COUNSELS OF PERFECTION.
[Sidenote: Precepts.]
=395.= We have now set forth the Stoic theory of ethics, both in its
high philosophic framework and in its more detailed treatment, in which
it prescribes what is to be done and what to be left undone, and how the
soul is to be disciplined in health and medicined in sickness. It remains
for us to study the application of the system to individual cases, a
matter which perhaps lies outside the scope of philosophy as understood
at the present day, but is an essential part of the work of churches and
social organizations. This department of philosophy was termed by the
ancients ‘precepts,’ or (more fully) ‘advice, dissuasion, admonition,
exhortation, consolation, warnings, praise, reproof’ and so forth[1]; by
some philosophers, as for instance by Aristo of Chios, it was held in
contempt, by others (less inclined to Cynism) it was considered alone
worthy of pursuit[2]. But the steady conviction of the main body of
Stoic teachers was that theory and precept must go hand in hand[3]; that
moral principles have no strength apart from their daily application[4],
and that practical suggestions apart from a sound and reasoned system
are like leaves cut from the bough, without lasting greenness[5].
Since precepts apply directly to individual persons and particular
circumstances, they presuppose some relationship between teacher and
hearer[6]; the latter must be either a convert to the school or one who
has grown up under its influence. In the Roman period the department
of precepts is of increasing importance; we have something to learn
from Antipater, Panaetius and Cicero, but we find much more material in
the lectures (διατριβαί, ‘diatribes’) and letters of Musonius, Seneca,
Epictetus and other teachers of the period of the principate.
[Sidenote: Training of the young.]
=396.= The ‘precepts’ which we find illustrated by our various
authorities are not easily systematized, but they have all the more the
charm of personal intimacy; through them we are admitted to the home
life of the Stoics. As Seneca wrote to Lucilius, so every day did Stoic
fathers, Stoic teachers, Stoic jurists, address those who came within
their influence. Believing every man to have the seed of virtue in
him, they had confidence that by their words it would often be stirred
to life[7]; and that in other cases, in which the promising shoot had
become overshadowed by ignorance or evil habits, it would by the same
means begin to grow again[8]. But the full benefits of precepts could
only be seen where they fell on well-prepared ground, and formed part
of a training extending from infancy to the grave; where the instructor
could daily ensure their enforcement and observe their effect. This
opportunity was necessarily found most often in the teaching of the
young; and the Stoic system of precepts, though not restricted to one
period of life, was to a large extent a foreshadowing of a ‘Theory of
Education.’ It was under all circumstances guided by the rule of ‘little
by little.’ Precepts must be few[9], and must be in themselves easy for
the individual to carry out[10]; but by steady practice great things will
be accomplished.
[Sidenote: The teacher’s example.]
=397.= Since the value of precepts depends on the personal influence of
the instructor, it is clear that his example will be of the greatest
importance, and we may first ask what the discipline is to which he
himself submits. Here the Cynic teacher seems to have the advantage, for
he lives in the sight of all men; and the Indian, who allows himself
to be scorched or burnt to show his contempt for pain, makes a still
more forcible appeal[11]. The Stoic does not parade himself in this
fashion, but neither does he lock the door of his private life against
any who wish to examine it[12]. In the early morning he shakes off
sleep, rousing himself to do the day’s work of a man[13]. Having clothed
himself, he turns his mind towards his Maker, and sings his praises;
he resolves during the coming day to cooperate in his purposes, and to
bear cheerfully any burden that may be placed upon him[14]. He will then
give a short time to gymnastic exercises for the good of his health[15];
after which, if his strength allows it, he will take, winter or summer,
a plunge into the cold bath[16]; next comes the slightest of meals[17];
then a short nap or reverie[18]. From this he is aroused by the stir
around him, and he then applies himself to the day’s studies, being
careful to alternate reading and writing, so that his mind may be neither
exhausted by the latter nor relaxed by the former[19]. Later on he will
consider his practical duties towards his relatives, his friends, and
society in general. He will order his household and settle the disputes
of his dependents. He will visit his friends, saying a word here and
there in season[20], but not (like the Cynics) to all and sundry[21]. He
will encourage those who are making progress in virtue, and sharply warn
those who are in danger of a fall[22]. He advises a young mother to nurse
her child at her own breast; and when he meets with objections, points
out the wisdom and propriety of obeying the prescriptions of nature[23].
Returning home, he will again enjoy some slight bodily exercise, joining
perhaps in a game of ball; his thoughts however will not always turn
on success in the game, but he will consider how many principles in
physics and ethics may be illustrated by it[24]. Now that evening comes
on, he sits down to a meal (not over-elaborate) in the company of one
or two favourite pupils[25]. Afterwards comes the temptation to burn
the midnight oil in gathering seeds of wisdom for the morrow from the
well-thumbed manuscript of Cleanthes or, it may be, of Epicurus[26].
Retiring to his chamber, he will examine his conscience, review the
events of the past day, and be at peace with himself before he sleeps[27].
[Sidenote: The child’s life.]
=398.= With the training of children the Stoic teacher is perhaps not
altogether familiar, but he knows its importance[28]; it must be based
on simplicity and austerity, for just at this time indulgence and luxury
are most dangerous stimulants to the passions[29]. The child must learn
to eat and drink in a mannerly way[30], to refrain from loud talking and
laughing[31], to express himself in respectful and graceful words[32]. He
must be taught to do right before he can understand the reason why[33],
or else by doing wrong he will make it difficult for himself afterwards
to do right; he must be ruled until he can rule himself[34]. For this
reason we give children proverbs (_sententiae_) or anecdotes (χρεῖαι) to
write out and learn, such as ‘honesty is the best policy’ or ‘Socrates
being asked of what city he was ...’; and these short pithy sayings sink
deep[35]. But in the school life of children no attempt must be made
to grapple with the real problems of life, because these are too hard
for them, though parents often forget this objection[36]. Games and
amusements may be permitted; for though in discussions on high principle
the Stoics may be entirely opposed to ‘relaxation of soul[37],’ yet in
practical life they freely admit its importance[38]. All dealings with
children should be gentle; the discipline of the rod has long ago been
abandoned by all sensible parents and teachers[39].
[Sidenote: Harm of soft living.]
=399.= Soft living is at all ages to be avoided[40]. It is in these
days a danger to the bodily health; for when a man is accustomed to be
protected from a draught by glass windows, to have his feet kept warm
by foot-warmers constantly renewed, and his dining-room kept at an even
temperature by hot air, the slightest breeze may put him in danger of
his life[41]. Those who envy men who ‘live softly’ forget that their
character becomes soft thereby[42]. In particular clothing should not
be such as altogether to protect the body from heat in summer, and from
cold in winter. It is better to wear one shirt than two, best still to
have only a coat. Then again, if you can bear it, it is better to go
without shoes; for after all to be shod is not very different from being
fettered, and runners do not use shoes[43]. So also avoid luxurious
furniture; of what use is it that couches, tables and beds should be
made of costly woods, and adorned with silver and gold? We eat, drink,
and sleep better without these things. In all these matters the Spartans
set us a good example; for while disease injures the body only, luxury
corrupts both body and soul[44].
[Sidenote: Training of girls.]
=400.= Boys and girls must be educated alike. This nature teaches us, for
we train colts and puppies without any regard for the difference of sex.
The true education of children is in the practice of the virtues, and
these are the same for men and for women. Women need Wisdom to understand
the ordering of a household, Justice to control the servants, Soberness
that they may be modest and unselfish. But they also need Courage; in
spite of the name ‘manliness’ (ἀνδρεία), this is not a virtue reserved
for men. Without it women may be led by threats into immodest acts.
Females of all kinds fight to defend their young; the Amazons too were
good fighters, and it is only for want of practice that women cannot
do the same to-day. That men, being the stronger, should do the heavier
work, and women the lighter, is an arrangement which is often convenient,
but circumstances may require the contrary. Girls at any rate must learn
equally with boys to bear suffering, not to fear death, not to be in low
spirits about anything that happens; to avoid grasping habits, to love
equality and benevolence, and to do no harm to man or woman[45].
[Sidenote: Obedience to parents.]
=401.= Children should obey their parents, but in the spirit of reason.
We do not obey a father who gives orders for the treatment of a sick
person contrary to those of the physician; nor one, who being himself
ill, demands things that are not good for him; nor one who bids his son
steal, or appropriate trust funds, or sacrifice his youthful bloom. We
do not even obey him when he tells us to spell a word wrongly or strike
a false note on the lyre. If your father forbids you to philosophize,
show him by your manner of life, by prompt obedience, by good temper,
by unselfishness, how good a thing philosophy is. But after all, the
command of the universal Father is more urgent upon you; which is, to
be just, kind, benevolent, sober, high-souled; above labours and above
pleasures; pure from all envy and plotting. You need not assume the
outward appearance of a philosopher; for the power of philosophy is in
the innermost part of the soul, which the father can no more reach than
the tyrant[46].
[Sidenote: Example of gladiators and soldiers.]
=402.= The fancy of young men is easily attracted by the vision of
virtue, but it is hard for them to persevere; they are like soft
cheese which slips away from the hook by which it is taken up[47]. We
must therefore put before them an ideal which appeals to them, and in
which the advantages of fixed purpose and severe training are apparent
to the eye. Such is the training of the athlete, the gladiator, and
the soldier[48]. The teachers of wrestling bid the pupil try again
after each fall[49]; the trained boxer is eager to challenge the most
formidable opponent[50]. The gladiator has learnt the lesson that pain is
no evil, when he stands up wounded before a sympathetic crowd and makes
a sign that it matters nothing[51]. But most of all the soldier’s oath
serves as an example, when he pledges himself to serve Caesar faithfully
all his life: let the young philosopher pledge himself to serve his God
as faithfully, to submit to the changes and chances of human life, and to
obey willingly the command to act or to suffer[52]. Without effort, as
Hesiod has taught us, no greatness can be attained[53].
[Sidenote: The ‘contrary twist.’]
=403.= In youth bad habits are apt to acquire some strength before
they can be rooted out, and it will be well to anticipate this evil by
exercising body and soul in advance in a direction contrary to that of
the most common temptations. The teacher will therefore give to his
precepts an exaggerated character, reckoning upon human frailty to bring
about a proper standard in practice[54]. Thus since luxury is a chief
enemy of virtue, the body should at least occasionally be brought low.
A practice approved by the example of eminent men is to mark out from
time to time a few days for the exercise of the simple life; during this
time life is to be maintained on coarse bread and water, in rough dress
and all the surroundings of poverty[55]. Since Cynism is a ‘short cut
to virtue[56],’ philosophers may well employ the methods of Diogenes for
short periods, as a corrective to any tendency to excess; rich people do
as much for love of change[57].
[Sidenote: Personal appearance.]
=404.= On the question of personal appearance there is much to be said on
both sides. Foppishness is a disagreeable vice, and it is contemptible
that a young man should smell of perfumes. On the other hand a total
disregard of appearances is not approved by the Stoics; ‘it is against
nature’ says Seneca ‘to be averse to neatness in appearance[58].’ In
these outward matters a sensible man will conform to fashion, nor will he
wish to make the name of philosopher still more unpopular than it is[59].
The founders of Stoicism laid it down that men and women should wear the
same dress; but the later teachers laid stress on the natural distinction
of the sexes; and to men the beard should be an object of just pride, for
it is more becoming than the cock’s comb, or the lion’s mane[60]. This is
to the Stoic a point of honour; he should part with his head more readily
than with his beard[61]. But the beard may be trimmed; for, as Zeno has
observed, nature provides rather against the ‘too little’ than against
the ‘too much,’ and reason must come to her help. Women do right to
arrange their hair so as to make themselves more beautiful; but for men
any kind of artistic hair-dressing is contemptible[62].
[Sidenote: Solitude and society.]
=405.= The young should train themselves alternately to bear solitude and
to profit by society[63]: since the wise man is never dependent on his
friends, though none can take better advantage of them[64]. In living
alone a man follows the example of the deity, and comes to know his own
heart[65]. But solitude must not be a screen for secret vices; a man
only uses it rightly when he can without shame picture the whole world
watching his hours of privacy[66]. The right choice of friends calls for
true wisdom; for the soul cannot but be soiled by bad company[67]. The
only true friendship is based on the mutual attraction of good folk[68];
therefore the wise are friends one to another even whilst they are
unacquainted[69]. It is well to consider much before choosing a friend,
but afterwards to give him implicit trust[70]; for a true friend is
a second self[71]. Such friendship can only arise from the desire to
love and be loved[72]; those who seek friends for their own advantage,
will be abandoned by them in the day of trial[73]. In the companionship
of well-chosen friends there grows up the ‘common sense,’ which is an
instinctive contact with humanity as a whole, making each man a partner
in the thoughts and needs of all around him. This feeling is a principal
aim of philosophy[74]. But the young philosopher should make no enemies;
he should be free from that dislike of others which so often causes a man
to be disliked, and should remember that he who is an enemy to-day may be
a friend to-morrow[75].
[Sidenote: Comradeship in marriage.]
=406.= As the young Stoic passes from youth to manhood, he will turn
his mind towards marriage as a political and social duty[76]; but if
he is really touched by the divine flame, he will also find in it that
enlargement of his own sympathies and opportunities of which the wise
man is always glad[77]. Under the Roman principate we observe a rapid
development of personal sympathy between husband and wife; and though in
society girls who attended philosophers’ classes had an ill name as being
self-willed and disputatious[78], yet it is from this very circle that
the ideal of a perfect harmony of mind and purpose was developed most
fully. Musonius often speaks on this subject:
‘Husband and wife enter upon a treaty to live and to earn
together, and to have all things in common, soul, body and
property. Unlike the lower animals, which mate at random, man
cannot be content without perfect community of thought and mutual
affection. Marriage is for health and for sickness alike, and
each party will seek to outrun the other in love, not seeking his
own advantage, but that of his partner[79].’
‘A man should look for a healthy body, of middle stature, capable
of hard work, and offering no attraction to the licentious. But
the soul is far more important; for as a crooked stick cannot
be fitted with one that is straight, so there can be no true
agreement except between the good[80].’
Seneca is reticent as to marriage, but we have no reason to doubt that
his life with Paulina was typical of the best Stoic marriages. Thus
he excuses himself for taking more thought for his health than a
philosopher should, by saying that the happiness of Paulina depends upon
it. ‘Her life is wrapped up in mine, for its sake I must take care of my
own. What can be more delightful than to be so dear to one’s wife, that
for her sake one becomes dearer to himself[81]!’
[Sidenote: Celibacy.]
=407.= On the question of marriage Epictetus strikes a contrary note,
characteristic of his time, and of his bias towards Cynic practice:
‘In the present state of things, which is like that of an army
placed in battle order, is it not fit that the Cynic should
without any distraction be employed only on the ministration of
God? To say nothing of other things, a father must have a heating
apparatus for bathing the baby; wool for his wife when she is
delivered, oil, a bed, a cup; and so the furniture of the house
is increased. Where then now is that king, who devotes himself to
the public interests,
“The people’s guardian and so full of cares[82]”
whose duty it is to look after others; to see who uses his wife
well, who uses her badly, who quarrels, who administers his
family well, and who does not? Consider what we are bringing the
Cynic down to, how we are taking his royalty from him[83]!’
To this very definite conception of a celibate order of philosophers,
devoting themselves to the good of humanity and entitled thereby to
become the rulers of society, Musonius makes the following reply in
advance from the true Stoic standpoint:
‘Marriage was no hindrance to Pythagoras, Socrates or Crates;
and who were better philosophers than they? Since marriage is
natural, philosophers should set the example of it. Why else
did the Creator separate the human race into two divisions,
making the honourable parts of the body distinct for each, and
implanting in each a yearning for the other, but that he wished
them to live together and to propagate the race? He who would
destroy marriage, destroys the family and the commonwealth. No
relationship is so essential or so intimate; friend does not
agree so well with friend, nor does a father feel so keenly
separation from his son. And why should a philosopher be
different from other men? Only that which is unbecoming is a
hindrance to a philosopher; but by doing his daily duty as a man
he will become kindlier in disposition and more social in his
thoughts[84].’
[Sidenote: Means of livelihood.]
=408.= The head of a household must have a means of living; and therefore
the making of money (χρηματισμός, _cura rei familiaris_) comes within
the range of precepts. The Greek writers recognised three proper means
of livelihood; (i) from kingship, that is, to be either a king or a
king’s minister or general; (ii) from politics, that is, by acting as
a magistrate or a judge; (iii) from sophistry, that is, by teaching
philosophy to those who are wishing to learn[85]. To each profession
there are obvious objections; indeed the sharp critic of Stoicism can
see no reason why a wise man, who lacks nothing, should trouble himself
about money-making. Each of the three professions named assumes the
existence of men willing to be guided by philosophy, and these are not
easily found. If pupils are taken, the question arises whether fees
should be paid in advance or not. Now it is certainly more reasonable
that a student should only pay if he profits by his teaching; but on the
other hand no one can absolutely promise to make a man good in a year,
and deferred payments are often found unsatisfactory[86]. Under the Roman
principate we hear little of the professions connected with public life;
but it is clear that the teacher and the physician are held in special
regard[87]. Seneca has not the breadth of mind to respect the painter or
the sculptor, any more than the wrestler or the stage-engineer[88]. Yet
Chrysippus had suggested a bolder standpoint when he said that ‘the wise
man will turn three somersaults for a sufficient fee[89]’; and no rule
can be laid down except that a man should earn his own living without
injuring his neighbour[90]. Agriculture, as a calling favourable both to
health of body and to innocence of soul, continued to be praised, but was
seldom practised except as an amusement[91].
[Sidenote: Kingly duties.]
=409.= For every profession philosophy has appropriate precepts,
beginning with the king. There came one day to Musonius a king of Syria,
for in those times there were kings subject to the Roman empire. Musonius
addressed him thus:
‘You ought to be a philosopher as much as I. Your wish is to
protect and benefit your fellow-men; to do that, you must know
what is good and what is evil. A king too must understand
Justice; for wars and revolts come about because men quarrel
about their rights. Also he must show Soberness and Courage, that
he may be an example to his subjects[92]. The ancients thought
that a king should be a living law (νόμος ἔμψυχος), and an
imitator of Zeus. Only a good man can be a good king.’
The king was highly pleased, and asked him to name any boon he would.
‘Abide by my words,’ said Musonius, ‘that will be the best boon both for
me and for you[93].’
Two precepts in particular are addressed to kings. The first, that they
should encourage friends who will speak the truth to them. Even Augustus
Caesar needed this lesson; bitterly as he lamented the deaths of Agrippa
and Maecenas, he would not have allowed them to speak frankly had they
lived[94]. The second, that they should practise clemency, following the
example of Julius Caesar, who destroyed the evidence upon which he might
have punished his enemies[95]. None does this virtue better become than
kings and rulers[96].
[Sidenote: Court life.]
=410.= To the man of high rank it is natural to desire to move in the
society of the great and the powerful. Epictetus gives us a striking
description of the man who desires to be on the list of the ‘Caesaris
amici,’ which he thinks to be a good, though experience shows that it is
not such.
‘Of whom shall we inquire? What more trustworthy witness have we
than this very man who is become Caesar’s friend? “Come forward
and tell us, when did you sleep more quietly, now or before you
became Caesar’s friend?” Immediately you hear the answer, “Stop,
I entreat you, and do not mock me; you know not what miseries
I suffer, and sleep does not come to me; but one comes and
says, Caesar is already awake, he is now going forth; then come
troubles and cares.” “Well, and did you sup with more pleasure,
now or before?” Hear what he says about this also. He says that
if he is not invited, he is pained; and if he is invited, he
sups like a slave with his master, all the while being anxious
that he does not say or do anything foolish. As befits so great
a man, Caesar’s friend, he is afraid that he may lose his head.
I can swear that no man is so stupid as not to bewail his own
misfortunes the nearer he is in friendship to Caesar[97].’
It is exactly under these circumstances that a thorough training in
philosophy is of really practical value.
‘When you are going in to any great personage, remember that
another also from above sees what is going on, and that you
ought to please him rather than that other. He then who sees
from above asks you: “In the schools what used you to say about
exile and bonds and death and disgrace?” “That they are things
indifferent.” “And the end of life, what is it?” “To follow
thee.” “Do you say this now also?” “I do.” Then go in to the
great personage boldly and remember these things: and you will
see what a youth is who has studied these things, when he is
among men who have not studied them. I imagine that you will have
such thoughts as these; “Why do we make such great and so many
preparations for nothing? Is this the thing which is named power?
All this is nothing[98].”’
Yet a wise man will never challenge the anger of the powerful; he will
turn aside from it, as a sailor from a storm[99]. The virtuous affection
of caution must be called in to help him, so many are his dangers.
An independence of look, a slight raising of the voice, an outspoken
expression, an appeal to public opinion, even unsought popularity are
enough to excite suspicion[100]. Perhaps after all the poet may be the
wisest, who advises good men to stay away from court altogether, for it
is a place where there is no room for them[101].
[Sidenote: Life in the city.]
=411.= A common cause of moral corruption is the routine of city life.
Here fashion dictates a round of occupations which are unnatural, but
in which men and women are alike absorbed[102]. Half of the morning
is absorbed in sleep[103]; then follows the visit to the public shows,
which are centres of demoralisation[104], and conversation with numerous
friends, each one of whom suggests some abandonment of principle[105]. In
the clubs all the most worthless members of society foregather[106]. The
baths, which were at one time simply constructed, and for the purpose of
cleanliness, are now instruments of luxury; and the water is now so hot
as to be better fitted for torture than pleasure[107]. For the evening
meal there must always be some novelty discovered, even if it is only to
begin with the dessert and end with the eggs[108]; even the order of the
seasons must be inverted, that roses may adorn the table in winter[109].
Upon the ill-spent day follows a disorderly night, and a heavy headache
the next morning[110]. From the temptations of such a life the adherent
of Stoicism will gladly escape.
[Sidenote: Life in the country.]
=412.= A more real happiness is reserved for the man who gives up town
life for that of the country. For it is most natural to win sustenance
from the earth, which is our common mother, and liberally gives back
many times over what is entrusted to her; and it is more healthy to
live in the open than to be always sheltering in the shade. It matters
little whether one works on one’s own land or on that of another; for
many industrious men have prospered on hired land. There is nothing
disgraceful or unbecoming in any of the work of the farm; to plant trees,
to reap, to tend the vine, to thrash out the corn, are all liberal
occupations. Hesiod the poet tended sheep, and this did not hinder him
from telling the story of the gods. And pasturage is (says Musonius)
perhaps the best of all occupations; for even farm work, if it is
exhausting, demands all the energies of the soul as well as of the body,
whereas whilst tending sheep a man has some time for philosophizing also.
It is true that our young men to-day are too sensitive and too refined to
live a country life; but philosophy would be well rid of these weaklings.
A true lover of philosophy could find no better discipline than to live
with some wise and kindly man in the country, associating with him in
work and in relaxation, at meals and in sleeping, and so ‘learning
goodness,’ as Theognis tells us to do, ‘from the good[111].’
[Sidenote: The householder.]
=413.= Within the household the head of it is a little king, and needs
to display the kingly virtues of Justice and Soberness. In his dealings
with the perverse he must consider how far each man is capable of bearing
the truth[112]. Indeed, willingness to listen to reproof is no small
virtue; few words are best, so that the wrongdoer may be left as far as
possible to correct his own ways[113]. Punishment must be reserved for
extreme cases, and is always to be administered with calmness; it is
felt more keenly when it comes from a merciful master[114]. Persistent
kindness wins over even bad men[115]. It is further the privilege of the
head of a household to distribute kindnesses to those below him. His
wealth he must regard as given him in trust; he is only the steward of
it, and must neither hoard nor waste; for he must give both a debit and
a credit account of all[116]. But if the right use of money causes the
possessor anxious thought, no trace of this should appear to others;
giving should be without hesitation, and as a delight[117]. The good
citizen will pay his taxes with special pleasure, because in his eyes
the welfare of the community stands higher than his own or that of his
family[118]; but he will not refuse a kindness even to an enemy who is
in need[119]; and in giving a farthing to a beggar, he will imply by
his manner that he is only paying what the other is entitled to as his
fellow-man[120]. In short, he will give as he would like to receive[121],
and with the feeling that the chief pleasure of ownership is to share
with another[122].
[Sidenote: Treatment of slaves.]
=414.= The good householder will associate on easy terms with his
slaves, remembering that they too are men, made of flesh and blood as
he is himself[123]. It is however a difficult matter to decide whether
a master should dine with his slave. Men of the old Roman type find
this a disgraceful practice, but the philosopher should decide in its
favour[124]. We do not need to inquire into a man’s social position, if
his character is attractive[125]. Plato has well said that we cannot find
a king who is not descended from a slave, or a slave who is not descended
from a king[126]; and in fact many a Roman slave was far better educated
than his master[127]. Even if we do not suppose that Seneca’s rule was
commonly practised in great Roman houses, the suggestion itself throws
a pleasing light on the position of a Roman slave. But if the master
was thus called upon to ignore differences of social position, as much
might be expected of the slave. With him it was doubtless an instinct
to prize liberty, ‘the power of living as you like,’ as the dearest of
possessions. Yet many a slave who won this reward by years of faithful
service found that liberty delusive, and would have been wiser to stay in
the home where he was valued[128].
[Sidenote: Large families.]
=415.= A question of pressing practical importance is that of large
families (πολυπαιδία). Statesmen have always considered it best that the
homes of citizens should be crowded with children; and for this reason
the laws forbid abortion and the hindrance of conception; they demand
fines for childlessness, and pay honours to those who bring up large
families. Public opinion takes the same view; the father of many children
is honoured as he goes about the city, and how charming is the sight of
a mother surrounded by a swarm of children[129]! No religious procession
is so imposing. For such parents every one feels sympathy, and every one
is prepared to cooperate with them[130]. But nowadays even rich parents
refuse to rear all their children, so that the first-born may be the
richer. But it is better to have many brothers than few; and a brother is
a richer legacy than a fortune. A fortune attracts enemies, but a brother
helps to repel them[131].
[Sidenote: Comfort in poverty.]
=416.= We have now accompanied the man of mature years in his duties
and his temptations: philosophy has also a word to speak with regard
to his trials. It is well indeed if he is convinced that the buffets
of fortune are no real evils; but this doctrine can be supplemented by
other consolations. Of the most bitter of all sufferings, bereavement by
the death of friends and children, we have already spoken; we may now
consider two other conditions usually held to be evil, namely poverty and
exile. In poverty the first comfort is in the observation that poor men
are usually stronger in body than the rich[132], and quite as cheerful
in mind[133]. Further the poor are free from many dangers which beset
the rich; they can travel safely even when highwaymen are watching the
road[134]. Poverty is an aid to philosophy, for a rich man, if he wishes
to philosophize, must freely choose the life of the poor[135]. A poor man
is not troubled by insincere friends[136]. In short, poverty is only hard
for him who kicks against the pricks[137].
[Sidenote: Comfort in exile.]
=417.= The subject of exile has the special interest that in fact so
many philosophers endured this evil. To the Stoic there is in principle
no such thing as exile, since the whole world is his country; but he
does not for this reason disregard other sources of consolation. Cicero
was plainly miserable, not only when he was formally exiled, but also
when he was away from Rome in an honourable position; Seneca at least
made the attempt to bear exile more bravely. Is it then so hard to be
away from one’s native place? Rome is crowded with strangers, who have
come thither for pleasure or profit, study or novelty[138]. True, it is
a beautiful town; but there is no place on earth so bare and unsightly,
not even this Corsica to which Seneca is banished, but that some men
choose it to reside in as a matter of taste[139]. Whole peoples have
changed their abode, and we find Greek cities in the midst of barbarism,
and the Macedonian language in India[140]; wherever he conquers the
Roman dwells[141]. The exile has everywhere the company of the same
stars above[142], of the same conscience within him[143]; even if he is
separated from those near and dear to him, it is not for the first time,
and he can still live with them in his thoughts and affections.
[Sidenote: Old age.]
=418.= Free or slave, rich or poor, powerful or insignificant, wherever
a man stands in the order of society, old age comes at last and
imperiously stops all ambitions. It is, in the general opinion, a time
of sadness[144]; to associate it with pleasure is not scandalous, only
because it is paradoxical[145]. Cicero’s work _de Senectute_ shows how
old age became attractive according to Roman tradition; Seneca is hardly
so successful. With the fading of hope the stimulus to effort dies away
in old age[146]; but though philosophy forbids idleness, nature cries out
for rest. We cannot then approve when old men follow their professional
occupations with undiminished zeal[147], and we must highly blame those
who cannot quit their pleasures[148]. The great boon which old age brings
is leisure; for this many great men, amongst them Augustus, have longed
in vain[149]. This leisure gives the opportunity of making acquaintance
with great men through their books, but better still, that of making
acquaintance with our own selves.
[Sidenote: Musonius’ ‘viaticum.’]
=419.= ‘Give me,’ said one to Musonius, ‘_a viaticum_ for old age.’ He
replied as follows:
‘The rule is the same as for youth, to live methodically and
according to nature[150]. Do not grieve because you are cut
off from the pleasures of youth; for man is no more born for
pleasure than any other animal: indeed man alone is an image of
the deity[151], and has like excellences. And do not consider
the divine excellences as beyond your reach; for we have no
other notion of the gods than such as we derive from observing
good men, whom therefore we call divine and godlike. He who has
acquired in youth sound principles and systematic training will
not be found to complain in old age of the loss of pleasures,
of weakness of body, or because he is neglected by friends and
acquaintance; he will carry about with him a charm against
all these evils, namely his own education. But if he has not
been rightly educated, he will do well to go to a friend wiser
than himself, and listen to his teaching and profit by it. And
specially he will ponder over death, how it comes in nature’s
course to all, and therefore is no evil. With such thoughts he
will be cheerful and contented, and so he will live a happy life.
But let no one say that wealth brings happiness in old age; that
it does not bring a contented spirit is witnessed every day by a
crowd of rich old men, who are in bad temper and low spirits, and
feel deeply aggrieved[152].’
[Sidenote: Will-making.]
=420.= When we see death before us there remains a last act to be
performed. We look at the wealth which no longer belongs to us, and
consider to whom it can most worthily be entrusted. We stand in the
position of a judge who can no longer be bribed, and, with all the wisdom
and good will that we have, we give this last verdict on those around
us[153].
[Sidenote: Death.]
=421.= For death the whole of philosophy is a preparation; yet when it
is no longer a matter of uncertain fear, but close at hand and sure,
some last words are to be said. All this is in the course of nature, is
according to the will of the Creator.
‘God opens the door and says to you, “Go.” “Go whither?” To
nothing terrible, but to the place from which you came, to your
friends and kinsmen, to the elements[154]. What there was in you
of fire goes to fire; of earth, to earth; of air, to air; of
water, to water. There is no Hades, nor Acheron, nor Cocytus,
but all is full of gods and demons[155]. God has invited you; be
content when he calls others to the feast in your place.’
The philosopher does not look forward to renewing his personal life, or
to meeting again with parent, wife, or child. But death is a release from
all his pains and troubles; and he who has striven to live his life well
will know how to meet death also at its due time[156]. If it come to him
in the shipwreck, he will not scream nor blame God; if in the arena,
he will not shrink from his enemy, whether man or beast. In this last
short crisis he will bear witness that he accepts contentedly his mortal
lot[157].
FOOTNOTES
[1] ‘omnia ista [monitiones, consolationes, dissuasiones, adhortationes,
obiurgationes, laudationes] monitionum genera sunt’ Sen. _Ep._ 94, 39.
[2] ‘eam partem philosophiae, quae dat propria cuique personae praecepta
... quidam solam receperunt, sed Ariston Stoicus e contrario hanc partem
levem existimat’ _ib._ 94, 1 and 2. The Cynics gave exhortations, but
without having a system for the purpose. See above, § 52.
[3] ‘Posidonius non tantum praeceptionem, sed etiam suasionem et
consolationem et exhortationem necessariam iudicat’ _ib._ 95, 65. Cf.
Cic. _Off._ i 3, 7; Sen. _Ep._ 94, 34.
[4] ‘ipsum de malis bonisque iudicium confirmatur officiorum exsecutione,
ad quam praecepta perducunt’ _ib._
[5] ‘quemadmodum folia virere per se non possunt, ramum desiderant; sic
ista praecepta, si sola sunt, marcent; infigi volunt sectae’ Sen. _Ep._
95, 59.
[6] See below, § 397, note 21.
[7] Sen. _Ep._ 94, 29 and 108, 8.
[8] ‘inest interim animis voluntas bona, sed torpet; modo deliciis et
situ, modo officii inscitia’ _Ben._ v 25, 6.
[9] ‘plus prodesse, si pauca praecepta sapientiae teneas, sed illa in
promptu tibi et in usu sint, quam si multa quidem didiceris, sed illa
non habeas ad manum’ _Ben._ vii 1, 3; ‘We ought to exercise ourselves in
small things, and beginning with them to proceed to the greater’ Epict.
_Disc._ i 18, 18.
[10] ‘debet semper plus esse virium in actore quam in onere. necesse est
opprimant onera, quae ferente maiora sunt’ Sen. _Dial._ ix 6, 4.
[11] Arnim i 241.
[12] ‘sic certe vivendum est, tanquam in conspectu vivamus’ Sen. _Ep._
83, 1.
[13] ‘In the morning, when you feel loth to rise, fall back upon the
thought “I am rising for man’s work. Why make a grievance of setting
about that for which I was born, and for sake of which I have been
brought into the world? Is the end of my existence to lie snug in the
blankets and keep warm?”’ M. Aurel. _To himself_ v 1.
[14] ‘I obey, I follow, assenting to the words of the Commander, praising
his acts; for I came when it pleased him, and I will also go away when
it pleases him; and while I lived it was my duty to praise God’ Epict.
_Disc._ iii 26, 29 and 30. See also above, § 258.
[15] ‘minimum exercitationi corporis datum’ Sen. _Ep._ 83, 3.
[16] ‘ab hac fatigatione magis quam exercitatione in frigidam descendi’
_ib._ 5.
[17] ‘panis deinde siccus et sine mensa prandium’ _ib._ 6.
[18] ‘brevissimo somno utor et quasi interiungo. satis est mihi vigilare
desiisse. aliquando dormisse me scio, aliquando suspicor’ _ib._
[19] ‘nec scribere tantum nec tantum legere debemus; altera res
contristabit, vires exhauriet (de stilo dico), altera solvet ac diluet’
Sen. _Ep._ 84, 2.
[20] ‘nulli enim nisi audituro dicendum est’ _ib._ 29, 1.
[21] ‘[Diogenes et alii Cynici] libertate promiscua usi sunt et obvios
monuerunt. hoc, mi Lucili, non existimo magno viro faciendum’ _ib._ 29, 1
and 3.
[22] ‘audebo illi mala sua ostendere’ _ib._ 4.
[23] A. Gellius, _N. A._ xii 1. Favorinus, of whom this is related, was
not himself a Stoic.
[24] Sen. _Ben._ ii 17, 3 to 5 and 32, 1 to 4.
[25] See above, § 125, note 90.
[26] ‘at te nocturnis iuvat impallescere chartis; | cultor enim iuvenum
purgatas inseris aures | fruge Cleanthea’ Pers. _Sat._ v 62-64; ‘quid est
tamen, quare tu istas Epicuri voces putes esse, non publicas?’ Sen. _Ep._
8, 8.
[27] ‘qualis ille somnus post recognitionem sui sequitur? quam
tranquillus, quam altus ac liber!’ _Dial._ v 36, 2.
[28] ‘plurimum proderit pueros statim salubriter institui’ _ib._ iv 21, 1.
[29] ‘tenuis ante omnia victus [sit] et non pretiosa vestis’ _ib._ 11;
‘nihil magis facit iracundos quam educatio mollis et blanda’ _ib._ 6.
[30] ‘if he ... eats as a modest man, this is the man who truly
progresses’ Epict. _Disc._ i 4, 20 and 21.
[31] ‘veritatis simplex oratio est’ Sen. _Ep._ 49, 12; ‘Let silence be
the general rule, or let only what is necessary be said, and in a few
words. Let not your laughter be much’ Epict. _Manual_ 33, 2 and 4.
[32] ‘loquendum est pro magnitudine rei impensius et illa
adicienda—pluris quam putas obligasti’ Sen. _Ben._ ii 24, 4.
[33] ‘inbecillioribus quidem ingeniis necesse est aliquem praeire—hoc
vitabis, hoc facies’ _Ep._ 94, 50.
[34] ‘regi ergo debet, dum incipit posse se regere’ _ib._ 51.
[35] ‘facilius singula insidunt circumscripta et carminis modo inclusa.
ideo pueris et sententias ediscendas damus et has quas Graeci chrias
vocant’ _ib._ 33, 6 and 7.
[36] ‘He is ridiculous who says that he wishes to begin with the matters
of real life, for it is not easy to begin with the more difficult things;
and we ought to use this fact as an argument to parents’ Epict. _Disc._ i
26, 4 and 5.
[37] See above, § 316.
[38] ‘lusus quoque proderunt. modica enim voluptas laxat animos et
temperat’ Sen. _Dial._ iv 20, 3; ‘danda est animis remissio’ _ib._ ix 17,
5; ‘mens ad iocos devocanda est’ _ib._ 4.
[39] Chrysippus had approved of the rod: ‘caedi discentis, quamlibet
receptum sit et Chrysippus non improbet, minime velim’ Quint. _Inst. Or._
i 3, 14. But Seneca writes quite otherwise: ‘uter praeceptor dignior, qui
excarnificabit discipulos, si memoria illis non constiterit ... an qui
monitionibus et verecundia emendare ac docere malit?’ _Clem._ i 16, 2 and
3.
[40] ‘fugite delicias, fugite enervatam felicitatem’ Sen. _Dial._ i 4, 9.
[41] ‘quem specularia semper ab adflatu vindicaverunt, cuius pedes inter
fomenta subinde mutata tepuerunt, cuius cenationes subditus ac parietibus
circumfusus calor temperavit, hunc levis aura non sine periculo stringet’
_ib._
[42] ‘audire solemus sic quorundam vitam laudari, quibus
invidetur—molliter vivit hoc dicunt—mollis est’ _Ep._ 82, 2.
[43] Stob. iii 29, 78 (from Musonius).
[44] _ib._ 29, 75.
[45] Muson. apud Stob. ii 31, 123.
[46] Muson. _ib._ iv 79, 25.
[47] ‘It is not easy to exhort weak young men; for neither is it easy to
hold soft cheese with a hook’ Epict. _Disc._ iii 6, 9.
[48] See above, § 326.
[49] ‘See what the trainers of boys do. Has the boy fallen? Rise, they
say, wrestle again till you are made strong’ Epict. _Disc._ iv 9, 15.
[50] ‘[athletis] cura est, cum fortissimis quibusque confligere’ Sen.
_Dial._ i 2, 3.
[51] ‘[gladiator fortissimus] respiciens ad clamantem populum significat
nihil esse et intercedi non patitur’ _ib._ ii 16, 2.
[52] ‘ad hoc sacramentum adacti sumus, ferre mortalia’ _ib._ vii 15, 7;
Epict. _Disc._ i 14, 15 and 16.
[53] See above, § 33; and compare Horace in his Stoic mood: ‘nil sine
magno | vita labore dedit mortalibus’ _Sat._ i 9, 59 and 60.
[54] ‘quaedam praecipimus ultra modum, ut ad verum et suum redeant’ Sen.
_Ben._ vii 22, 1; ‘We ought to oppose to this habit a contrary habit, and
where there is great slipperiness in the appearances, there to oppose the
habit of exercise. I am rather inclined to pleasure; I will incline to
the contrary side above measure for the sake of exercise’ Epict. _Disc._
iii 12, 6 and 7.
[55] ‘interponas aliquot dies, quibus contentus minimo ac vilissimo
cibo, dura atque horrida veste, dicas tibi “hoc est quod timebatur?” ...
grabatus ille verus sit et sagum et panis durus ac sordidus—hoc triduo ac
quatriduo fer’ Sen. _Ep._ 18, 5 and 7; ‘quod tibi scripsi magnos viros
saepe fecisse’ _ib._ 20, 13.
[56] Diog. L. vii 121.
[57] ‘divites sumunt quosdam dies, quibus humi cenent, et remoto auro
argentoque fictilibus utantur’ Sen. _Dial._ xii 12, 3.
[58] ‘contra naturam est faciles odisse munditias’ Sen. _Ep._ 5, 4; ‘I
would rather that a young man, who is making his first movements towards
philosophy, should come to me with his hair carefully trimmed’ Epict.
_Disc._ iv 11, 25.
[59] ‘asperum cultum et intonsum caput et neglegentiorem barbam evita.
intus omnia dissimilia sint, frons populo conveniat’ Sen. _Ep._ 5, 2.
[60] ‘We ought not to confound the distinctions of the sexes.... How much
more becoming is the beard than the cock’s comb and the lion’s mane! For
this reason we ought to preserve the signs which God has given’ Epict.
_Disc._ i 16, 13 and 14.
[61] ‘Come then, Epictetus, shave yourself.’ If I am a philosopher, I
answer, ‘I will not shave myself.’ ‘But I will take off your head.’ ‘If
that will do you any good, take it off’ Epict. _Disc._ i 2, 29.
[62] Stob. iii 6, 24 (from Musonius).
[63] ‘miscenda tamen ista et alternanda [sunt], solitudo ac frequentia’
Sen. _Dial._ ix 17, 3.
[64] ‘ita sapiens se contentus est, non ut velit esse sine amico, sed ut
possit’ _Ep._ 9, 5.
[65] ‘proderit per se ipsum secedere; meliores erimus singuli’ _Dial._
viii 1, 1; ‘A man ought to be prepared in a manner to be able to be
sufficient for himself and to be his own companion. For Zeus dwells by
himself and is tranquil by himself’ Epict. _Disc._ iii 13, 6 and 7.
[66] ‘tunc felicem esse te iudica, cum poteris vivere in publico;
parietes plerumque circumdatos nobis iudicamus, non ut tutius vivamus sed
ut peccemus occultius’ Sen. _Ep._ 43, 3.
[67] ‘It is impossible that a man can keep company with one who is
covered with soot without being partaker of the soot himself’ Epict.
_Disc._ iii 16, 3.
[68] Diog. L. vii 124.
[69] ‘Stoici censent sapientes sapientibus etiam ignotis esse amicos;
nihil est enim virtute amabilius’ Cic. _N. D._ i 44, 121; so Stob. ii 7
11 i.
[70] ‘post amicitiam credendum est, ante amicitiam iudicandum’ Sen. _Ep._
3, 2.
[71] Ζήνων ἐρωτηθεὶς τί ἐστι φίλος “ἄλλος ἐγώ” ἔφη Diog. L. vii 23.
[72] ‘Hecaton ait; ego tibi monstrabo amatorium: si vis amari, ama’ Sen.
_Ep._ 9, 6; ‘multos tibi dabo, qui non amico sed amicitia caruerunt’
_ib._ 6, 3.
[73] _ib._ 9, 8.
[74] ‘hoc primum philosophia promittit, sensum communem, humanitatem et
congregationem’ _ib._ 5, 4; ‘nullius boni sine socio iucunda possessio
est’ _ib._ 6, 4.
[75] ‘monemus, ut ex inimico cogitet fieri posse amicum’ _ib._ 95, 63.
[76] See above, § 349.
[77] ‘[sapiens] ducit uxorem se contentus, et liberos tollit se
contentus’ Sen. _Ep._ 9, 17; ‘If indeed you had [this purpose], you would
be content in sickness, in hunger, and in death. If any among you has
been in love with a charming girl, he knows that I say what is true’
Epict. _Disc._ iii 5, 18 and 19.
[78] ἀλλὰ νὴ Δία, φασί τινες, ὅτι αὐθάδεις ὡς ἐπὶ πολὺ καὶ θρασείας εἶναι
ἀνάγκη τὰς προσιούσας τοῖς φιλοσόφοις γυναῖκας Mus. apud Stob. ii 31, 126.
[79] Stob. iv 22, 90.
[80] Stob. iv 22, 104.
[81] ‘nam cum sciam spiritum illius [sc. Paulinae] in meo verti, incipio,
ut illi consulam, mihi consulere. quid enim iucundius quam uxori tam
carum esse, ut propter hoc tibi carior fias?’ Sen. _Ep._ 104, 2 and 5.
[82] Hom. _Il._ ii 25.
[83] Epict. _Disc._ iii 22, 69 to 75.
[84] Stob. iv 22, 20.
[85] Stob. ii 7, 11 m.
[86] Plut. _Sto. rep._ 20, 10.
[87] ‘omnium horum [medicorum et praeceptorum] apud nos magna caritas,
magna reverentia est’ Sen. _Ben._ vi 15, 1; ‘ex medico ac praeceptore in
amicum transeunt’ _ib._ 16, 1.
[88] _Ep._ 88, 18 and 22.
[89] Plut. _Sto. rep._ 30, 3.
[90] ‘sic in vita sibi quemque petere quod pertineat ad usum, non iniquum
est; alteri deripere ius non est’ Cic. _Off._ iii 10, 42.
[91] See below, § 412.
[92] So too Epictetus: ‘To whose example should [the many] look except
yours [the governors’]?’ _Disc._ iii 4, 3.
[93] Stob. iv 7, 67.
[94] Sen. _Ben._ vi 32, 4.
[95] _Dial._ iv 23, 4.
[96] ‘nullum tamen clementia ex omnibus magis quam regem aut principem
decet’ _Clem._ i 3, 3.
[97] Epict. _Disc._ iv 1, 46 to 50.
[98] _ib._ i 30, 1 to 7.
[99] ‘sapiens nunquam potentium iras provocabit, immo declinabit, non
aliter quam in navigando procellam’ Sen. _Ep._ 14, 7.
[100] _Dial._ iii 18, 2.
[101] ‘exeat aula | qui volet esse pius. virtus et summa potestas | non
coëunt: semper metuet, quem saeva pudebunt’ Lucan _Phars._ viii 493 to
495.
[102] Sen. _Ep._ 77, 6, and 95, 20 and 21.
[103] ‘turpis, qui alto sole semisomnus iacet, cuius vigilia medio die
incipit’ _ib._ 122, 1.
[104] ‘nihil tam damnosum bonis moribus quam in aliquo spectaculo
desidere’ _ib._ 7, 2.
[105] ‘inimica est multorum conversatio; nemo non aliquod nobis vitium
aut commendat aut imprimit aut nescientibus adlinit’ _ib._
[106] ‘vilissimus quisque tempus in aliquo circulo [terit]’ _Dial._ i 5,
4.
[107] _Ep._ 86, 9 and 10.
[108] _ib._ 114, 9.
[109] _ib._ 122, 8.
[110] ‘oculos hesterna graves crapula’ _ib._ 122, 2.
[111] Stob. iv 15, 18. Seneca gives a more qualified approval to country
life: ‘non est per se magistra innocentiae solitudo, nec frugalitatem
docent rura; sed ubi testis et spectator abscessit, vitia subsidunt,
quorum monstrari et conspici fructus est’ _Ep._ 94, 69.
[112] ‘de cetero vide, non tantum an verum sit quod dicis, sed an ille
cui dicitur veri patiens sit’ _Dial._ v 36, 4.
[113] ‘moneri velle ac posse secunda virtus est; flectendus est paucis
animus, sui rector optimus’ _Ben._ v 25, 4.
[114] ‘gravior multo poena videtur, quae a miti viro constituitur’
_Clem._ i 22, 3.
[115] ‘vincit malos pertinax bonitas’ _Ben._ vii 31, 1.
[116] ‘quid tanquam tuo parcis? procurator es, in depositi causa
[divitiae] sunt’ _Ben._ vi 3, 2; ‘donabit cum summo consilio dignissimos
eligens, ut qui meminerit tam expensorum quam acceptorum rationem esse
reddendam’ _ib._ 23, 5.
[117] ‘demus ante omnia libenter, cito, sine ulla dubitatione’ _Ben._ ii
1, 1.
[118] Cic. _Off._ i 17, 57.
[119] ‘non desinemus opem ferre etiam inimicis’ Sen. _Dial._ viii 1, 4.
[120] ‘[sapiens] dabit egenti stipem (non hanc contumeliosam, qua pars
maior horum qui se misericordes videri volunt, abicit et fastidit quos
adiuvat contingique ab his timet) sed ut homo homini ex communi dabit’
_Clem._ ii 6, 2.
[121] ‘sic demus, quomodo vellemus accipere’ _Ben._ ii 1, 1.
[122] ‘nullius boni sine socio iucunda possessio est’ _Ep._ 6, 4.
[123] ‘servi sunt? immo homines. servi sunt? immo humiles amici’ _ib._
47, 1; ‘animas servorum et corpora nostra | materia constare putat
paribusque elementis’ Juv. _Sat._ xiv 16 and 17.
[124] ‘cognovi familiariter te cum servis tuis vivere. hoc eruditionem
decet. rideo istos, qui turpe putant cum servo suo cenare’ Sen. _Ep._ 47,
1 and 2.
[125] ‘refert cuius animi sit, non cuius status’ _Ben._ iii 18, 2.
[126] _Ep._ 44, 4.
[127] ‘[Calvisius Sabinus] magna summa emit servos, unum qui Homerum
teneret, unum qui Hesiodum. novem praeterea lyricis singulos adsignavit.
magno emisse illum non est quod mireris: non invenerat, faciendos
locavit’ _Ep._ 27, 6.
[128] Epict. _Disc._ iv 1, 33 to 40.
[129] But hear Epictetus on the other side: ‘Are those men greater
benefactors to mankind who introduce into the world to occupy their own
places two or three grunting children, or those who superintend as far
as they can all mankind? Did Priamus who begat fifty worthless sons
contribute more to the community than Homer?’ _Disc._ iii 22, 77 and 78.
[130] Stob. iv 24, 15 (from Musonius).
[131] _ib._ 27, 21.
[132] See above, § 399.
[133] ‘compara inter se pauperum et divitum voltus; saepius pauper et
fidelius ridet’ Sen. _Ep._ 80, 6.
[134] ‘etiam in obsessa via pauperi pax est’ _ib._ 14, 9.
[135] ‘si vis vacare animo, aut pauper sis oportet aut pauperi similis’
_ib._ 17, 5.
[136] ‘[paupertas] veros certosque amicos retinebit; discedet quisquis
non te, sed aliud sequebatur. vel ob hoc unum amanda paupertas quod, a
quibus ameris, ostendet’ _ib._ 20, 7.
[137] ‘paupertas nulli malum est nisi repugnanti’ _ib._ 123, 16.
[138] _Dial._ xii 6, 2.
[139] ‘usque eo commutatio ipsa locorum gravis non est, ut hic quoque
locus a patria quosdam abduxerit’ _ib._ 5.
[140] _ib._ 7, 1.
[141] ‘ubicunque vicit Romanus habitat’ _ib._ 7, 7.
[142] _ib._ 8, 6.
[143] ‘licet in exilium euntibus virtutes suas secum ferre’ _ib._ 8, 1.
[144] ‘subeunt morbi tristisque senectus’ Verg. _G._ iii 67 quoted by
Sen. _Ep._ 108, 29.
[145] ‘plena est voluptatis [senectus], si illa scias uti’ Sen. _Ep._ 12,
4.
[146] ‘nihil magis cavendum est senectuti, quam ne languori se
desidiaeque dedat’ Cic. _Off._ i 34, 123; ‘iuvenes possumus discere,
possumus facilem animum et adhuc tractabilem ad meliora convertere’ Sen.
_Ep._ 108, 27.
[147] ‘adeone iuvat occupatum mori?’ Sen. _Dial._ x 20, 3. He instances
an old gentleman of 90, who had consented to resign his official post
at that age; but when the time came, he threw his whole household into
mourning until he got his work back again.
[148] ‘luxuria cum omni aetate turpis, tum senectuti foedissima est’ Cic.
_Off._ i 34, 123.
[149] Sen. _Dial._ x 4, 1 and 2.
[150] τὸ ζῆν ὁδῷ καὶ κατὰ φύσιν.
[151] ἄνθρωπος μίμημα θεοῦ μόνον τῶν ἐπιγείων (see on hymn of Cleanthes,
l. 5, in § 97).
[152] Stob. _Flor._ 117, 8 (M).
[153] ‘ubi mors interclusit omnia et ad ferendam sententiam incorruptum
iudicem misit, quaerimus dignissimos quibus nostra tradamus; nec quicquam
cura sanctiore componimus quam quod ad nos non pertinet’ Sen. _Ben._ iv
11, 5.
[154] ‘reverti unde veneris quid grave est?’ _Dial._ ix 11, 4.
[155] Epict. _Disc._ iii 13, 14 and 15; _ib._ iv 1, 106.
[156] ‘male vivet quisquis nesciet bene mori’ Sen. _Dial._ ix 11, 4; and
see above, §§ 298, 299.
[157] ‘quod tam cito fit, timetis diu?’ Sen. _Dial._ i 6, 9; ‘puto
fortiorem eum esse, qui in ipsa morte est quam qui circa mortem. mors
enim admota etiam imperitis animum dedit non vitandi inevitabilia; sic
gladiator tota pugna timidissimus iugulum adversario praestat et errantem
gladium sibi adtemperat’ _Ep._ 30, 8; ‘the ship is sinking! what then
have I to do? I do the only thing that I can, not to be drowned full
of fear, nor screaming nor blaming God, but knowing that what has been
produced must also perish; for I am not an immortal being’ Epict. _Disc._
ii 5, 11 to 13.