marked the

readjustment of national currency, reconstruction was over, and the

railways entered upon the last five years of the culminating period in

the history of the frontier. When the five years were over, five new

continental routes were available for transportation.

The Texas and Pacific had hardly started its progress across Texas when

checked by the panic in the vicinity of Fort Worth. When it revived,

it pushed its track towards Sierra Blanca and El Paso, aided by a land

grant from the state. Beyond Texas it never built. Corporations of

California, Arizona, and New Mexico, all bearing the name of Southern

Pacific, constructed the line across the Colorado River and along the

Gila, through lands acquired by the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. Trains

were running over its tracks to St. Louis by January, 1882, and to

New Orleans by the following October. In the course of this Southern

Pacific construction, connection had been made with the Atchison,

Topeka, and Santa Fé at Deming, New Mexico, in March, 1881, but

through lack of harmony between the roads their junction was of little

consequence.

[Illustration: THE PACIFIC RAILROADS, 1884

This map shows only the main lines of the continental railroads

in 1884, and omits the branch lines and local roads which existed

everywhere and were specially thick in the Mississippi and lower

Missouri valleys.]

The owners of the Southern Pacific opened an additional line through

southern Texas in the beginning of 1883. Around the Galveston,

Harrisburg, and San Antonio, of Texas, they had grouped other lines

and begun double construction from San Antonio west, and from El Paso,

or more accurately Sierra Blanca, east. Between El Paso and Sierra

Blanca, a distance of about ninety miles, this new line and the Texas

and Pacific used the same track. In later years the line through San

Antonio and Houston became the main line of the Southern Pacific.

A third connection of the Southern Pacific across Texas was operated

before the end of 1883 over its Mojave extension in California and the

Atlantic and Pacific from the Needles to Albuquerque. The old Atlantic

and Pacific had built to Vinita, gone into receivership, and come out

as St. Louis and San Francisco. But its land grant had remained unused,

while the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé had reached Albuquerque and

had exhausted its own land grant, received through the state of Kansas

and ceasing at the Colorado line. Entering Colorado, the latter had

passed by Las Animas and thrown a branch along the old Santa Fé trail

to Santa Fé and Albuquerque. Here it came to an agreement with the

St. Louis and San Francisco, by which the two roads were to build

jointly under the Atlantic and Pacific franchise, from Albuquerque

into California. They built rapidly; but the Southern Pacific, not

relishing a rival in its state, had made use of its charter privilege

to meet the new road on the eastern boundary of California. Hence its

Mojave branch was waiting at the Needles when the Atlantic and Pacific

arrived there; and the latter built no farther. Upon the completion of

bridges over the Colorado and Rio Grande this third eastern connection

of the Southern Pacific was completed so that Pullman cars were running

through into St. Louis on October 21, 1883.

The names of Billings and Villard are most closely connected with the

renascence of the Northern Pacific. The panic had stopped this line at

the Missouri River, although it had built a few miles in Washington

territory, around its new terminal city of Tacoma. The illumination of

crisis times had served to discredit the route as effectively as Jay

Cooke had served to boom it with advertisements in his palmy days. The

existence of various land grant railways in Washington and Oregon made

the revival difficult to finance since its various rivals could offer

competition by both water and rail along the Columbia River, below

Walla Walla. Under the presidency of Frederick Billings construction

revived about 1879, from Mandan, opposite Bismarck on the Missouri,

and from Wallula, at the junction of the Columbia and Snake. From

these points lines were pushed over the Pend d'Oreille and Missouri

divisions towards the continental divide. Below Wallula, the Columbia

Valley traffic was shared by agreement with the Oregon Railway and

Navigation Company, which, under the presidency of Henry Villard, owned

the steamship and railway lines of Oregon. As the time for opening the

through lines approached, the question of Columbia River competition

increased in serious aspect. Villard solved the problem through the

agency of his famous blind pool, which still stands remarkable in

railway finance. With the proceeds of the pool he organized the Oregon

and Transcontinental as a holding company, and purchased a controlling

interest in the rival roads. With harmony of plan thus insured, he

assumed the presidency of the Northern Pacific in 1881, in time to

complete and celebrate the opening of its main line in 1883. His

celebration was elaborate, yet the _Nation_ remarked that the "mere

achievement of laying a continuous rail across the continent has long

since been taken out of the realm of marvels, and the country can

never feel again the thrill which the joining of the Central and Union

Pacific lines gave it."

The land grant railways completed these four eastern connections across

the frontier in the period of culmination. Private capital added a

fifth in the new route through Denver and Ogden, controlled by the

Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy and the Denver and Rio Grande. The

Burlington, built along the old Republican River trail to Denver, had

competed with the Union Pacific for the traffic of that point since

June, 1882. West of Denver the narrow gauge of the Denver and Rio

Grande had been advancing since 1870.

General William J. Palmer and a group of Philadelphia capitalists had,

in 1870, secured a Colorado charter for their Denver and Rio Grande.

Started in 1871, it had reached the new settlement at Colorado Springs

that autumn, and had continued south in later years. Like other roads

it had progressed slowly in the panic years. In 1876 it had been met at

Pueblo by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé. From Pueblo it contested

successfully with this rival for the grand cañon of the Arkansas,

and built up that valley through the Gunnison country and across the

old Ute reserve, to Grand Junction. From the Utah line it had been

continued to Ogden by an allied corporation. A through service to

Ogden, inaugurated in the summer of 1883, brought competition to the

Union Pacific throughout its whole extent.

The continental frontier, whose isolation the Union Pacific had

threatened in 1869, was easily accessible by 1884. Along six different

lines between New Orleans and St. Paul it had been made possible to

cross the sometime American desert to the Pacific states. No longer

could any portion of the republic be considered as beyond the reach

of civilization. Instead of a waste that forbade national unity in

its presence, a thousand plains stations beckoned for colonists, and

through lines of railway iron bound the nation into an economic and

political unit. "As the railroads overtook the successive lines of

isolated frontier posts, and settlements spread out over country no

longer requiring military protection," wrote General P. H. Sheridan in

1882, "the army vacated its temporary shelters and marched on into

remote regions beyond, there to repeat and continue its pioneer work.

In rear of the advancing line of troops the primitive 'dug-outs' and

cabins of the frontiersmen, were steadily replaced by the tasteful

houses, thrifty farms, neat villages, and busy towns of a people who

knew how best to employ the vast resources of the great West. The

civilization from the Atlantic is now reaching out toward that rapidly

approaching it from the direction of the Pacific, the long intervening

strip of territory, extending from the British possessions to Old

Mexico, yearly growing narrower; finally the dividing lines will

entirely disappear and the mingling settlements absorb the remnants

of the once powerful Indian nations who, fifteen years ago, vainly

attempted to forbid the destined progress of the age." The deluge of

population realized by Sheridan, and let in by the railways, had, by

1890, blotted the uninhabited frontier off the map. Local spots yet

remained unpeopled, but the census of 1890 revealed no clear division

between the unsettled West and the rest of the United States.

New states in plains and mountains marked the abolition of the last

frontier as they had the earlier. In less than ten years the gap

between Minnesota and Oregon was filled in: North Dakota and South

Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Washington. In 1890, for the

first time, a solid band of states connected the Atlantic and Pacific.

Farther south, the Indian Country succumbed to the new pressure. The

Dawes bill released a fertile acreage to be distributed to the land

hungry who had banked up around the borders of Kansas, Arkansas, and

Texas. Oklahoma, as a territory, appeared in 1890, while in eighteen

more years, swallowing up the whole Indian Country, it had taken its

place as a member of the Union. Between the northern tier of states

and Oklahoma, the middle West had grown as well. Kansas, Nebraska, and

Colorado, the last creating eleven new counties in its eastern third

in 1889, had seen their population densify under the stimulus of easy

transportation. Much of the settlement had been premature, inviting

failure, as populism later showed, but it left no area in the United

States unreclaimed, inaccessible, and large enough to be regarded as a

national frontier. The last frontier, the same that Long had described

as the American Desert in 1820, had been won.

NOTE ON THE SOURCES

The fundamental ideas upon which all recent careful work in western

history has been based were first stated by Frederick J. Turner, in

his paper on _The Significance of the Frontier in American History_,

in the _Annual Report of the Am. Hist. Assn._, 1893. No comprehensive

history of the trans-Mississippi West has yet appeared; Randall

Parrish, _The Great Plains_ (2d ed., Chicago, 1907), is at best only a

brief and superficial sketch; the histories of the several far western

states by Hubert Howe Bancroft remain the most useful collection of

secondary materials upon the subject. R. G. Thwaites, _Rocky Mountain

Exploration_ (N.Y., 1904); O. P. Austin, _Steps in the Expansion of

our Territory_ (N.Y., 1903); H. Gannett, _Boundaries of the United

States and of the Several States and Territories_ (_Bulletin of the

U.S. Geological Survey_, No. 226, 1904); and _Organic Acts for the

Territories of the United States with Notes thereon_ (56th Cong., 1st

sess., Sen. Doc. 148), are also of use.

The local history of the West must yet be collected from many varieties

of sources. The state historical societies have been active for many

years, their more important collections comprising: _Publications of

the Arkansas Hist. Assn._, _Annals of Iowa_, _Iowa Hist. Record_, _Iowa

Journal of Hist. and Politics_, _Collections of the Minnesota Hist.

Soc._, _Trans. of the Kansas State Hist. Soc._, _Trans. and Rep. of

the Nebraska Hist. Soc._, _Proceedings of the Missouri Hist. Soc._,

_Contrib. to the Hist. Soc. of Montana_, _Quart. of the Oregon Hist.

Soc._, _Quart. of the Texas State Hist. Assn._, _Collections of the

Wisconsin State Hist. Soc._ The scattered but valuable fragments to be

found in these files are to be supplemented by the narratives contained

in the histories of the single states or sections, the more important

of these being: T. H. Hittell, _California_; F. Hall, _Colorado_; J.

C. Smiley, _Denver_ (an unusually accurate and full piece of local

history); W. Upham, _Minnesota in Three Centuries_; G. P. Garrison,

_Texas_; E. H. Meany, _Washington_; J. Schafer, _Hist. of the Pacific

Northwest_; R. G. Thwaites, _Wisconsin_, and the _Works_ of H. H.

Bancroft.

The comprehensive collection of geographic data for the West is

the _Reports of Explorations and Surveys for a Railroad from the

Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean_, made by the War Department and

published by Congress in twelve huge volumes, 1855-. The most important

official predecessors of this survey left the following reports: E.

James, _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburg to the Rocky Mountains,

performed in the Years 1819, 1820, ... under the Command of Maj. S.

H. Long_ (Phila., 1823); J. C. Frémont, _Report of the Exploring

Expeditions to the Rocky Mountains in the Year 1842, and to Oregon and

North California in the Years 1843-'44_ (28th Cong., 2d sess., Sen.

Doc. 174); W. H. Emory, _Notes of a Military Reconnoissance from Ft.

Leavenworth ... to San Diego ..._ (30th Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc.

41); H. Stansbury, _Exploration and Survey of the Valley of the Great

Salt Lake of Utah ..._ (32d Cong., 1st sess., Sen. Ex. Doc. 3). From

the great number of personal narratives of western trips, those of

James O. Pattie, John B. Wyeth, John K. Townsend, and Joel Palmer may

be selected as typical and useful. All of these, as well as the James

narrative of the Long expedition, are reprinted in the monumental R.

G. Thwaites, _Early Western Travels_, which does not, however, give

any aid for the period after 1850. Later travels of importance are J.

I. Thornton, _Oregon and California in 1848 ..._ (N.Y., 1849); Horace

Greeley, _An Overland Journey from New York to San Francisco in the

Summer of 1859_ (N.Y., 1860); R. F. Burton, _The City of the Saints,

and across the Rocky Mountains to California_ (N.Y., 1862); R. B.

Marcy, _The Prairie Traveller, a Handbook for Overland Expeditions_

(edited by R. F. Burton, London, 1863); F. C. Young, _Across the

Plains in '65_ (Denver, 1905); Samuel Bowles, _Across the Continent_

(Springfield, 1861); Samuel Bowles, _Our New West, Records of Travels

between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean_ (Hartford, 1869);

W. A. Bell, _New Tracks in North America_ (2d ed., London, 1870); J.

H. Beadle, _The Undeveloped West, or Five Years in the Territories_

(Phila., 1873).

The classic account of traffic on the plains is Josiah Gregg, _Commerce

of the Prairies, or the Journal of a Santa Fé Trader_ (many editions,

and reprinted in Thwaites); H. M. Chittenden, _History of Steamboat

Navigation on the Missouri River_ (N.Y., 1903), and _The American Fur

Trade of the Far West_ (N.Y., 1902), are the best modern accounts. A

brilliant sketch is C. F. Lummis, _Pioneer Transportation in America,

Its Curiosities and Romance_ (_McClure's Magazine_, 1905). Other works

of use are Henry Inman, _The Old Santa Fé Trail_ (N.Y., 1898); Henry

Inman and William F. Cody, _The Great Salt Lake Trail_ (N.Y., 1898);

F. A. Root and W. E. Connelley, _The Overland Stage to California_

(Topeka, 1901); F. G. Young, _The Oregon Trail_, in _Oregon Hist. Soc.

Quarterly_, Vol. I; F. Parkman, _The Oregon Trail_.

Railway transportation in the Far West yet awaits its historian.

Some useful antiquarian data are to be found in C. F. Carter, _When

Railroads were New_ (N.Y., 1909), and there are a few histories

of single roads, the most valuable being J. P. Davis, _The Union

Pacific Railway_ (Chicago, 1894), and E. V. Smalley, _History

of the Northern Pacific Railroad_ (N.Y., 1883). L. H. Haney, _A

Congressional History of Railways in the United States to 1850_; J.

B. Sanborn, _Congressional Grants of Lands in Aid of Railways_, and

B. H. Meyer, _The Northern Securities Case_, all in the _Bulletins_

of the University of Wisconsin, contain much information and useful

bibliographies. The local historical societies have published many

brief articles on single lines. There is a bibliography of the

continental railways in F. L. Paxson, _The Pacific Railroads and the

Disappearance of the Frontier in America_, in _Ann. Rep. of the Am.

Hist. Assn._, 1907. Their social and political aspects may be traced in

J. B. Crawford, _The Crédit Mobilier of America_ (Boston, 1880) and E.

W. Martin, _History of the Granger Movement_ (1874). The sources, which

are as yet uncollected, are largely in the government documents and the

files of the economic and railroad periodicals.

For half a century, during which the Indian problem reached and

passed its most difficult places, the United States was negligent

in publishing compilations of Indian laws and treaties. In 1837 the

Commissioner of Indian Affairs published in Washington, _Treaties

between the United States of America and the Several Indian Tribes,

from 1778 to 1837: with a copious Table of Contents_. After this date,

documents and correspondence were to be found only in the intricate

sessional papers and the _Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Indian

Affairs_, which accompanied the reports of the Secretary of War,

1832-1849, and those of the Secretary of the Interior after 1849. In

1902 Congress published C. J. Kappler, _Indian Affairs, Laws, and

Treaties_ (57th Cong., 1st sess., Sen. Doc. 452). Few historians have

made serious use of these compilations or reports. Two other government

documents of great value in the history of Indian negotiations are,

Thomas Donaldson, _The Public Domain_ (47th Cong., 2d sess., H. Misc.

Doc. 45, Pt. 4), and C. C. Royce, _Indian Land Cessions in the United

States_ (with many charts, in 18th _Ann. Rep. of the Bureau of Am.

Ethnology_, Pt. 2, 1896-1897). Most special works on the Indians

are partisan, spectacular, or ill informed; occasionally they have

all these qualities. A few of the most accessible are: A. H. Abel,

_History of the Events resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the

Mississippi_ (in _Ann. Rep. of the Am. Hist. Assn._, 1906, an elaborate

and scholarly work); J. P. Dunn, _Massacres of the Mountains, a

History of the Indian Wars of the Far West_ (N.Y., 1886; a relatively

critical work, with some bibliography); R. I. Dodge, _Our Wild Indians

..._ (Hartford, 1883); G. E. Edwards, _The Red Man and the White Man

in North America from its Discovery to the Present Time_ (Boston,

1882; a series of Lowell Institute lectures, by no means so valuable

as the pretentious title would indicate); I. V. D. Heard, _History

of the Sioux War and Massacres of 1862 and 1863_ (N.Y., 1863; a

contemporary and useful narrative); O. O. Howard, _Nez Perce Joseph,

an Account of his Ancestors, his Lands, his Confederates, his Enemies,

his Murders, his War, his Pursuit and Capture_ (Boston, 1881; this

is General Howard's personal vindication); Mrs. Helen Hunt Jackson,

_A Century of Dishonor, a Sketch of the United States Government's

Dealings with Some of the Indian Tribes_ (N.Y., 1881; highly colored

and partisan); G. W. Manypenny, _Our Indian Wards_ (Cincinnati, 1880;

by a former Indian Commissioner); L. E. Textor, _Official Relations

between the United States and the Sioux Indians_ (Palo Alto, 1896; one

of the few scholarly and dispassionate works on the Indians); F. A.

Walker, _The Indian Question_ (Boston, 1874; three essays by a former

Indian Commissioner); C. T. Brady, _Indian Fights and Fighters_ and

_Northwestern Fights and Fighters_ (N.Y., 1907; two volumes in his

series of _American Fights and Fighters_, prepared for consumers of

popular sensational literature, but containing much valuable detail,

and some critical judgments).

Nearly every incident in the history of Indian relations has been made

the subject of investigations by the War and Interior departments. The

resulting collections of papers are to be found in the congressional

documents, through the indexes. They are too numerous to be listed

here. The searcher should look for reports from the Secretary of

War, the Secretary of the Interior, or the Postmaster-general, for

court-martial proceedings, and for reports of special committees of

Congress. Dunn gives some classified lists in his _Massacres of the

Mountains_.

There is a rapidly increasing mass of individual biography and

reminiscence for the West during this period. Some works of this class

which have been found useful here are: W. M. Meigs, _Thomas Hart

Benton_ (Phila., 1904); C. W. Upham, _Life, Explorations, and Public

Services of John Charles Frémont_ (40th thousand, Boston, 1856); S.

B. Harding, _Life of George B. Smith, Founder of Sedalia, Missouri_

(Sedalia, 1907); P. H. Burnett, _Recollections and Opinions of an Old

Pioneer_ (N.Y., 1880; by one who had followed the Oregon trail and

had later become governor of California); A. Johnson, _S. A. Douglas_

(N.Y., 1908; one of the most significant biographies of recent years);

H. Stevens, _Life of Isaac Ingalls Stevens_ (Boston, 1900); R. S.

Thorndike, _The Sherman Letters_ (N.Y., 1894; full of references

to frontier conditions in the sixties); P. H. Sheridan, _Personal

Memoirs_ (London, 1888; with a good map of the Indian war of 1867-1868,

which the later edition has dropped); E. P. Oberholtzer, _Jay Cooke,

Financier of the Civil War_ (Phila., 1907; with details of Northern

Pacific railway finance); H. Villard, _Memoirs_ (Boston, 1904; the life

of an active railway financier); Alexander Majors, _Seventy Years on

the Frontier_ (N.Y., 1893; the reminiscences of one who had belonged

to the great firm of Russell, Majors, and Waddell); G. R. Brown,

_Reminiscences of William M. Stewart of Nevada_ (1908).

Miscellaneous works indicating various types of materials which

have been drawn upon are: O. J. Hollister, _The Mines of Colorado_

(Springfield, 1867; a miners' handbook); S. Mowry, _Arizona and Sonora_

(3d ed., 1864; written in the spirit of a mining prospectus); T. B.

H. Stenhouse, _The Rocky Mountain Saints_ (London, 1874; a credible

account from a Mormon missionary who had recanted without bitterness);

W. A. Linn, _The Story of the Mormons_ (N.Y., 1902; the only critical

history of the Mormons, but having a strong Gentile bias); T. J.

Dimsdale, _The Vigilantes of Montana, or Popular Justice in the Rocky

Mountains_ (2d ed., Virginia City, 1882; a good description of the

social order of the mining camp).

INDEX

Acton, Minnesota, Sioux massacre at, 235.

Alder Gulch mines, Idaho, 168.

Anthony, Major Scott J., 259.

Apache Indians, 247, 267, 268, 292, 312;

treaty of 1853 with, 124;

troubles with, in Arizona, 162-163;

last struggles of, against whites, 368-369.

Arapaho Indians, 247, 248, 252, 256 ff., 263, 267, 292;

Medicine Lodge treaty with, 292-293;

issue of arms to, 312-313;

join in war of 1868, 313-318;

Custer's defeat of, 317-318.

Arapahoe, county of, 141.

Arickara Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Arizona, beginnings of, 158 ff.;

erection of territory of, 162.

Arkansas, boundaries of, 28-29;

admission as a state, 40.

Army, question of control of Indian affairs by, 324-344.

Assiniboin Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Atchison, Senator, 129.

Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railway, 347, 384.

Atlantic and Pacific Railway, 375, 376, 377;

becomes the St. Louis and San Francisco, 378.

Augur, General C. C., 292, 295, 359.

Auraria settlement, Colorado, 142.

Bannack City, mining centre, 168.

Bannock Indians, 295.

Beadle, John H., on western railways and their builders, 332-333, 335.

Bear Flag Republic, the, 105.

Becknell, William, 56.

Beckwith, Lieut. E. G., Pacific railway survey by, 203-206.

Bell, English traveller, on railway building in the West, 329-331.

Benton, Thomas Hart, 58;

interest of, in railways, 193-194.

Bent's Fort, 65, 66.

Billings, Frederick, 382.

Blackfoot Indians, 264.

Black Hawk, Colorado, village of, 145.

Black Hawk, Indian chief, 17.

Black Hawk War, 21, 25-26, 37.

Black Hills, discovery of gold in, 359;

troubles with Indians resulting from discovery, 361 ff.

Black Kettle, Indian chief, 255-261;

leads war party in 1868, 313;

death of, 317.

Blind pool, Villard's, 383.

Boisé mines, 165.

Boulder, Colorado, 145.

Bowles, Samuel, on railway terminal towns, 332, 333.

Box family outrage, 307.

Bridge across the Mississippi, the first, 210.

Bridger, "Jim," 274.

Brown, John, murder of Kansans by, 134.

Brulé Sioux Indians, 264, 266.

Bull Bear, Indian chief, 309.

Bureau of Indian Affairs, 31, 123, 341 ff.

Burlington, capital of Iowa territory, 45;

description of, in 1840, 47-48.

Burnett, governor of California, 117.

Bushwhacking in Kansas during Civil War, 231.

Butterfield, John, mail and express route of, 177 ff.

Byers, Denver editor, 144;

quoted, 149, 150.

Caddo Indians, 28.

California, early American designs on, 104-105;

becomes American possession, 105;

discovery of gold in, and results, 108-113;

population in 1850, 117;

local railways constructed in, 219;

Central Pacific Railway in, 220, 222.

Camels, experiment with, in Texas, 176.

Camp Grant massacre, 162.

Canals, land grants in aid of, 215, 217.

Canby, E. R. S., 228, 233;

murder of, 367.

Carleton, Colonel J. H., 160, 233.

Carlyle, George H., 250-251.

Carrington, Colonel Henry B., 274-275.

Carson, Kit, 285.

Carson City, 157-158.

Carson County, 157.

Cass, Lewis, 21, 23.

Census of Indians, in 1880, 351.

Central City, Colorado, 145.

Central Overland, California, and Pike's Peak Express, 186.

Central Pacific of California Railway, 220, 222;

description of construction of, 325-335.

Cherokee Indians, 28-29.

Cherokee Neutral Strip, 29.

Cheyenne, founding of, 301;

consequence of, as a railway junction, 334.

Cheyenne Indians, massacre of, at Sand Creek, 260-261;

assigned lands in Indian Territory, 263;

Medicine Lodge treaty with, 292-293;

issue of arms to, 312-313;

begin war against whites in 1868, 313;

Custer's defeat of, 317-318.

Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railway, 383.

Chickasaw Indians, 28-29.

Chief Joseph, leader of Nez Percé Indians, 363-365;

military skill shown by, in retreat of Nez Percés, 366-367.

Chief Lawyer, 363-364.

Chinese labor for railway building, 326-327.

Chippewa Indians, 26-27.

Chittenden, Hiram Martin, 70-71, 93.

Chivington, J. M., 229-230, 257;

massacre of Indians at Sand Creek by, 260-261.

Civil War, the West during the, 225 ff.

Claims associations, 47.

Clark, Governor, 20, 21, 25.

Clemens, S. L., quoted, 186-187.

Cody, William F., 184.

Colley, Major, Indian agent, 255, 258, 262.

Colorado, first settlements in, 142-145;

movement for separate government for, 146 ff.;

Senate bill for erection of territory of, 151, 154;

boundaries of, 154;

admission of, and first governor, 154-155;

during the Civil War, 228-230.

Colorado-Idaho plan, 151.

Comanche Indians, 28, 124, 252, 253, 263, 267, 268, 292.

Comstock lode, the, 157.

Conestoga wagons, 41, 64.

Connor, General Patrick E., 274.

Cooke, Jay, railway promotion and later failure of, 376-377.

Cooper, Colonel, 57.

Council Bluffs, importance of, as a railway terminus, 334.

Council Grove, rendezvous of Santa Fé traders, 59, 63-64.

_Crédit Mobilier_, the, 335.

Creek Indians, 28-29.

Crocker, Charles, 220;

activity of, as a railway builder, 327.

Crook, General George, 368-369.

Crow Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Culbertson, Alexander, 200.

Cumberland Road, 41, 215, 325.

Custer, General, 304, 306, 307 ff., 310, 316, 359;

commands in attack on Cheyenne, 316-318;

romantic character of, and death in Sioux war, 362.

Dakota, erection and growth of territory of, 166-167;

Idaho created from a part of, 167.

Dawes bill of 1887, for division of lands among Indians, 354-355;

effect of, on Indian reserves, 356.

Delaware Indians, settlement of, in the West, 24, 127.

Demoine County created, 42.

Denver, settlement of, 142;

early caucuses and conventions at, 147-149.

Denver and Rio Grande Railway, 383-384.

Desert, tradition of a great American, 11-13;

disappearance of tradition, 119;

Kansas formed out of a portion of, 137;

final conquest by railways of region known as, 384-386.

Digger Indians, 203-204.

Dillon, President, 336.

Dodge, Henry, 35-36, 37-38, 44, 328-329.

Dole, W. P., Indian Commissioner, 239.

Donnelly, Ignatius, 237.

Douglas, Stephen A., 128, 213-214.

Downing, Major Jacob, 252, 260.

Dubuque, lead mines at, 34;

as a mining camp, 42.

Dubuque County created, 42.

Education of Indians, 351-352.

Emigrant Aid Society, 130.

Emory, Lieut.-Col., survey by, 208.

Erie Canal, 10, 21, 24, 38, 325.

Evans, Governor, war against Indians conducted by, 253 ff.;

quoted, 269.

Ewbank Station massacre, 250.

Fairs, agricultural, for Indians, 352-353.

Falls line, 5.

Far West, Mormon headquarters at, 90.

Fetterman, Captain W. J., 274, 277-278, 279;

slaughter of, by Indians, 280-281.

Fiske, Captain James L., 188.

Fitzpatrick, Indian agent, 122-124.

Fort Armstrong, purchase at, of Indian lands, 26.

Fort Benton, 163, 164.

Fort Bridger, 301.

Fort C. F. Smith, 275-277.

Fort Hall, 74.

Fort Kearney, 78.

Fort Laramie, 78, 121;

treaties with Indians signed at, in 1851, 123-124;

conference of Peace Commission with Indians held at (1867), 291.

Fort Larned, conference with Indians at, 308.

Fort Leavenworth, 24, 59.

Fort Philip Kearney, Indian fight at (1866), 274-275;

extermination of Fetterman's party at, 280-282.

Fort Pierre, 267.

Fort Ridgely, Sioux attack on, 235-236.

Fort Snelling, 33-34, 48.

Fort Sully conference, 271-272, 273.

Fort Whipple, 162.

Fort Winnebago, 35.

Fort Wise, treaty with Indians signed at, 249.

Forty-niners, 109-118.

Fox Indians, 21, 25, 26, 127.

Flandrau, Judge Charles E., 236-237.

Franklin, town of, 63.

Freighting on the plains, 174 ff.

Frémont, John C., 58;

explorations of, beyond the Rockies, 73-75, 195;

senator from California, 117.

Fur traders, pioneer western, 70-71.

Galbraith, Thomas J., Indian agent, 238.

Geary, John W., 135.

Georgetown, Colorado, 145.

Geronimo, Indian chief, 369.

Gilpin, William, first governor of Colorado Territory, 155;

quoted, 225;

responsibility assumed by, during the Civil War, 228-229.

Gold, discovery of, in California, 108-113;

in Pike's Peak region, 141-142;

in the Black Hills, 359-361.

Grattan, Lieutenant, 265.

Great American desert. _See_ Desert.

Great Salt Lake. _See_ Salt Lake.

Great Salt Lake Valley Carrying Company, 176.

Greeley, Horace, western adventures of, 145, 179, 182.

Gregg, Josiah, 61-62.

Grosventre Indians, treaties of 1851 with, 123-124.

Guerrilla conflicts during the Civil War, 230-233.

Gunnison, Captain J. W., 204-205.

Hancock, General W. S., 306-311.

Hand-cart incident in Mormon emigration, 100-101.

Harney, General, 266.

Harte, Bret, verses by, 338.

Hayt, E. A., Indian Commissioner, 350.

Hazen, General W. B., 320-321.

Helena, growth of city of, 169.

Highland settlement, Colorado, 142.

Holladay, Ben, 186-190, 284;

losses from Indians by, 250.

Hopkins, Mark, 220.

Howard, General O. O., 365-366.

Hungate family, murder of, by Indians, 253.

Hunkpapa Indians, 264.

Hunter, General, in charge of Department of Kansas during Civil War,

230-231.

Huntington, Collis P., 220.

Idaho, proposed name for Colorado, 151, 154;

establishment of territory of, 166-167.

Idaho Springs, settlement of, 145.

Illinois, opening of, to whites, 21.

Illinois Central Railroad, 210, 216-218.

Independence, town of, 63;

outfitting post of traders, 71;

Mormons at, 89-90.

Indian agents, position of, in regard to Indian affairs, 304-305;

question regarding, as opposed to military control of Indians,

342-343.

Indian Bureau, creation of, 31;

transference from War Department to the Interior, 123;

history of the, 341 ff.

Indian Commissioners, Board of, created in 1869, 345.

Indian Intercourse Act, 31.

Indian Territory, position of Indians in, during the Civil War,

240-241;

breaking up of, following allotment of lands to individual Indians,

357.

Indians, numbers of, in United States, 14;

governmental policy regarding, 16 ff.;

Monroe's policy of removal of, to western lands, 18-19;

treaties of 1825 with, 19-20;

allotment of territory among, on western frontier, 20-30;

troubles with, resulting from Oregon, California, and Mormon

emigrations, 119-123;

fresh treaties with at Upper Platte agency in 1851, 123-124;

further cession of lands in Indian Country by, in 1854, 127;

treatment of, by Arizona settlers, 162-163;

danger to overland mail and express business from, 187-188, 250;

Digger Indians, 203-204;

the Sioux war in Minnesota, 234 ff.;

effect of the Civil War on, 240-242;

causes of restlessness of, during Civil War, 234 ff.;

antagonism of, aroused by advance westward of whites, 244-252;

conditions leading to Sioux war, 264 ff.;

war with plains Sioux (1866), 273-283;

the discussion as to proper treatment of, 284-288;

appointment of Peace Commissioner of 1867 to end Cheyenne and Sioux

troubles, 289-290;

Medicine Lodge treaties concluded with, 292-293;

report and recommendations of Peace Commission, 296-298;

interval of peace with, 302-303;

continued troubles with, and causes, 304 ff.;

war begun by Arapahoes and Cheyenne in 1868, 313;

war of 1868, 313-318;

President Grant appoints board of civilian Indian commissioners,

323, 341 ff.;

railway builders' troubles with, 328-329;

question of civilian or military control of, 342-344;

Board of Commissioners, appointed for (1869), 345;

Congress decides to make no more treaties with, 348;

mistaken policy of treaties, 348-349;

census of, in 1880, 351;

agricultural fairs for, 352-353;

individual ownership of land by, 354-357;

effect of allotment of lands among, on Indian reserves, 356-357;

end of Monroe's policy, 357;

last struggles of the Sioux, Nez Percés, and Apaches, 361-371.

Inkpaduta's massacre, 51.

Inman, Colonel Henry, quoted, 285.

Iowa, Indian lands out of which formed, 26;

territory of, organized, 45.

Iowa Indians, 127.

Jackson, Helen Hunt, work by, 344.

Jefferson, early name of state of Colorado, 147, 149, 151, 153, 155.

Johnston, Albert Sidney, commands army against Mormons, 102;

escapes to the South, on opening of the Civil War, 226-227.

Jones and Russell, firm of, 181.

Judah, Theodore D., 219, 220, 326.

Julesburg, station on overland mail route, 182, 331.

Kanesville, Iowa, founding of, 95.

Kansa Indians, 19, 20, 24.

Kansas, reasons for settlement of, 124-125;

creation of territory of, 129;

the slavery struggle in, 129-131;

squatters on Indian lands in, 131-132;

further contests between abolition and pro-slave parties, 132-136;

admission to the union in 1861, 136;

boundaries of, 138;

during the Civil War, 230-233.

Kansas-Nebraska bill, 128-129.

Kansas Pacific Railway, 340.

Kaskaskia Indians, 30, 127.

Kaw Indians. _See_ Kansa Indians.

Kearny, Stephen W., 65-66, 78.

Kendall, Superintendent of Indian department, quoted, 165.

Keokuk, Indian chief, 25.

Kickapoo Indians, 24, 127.

Kiowa Indians, 252, 253, 263, 267, 268, 292, 306.

Kirtland, Ohio, temporary headquarters of Mormons, 88.

Labor question in railway construction, 326-327.

Lake-to-Gulf railway scheme, 217.

Land, allotment of, to Indians as individuals, 354-357.

Land grants in aid of railways, 215-218, 222, 325, 329, 336, 375.

Land titles, pioneers' difficulties over, 46-47.

Larimer, William, 147, 152.

Last Chance Gulch, Idaho, mining district, 169.

Lawrence, Amos A., 130.

Lawrence, Kansas, settlement of, 130-131;

visit of Missouri mob to, 134;

Quantrill's raid on, 232.

Lead mines about Dubuque, 34-35.

Leavenworth, J. H., Indian agent, 306, 308-309.

Leavenworth and Pike's Peak Express Company, 181.

Leavenworth constitution, 135-136.

Lecompton constitution, 135-136.

Lewiston, Washington, founding of, 164.

Linn, Senator, 72-73.

Liquor question in Oregon, 81-82.

Little Big Horn, battle of the, 362.

Little Blue Water, defeat of Brulé Sioux at, 266.

Little Crow, Sioux chief, 235-239.

Little Raven, Indian chief, 306.

Long, Major Stephen H., 11.

McClellan, George B., survey for Pacific railway by, 199.

Madison, Wisconsin, development of, 44, 45.

Mails, carriage of, to frontier points, 174 ff.

Manypenny, George W., 126, 266.

Marsh, O. C., bad treatment of Indians revealed by, 360-361.

Marshall, James W., 108-109.

Massachusetts Emigrant Aid Society, 130.

Medicine Lodge Creek, conference with Indians at, 292-293.

Menominee Indians, 27.

Methodist missionaries to western Indians, 72.

Mexican War, Army of the West in the, 65-66.

Miami Indians, 30, 127.

Michigan, territory and state of, 39-40.

Miles, General Nelson A., as an Indian fighter, 366, 370.

Milwaukee, founding of, 44.

Mines, trails leading to, 169-170.

Miniconjou Indians, 265.

Mining, lead, 34-35, 42;

gold, 108-113, 141-142, 156-157, 359-361;

silver, 157 ff.

Mining camps, description of, 170-173.

Minnesota, organization of, as a territory, 48-49;

Sioux war in, in 1862, 234 ff.

Missionaries, pioneer, 72;

civilization and education of Indians by, 345-346.

Missoula County, Washington Territory, 168.

Missouri Indians, 127.

Modoc Indians, last war of the, 367.

Modoc Jack, 367.

Mojave branch of Southern Pacific Railway, 381-382.

Monroe's policy toward Indians, 18-19;

end of, 357.

Montana, creation of territory of, 169.

Montana settlement, Colorado, 142.

Monteith, Indian Agent, 365.

Mormons, the, 86 ff., 102.

Mowry, Sylvester, 159, 161.

Mullan Road, the, 167, 170.

Murphy, Thomas, Indian superintendent, 312.

Nauvoo, Mormon settlement of, 91-94.

Navaho Indians, 243, 368.

Nebraska, movement for a territory of, 125;

creation of territory of, 129;

boundaries of, 138.

Neutral Line, the, 21.

Nevada, beginnings of, 156-158;

territory of, organized, 158.

New Mexico, the early trade to, 53-69;

boundaries of, in 1854, 139;

during the Civil War, 229-230.

New Ulm, Minnesota, fight with Sioux Indians at, 236-237.

Nez Percé Indians, 164, 363-365;

precipitation of war with, in 1877, 365-366;

defeat and disposal of tribe, 366-367.

Niles, Hezekiah, 60, 79.

Noland, Fent, 42-43.

No Man's Land, 357.

Northern Pacific Railway, 375, 376, 377, 382-383.

Oglala Sioux, 281, 291, 360.

Oklahoma, 357, 386.

Omaha, cause of growth of, 334.

Omaha Indians, 25.

Oregon, fur traders and early pioneers, in, 70-72;

emigration to, in 1844-1847, 75-76;

provisional government organized by settlers in, 79-80;

region included under name, 83-84;

territory of, organized (1848), 85;

population in 1850, 117;

boundaries of, in 1854, 139;

territory of Washington cut from, 163;

railway lines in, 382-383.

Oregon trail, 70-85;

course of the, 78-79;

the Mormons on the, 86 ff.

Osage Indians, 19, 20.

Oto Indians, 127.

Ottawa Indians, 27.

Overland mail, the, 174 ff.

Owyhee mining district, 165.

Paiute Indians, murder of Captain Gunnison by, 205.

Palmer, General William J., 383.

Panic, of 1837, 43-44;

of 1857, 51-52;

of 1873, 377-379.

Parke, Lieut. J. G., survey for Pacific railway by, 207-208.

Peace Commission of 1867, to conclude Cheyenne and Sioux wars,

289-290;

Medicine Lodge treaties concluded by, 292-293;

report of, quoted, 296-298.

Pennsylvania Portage Railway, 325.

Peoria Indians, 30, 127.

Piankashaw Indians, 30, 127.

Pike, Zebulon M., 19, 34, 55.

Pike's Peak, discovery of gold about, 141-142;

the rush to, 142-145;

reaction from boom, 145-146;

origin of Colorado Territory in the Pike's Peak boom, 146-155.

"Pike's Peak Guide," the, 144.

Plum Creek massacre, 250.

Pony express, 158, 182-185.

Pope, Captain John, survey by, 207.

Popular sovereignty, doctrine of, 128.

Poston, Charles D., 159.

Potawatomi Indians, 26-27.

Powder River expedition, 273-274.

Powder River war with Indians, 276-283.

Powell, Major James, 283.

Prairie du Chien, treaty made with Indians at, 20-21;

second treaty of (1830), 25.

Prairie schooners, 64.

Pratt, R. H., education of Indians attempted by, 351.

Price's Missouri expedition, 233.

Quantrill's raid into Kansas, 231-232.

Quapaw Indians, 29.

Railways, early craze for building, 40;

advance of, in the fifties, 51;

first thoughts about a Pacific road, 192 ff.;

surveys for Pacific, 192 ff., 197-203;

bearing of slavery question on transcontinental, 211-214;

Senator Douglas's bill, 213-214;

land grants in aid of, 215-218, 222, 325, 329, 336, 375;

Indian hostilities caused by advance of the, 283;

description of construction of Central Pacific and Union Pacific

roads, 325-335;

scandals connected with building of roads, 335;

description of formal junction of Central Pacific and Union

Pacific, 336-337;

effect of roads in bringing peace upon the plains, 347;

charter acts of the Northern Pacific, Atlantic and Pacific, Texas

Pacific, and Southern Pacific, 375;

slow development of the later Pacific roads, 376;

the five new continental routes and their connections, 379-382;

Northern Pacific, 382-383;

Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, 383;

Denver and Rio Grande, 383-384;

disappearance of frontier through extension of lines of, and

conquest of Great American Desert, 384-386.

Ration system, pauperization of Indians by, 352.

Real estate speculation along western railways, 333-334.

Red Cloud, Indian chief, 274, 281, 283, 291-292, 294, 360.

Reeder, Andrew H., governor of Kansas Territory, 131-133.

_Report on the Condition of the Indian Tribes_, 286-287.

Rhodes, James Ford, cited, 128.

Riggs, Rev. S. R., 239.

Riley, Major, 59-60.

Rio Grande, struggle for the, in Civil War, 228-230.

Robinson, Dr. Charles, 130;

elected governor of Kansas, 133.

_Rocky Mountain News_, the, 144, 150.

Roman Nose, Indian chief, 309.

Ross, John, Cherokee chief, 241.

Russell, William H., 181, 182, 185.

Russell, Majors, and Waddell, firm of, 181.

St. Charles settlement, Colorado, 142;

merged into Denver, 146.

St. Paul, Sioux Indian reserve at, 19;

early fort near site of, 33-34;

first settlement at, 49.

Saline River raid by Indians, 313, 314.

Salt Lake, Frémont's visit to, 74;

settlement of Mormons at, 96;

population of, in 1850, 117-118.

Sand Creek, massacre of Cheyenne Indians at, 260-261.

Sans Arcs Indians, 264.

Santa Fé, trade with, 53-69.

Santa Fé trail, Indians along the, 20;

beginnings of the (1822), 56-58;

course of the, 64-65.

Satanta, Kiowa Indian chief, 306.

Sauk Indians, 21, 25, 26, 127.

Saxton, Lieutenant, 199, 201.

Scandals, railway-building, 335.

Scar-faced Charley, Modoc Indian leader, 367.

Schofield, General John M., 232.

Schools for Indians, 351-352.

Schurz, Carl, policy of, toward Indians, 350.

Seminole Indians, 28-29.

Seneca Indians, 29.

Shannon, Wilson, governor of Kansas, 133, 134.

Shawnee Indians, 23-24, 127.

Sheridan, General, in command against Indians, 310-323;

quoted, 384-385.

Sherman, John, quoted on Indian matters, 285, 289.

Sherman, W. T., quoted, 143-144, 298;

instructions issued to Sheridan by, in Indian war of 1868, 316.

Shoshoni Indians, 123-124, 295.

Sibley, General H. H., 228, 237-238, 362.

Silver mining, 157 ff.

Sioux Indians, treaty of 1825 affecting the, 21;

location of, in 1837, 27;

surrender of lands in Minnesota by, 49;

treaties of 1851 with, 123-124;

war with, in Minnesota, in 1862, 234 ff.;

trial and punishment of, for Minnesota outrages, 239-240;

bands composing the plains Sioux, 264-265;

war with the plains Sioux in 1866, 264-283;

lands assigned to, by Fort Laramie treaty of 1868, 294;

sources of irritation between white settlers and, in 1870, 359;

disturbance of, by discovery of gold in the Black Hills, 359, 361;

war with, in 1876, 362-363;

crushing of, by United States forces, 363.

Sitting Bull, 361;

career of, as leader of insurgent Sioux, 362-363;

settles in Canada, 363;

returns to United States, 369;

death of, 370.

Slade, Jack, 182.

Slavery question, in territories, 128 ff.;

bearing of, on transcontinental railway question, 211-214.

Slough, Colonel John P., 229-230.

Smith, Joseph, 87, 90-93.

Smohalla, medicine-man, 365.

Sod breaking, Iowa, 46.

Solomon River raid, 313, 314.

Southern Pacific Railway, 375-376, 379, 381.

South Pass, the gateway to Oregon, 70.

Southport, founding of, 44.

Spirit Lake massacre, 51.

Stanford, Leland, 220, 336.

Stansbury, Lieutenant, survey by, 112, 113, 203;

quoted, 114-115.

Steamboats as factors in emigration, 40-41, 49.

Steele, Robert W., governor of Jefferson Territory (Colorado), 150,

152, 153, 155.

Stevens, Isaac I., 197-203.

Stuart, Granville and James, 168.

Subsidies to railways, 222, 325, 329, 375.

_See_ Land grants.

Sully, General Alfred, 268, 319.

Surveys for Pacific railway, 192 ff.

Sutter, John A., 104, 107-109.

Sweetwater mines, 301.

Telegraph system, inauguration of transcontinental, 185;

freedom of, from Indian interference, 283.

Ten Eyck, Captain, 280.

Texas, railway building in, 375-376, 377 ff.

Texas Pacific Railway, 375-376, 378, 379.

Thayer, Eli, 129-130.

Tippecanoe, battle of, 17.

Topeka constitution, 133.

Traders, wrongs done to Indians by, 234-235.

Treaties with Indians, 19-20, 123-124, 292-293;

fallacy of, 348-349.

_See_ Indians.

Tucson, 159, 160.

Union Pacific Railway, the, 211 ff.;

reason for name, 221;

incorporation of company, 221;

route of, 221-222;

land grants in aid of, 222 (_see_ Land grants);

financing of project, 222-223;

progress in construction of, 298-299, 301;

description of construction of, 325-335.

Utah, territory of, organized, 101-102;

boundaries of, 139;

partition of Nevada from, 157 ff.;

derivation of name from Ute Indians, 295.

Victorio, Indian chief, 369.

Vigilance committees in mining camps, 172.

Villard, Henry, 145, 182, 186, 382-383.

Vinita, terminus of Atlantic and Pacific road, 377.

Virginia City, 158, 168-169.

Wagons, Conestoga, 41, 64;

overland mail coaches, 178-179;

numbers employed in overland freight business, 190.

Wakarusa War, 133-134.

Walker, General Francis A., 285, 349.

Walker, Robert J., 135.

Washington, creation of territory of, 163;

mining in, 164-166;

a part of Idaho formed from, 166-167.

Washita, battle of the, 317-318.

Wayne, Anthony, 8, 17.

Wea Indians, 30, 127.

Wells, Fargo, and Company, 186, 190.

Whipple, Lieut. A. W., survey for Pacific railway by, 206-207.

White, Dr. Elijah, 75-76.

White Antelope, Indian chief, 256, 260, 313.

Whitman, Marcus, 72, 77, 80-81.

Whitney, Asa, 193, 212.

Willamette provisional government, 79-80.

Williams, Beverly D., 149.

Williamson, Lieut. R. S., survey by, 208.

Wilson, Hill P., Indian trader, 314.

Winnebago Indians, 26.

Wisconsin, opening of, to whites, 21;

territory of, organized, 44.

Wounded Knee, Indian fight at, 370.

Wyeth, Nathaniel J., 72.

Wynkoop, E. W., 255-259, 306, 310, 312-313.

Wyoming, territory of, 299, 302.

Yankton Sioux, the, 25, 166, 264.

Yerba Buena, village of, later San Francisco, 105.

Young, Brigham, 93-94, 96, 97 ff., 206;

made governor of Utah Territory, 101-102.

* * * * * *

Transcribers' note:

Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a

predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were

not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unpaired

quotation marks were retained. For example, the paragraph beginning

on page 311 with "There is little doubt" and ending on page 313 with

"sincerity of their protestations" contains an unpaired quotation

mark.

Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.

Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.

Text uses both "reconnaissance" and "reconnoissance"; both retained.

Text mostly uses "Santa Fé", so three occurrences of "Sante Fé" have

been changed.