THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER; EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS OF
GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE
As during a long period in the history of geography it was usual to
limit the connotation of the term, so, when a wider connotation came
to be recognized, there naturally followed the creation of certain
clearly-defined departments of study under distinguishing titles.
The whole structure of geography rests upon two great pillars--upon
exploration and upon measurement. With the main lines of exploration
we have dealt in preceding chapters, and we have carried that part
of our history which deals with precise measurement down to the
close of the eighteenth century and the institution of the ordnance
survey of Great Britain (Chapter X.). The early part of the sixteenth
century witnessed the birth of accurate land-measurement; the early
part of the nineteenth its re-birth as a function of organized
state-administration. The Indian trigonometrical survey, with which
the names of Col. W. Lambton and afterwards Sir George Everest are
associated, was begun in 1800; a famous survey of Switzerland,
coupled with the name of Gen. H. Dufour, was undertaken in 1809, one
of Austria-Hungary in 1816, one of France in 1817; what is now the
territory of the German Empire was already fairly represented on
local maps when a general survey was undertaken in 1878. Indeed, all
European countries may be said to be completely surveyed except certain
of the Balkan States, though Russia is much behind in this respect.
It must not be forgotten that the processes of close survey are slow:
the primary triangulation of Great Britain was only completed in 1858,
though the filling-in of details of course proceeded concurrently. And
the survey never stands still; there is always revisional work to do.
As concerns the British Empire, it has been an unrealized ideal that
a territory should be surveyed as soon as possible after occupation,
and it was not until 1905 that the defects and lack of system in the
mapping of British territories generally were sufficiently widely
realized to cause the creation of a Colonial Survey Committee as a
central advisory and supervisory body.
Geodetic survey steadily advanced during the nineteenth century, from
the work of Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in East Prussia in 1838--of the
highest importance owing to the systematic accuracy of the observations
and their calculation (on the principle of “least squares”)--down to
the institution of the International Geodetic Association (Erdmessung),
which had its origin in a proposal of the Prussian General, J. J.
Baeyer, in 1862, and has headquarters near Potsdam, over twenty
European, American, and Asiatic countries being represented in it. The
accuracy of instruments has been carried far above the standard of
those referred to in an earlier chapter. As an illustration we have
only to trace the mechanical methods of measuring a baseline or other
distance on the surface, from that of counting the revolutions of a
wheel, up to that of employing rods of metal or other substance, or
chains--methods associated with the endeavour to compensate for or
overcome even the slight contraction or expansion of a rod, due to
variation of temperature, which might vitiate the results, culminating
in the discovery (in France in 1896) of invar, an alloy for practical
purposes invariable, when applied to the measurement of baselines by
means of such apparatus as that of E. Jäderin of Stockholm.
The work of the cartographer, as exemplified in atlases and small-scale
maps of general utility, has by no means in all cases followed the
high standard of the surveyor. Commercial considerations are not to
be overlooked; cheap and rapid methods of reproduction bring their
temptations as well as their advantages to bear upon cartography. Their
advantages are manifest; the map, whether as an adjunct to travel or
as a graphic illustration of a great variety of subjects, has become
a commodity of almost daily use. But in some countries, such as the
United States, the standard of cartography generally is as low as
that of the maps of the survey is high. The reduction and selection
of details from a large-scale survey for use on a small general map,
the methods of representing such details, the permissible limit of
generalizing them, the choice of colours--these and other aspects of
cartography really demand a scientific standard as exalted in its way
as that of the surveyor. That standard has been most firmly upheld
in Germany, in such geographical establishments as that founded by
Justus Perthes at Gotha in 1785, which publishes the famous general
atlas originally formed by A. Stieler in 1817–32, the physical atlas
of H. Berghaus (1838–42), and many other such works. Other names of
individual workers in the same field come readily to the mind--H.
Kiepert, A. Petermann, K. von Spruner, Behm, Supan, Langhans, Andree,
Debes, A. Ravenstein. The British and French lists are shorter, though
the names of John Bartholomew, W. and A. K. Johnston, Edward Stanford
and George Philip, Vivien de St. Martin, F. Schrader and Vidal de la
Blache must be remembered.
After many years of effort on the part of the International
Geographical Congress, a conference consisting of official delegates
from most civilized states met in 1909 to deliberate on the methods
to be adopted in the construction of an international map of the
world. After much discussion a series of regulations was drawn up to
be followed by each country in producing a map of its territories on
the scale of 1/1,000,000, or about sixteen miles to the inch. The
projection will, of course, be uniform, and altitudes are shown by
layers of different tints from sea-level upwards. Actual experience may
no doubt demand certain modifications, but it will be a great advantage
to have an authoritative map of the world on a strictly uniform plan.
As to the progress of geodesy in recent years, in 1899–1902 an arc was
measured in the extreme north in Spitsbergen, by Swedish and Russian
workers (P. G. Rosen, O. Bäcklund, and others), while Sir David Gill,
as director of the Royal Observatory in Cape Town, subsequently
initiated the measurement of a great arc in Africa along the meridian
of 30° E. These arcs are capable of connection through Asia Minor and
Europe, by which means a continuous measured arc of 105° would be
obtained. The arc of Quito (Peru) was re-measured in 1901–06 under the
direction of the French Academy of Sciences; a great arc in 98° in the
United States of America has been undertaken by the Coast and Geodetic
Survey, and these again are capable of ultimate connection. Other arcs
of special importance have been measured in Europe and India.
Geomorphology, though not accepted without demur as a definite branch
of science in itself, has at last come to be generally recognized as
a convenient term to connote the study of terrestrial relief. Elie
de Beaumont in 1852 enunciated with too great precision the theory
that similarity of orientation was a standard test of similarity
in the age and origin of the great mountain chains. Lowthian Green
in 1875 proposed his tetrahedral theory of the disposition of the
continents and the ocean basins, on the ground that a sphere undergoing
contraction tends to assume the form of a tetrahedron, or body enclosed
by four equal equilateral triangles. He applied this theory to the form
of the spherical earth at its present stage of contraction, indicated
how far it accounted for the present distribution of land and sea, and
attempted to give reasons for its failure to do so in certain respects.
Professor C. Lapworth in 1892 stated his theory of folding, according
to which the continents are the arches of vast folds in the crust of
the earth, and the ocean basins the troughs between them. E. Suess
has modified this view in his treatise _Das Antlitz der Erde_ (The
Face of the Earth), 1885–1901. Sir George Darwin invoked the effects
of tidal strain upon the crust, associating this with the form of the
continents. The subject, which has also been dealt with by Professors
J. W. Gregory and A. E. H. Love, M. Bertrand, A. de Lapparent, and A.
Supan, among others, has thus been approached from both the purely
physical and the mathematical standpoint, but the problem has not
reached its solution.
We have already given sufficient indication that the exact scope of
geography has not been found easy to define by common consent; that
fact does not lighten the task of tracing its development in the
nineteenth century. It is not inconceivable that on one view of the
subject this volume should have concluded with the preceding paragraph.
On the other hand, the new value attaching to the geographical
studies of distribution and environment makes it imperative to carry
the story further. These studies have not only been systematized in
themselves, but have become complementary of other sciences, and
thus we find the term “geography” incorporated in certain scientific
compounds--zoogeography or zoological distribution; anthropogeography,
the distribution of mankind; biogeography, the distribution of living
things generally--or perhaps more mercifully treated in such phrases
as “plant geography.” Zoogeography and plant geography are concerned
with the division of the earth’s surface into regions possessing
individual characteristics in regard to their fauna or flora. The
principle of regional division, indeed, has become a leading principle
of geographical research, in regard not only to fauna and flora, but to
man as well; to the physical characters of the land, and to climatic
conditions.
The general tendency towards scientific specialization has resulted
in the erection, as it were, of separate laboratories for the study
of certain specific features of the physical earth, each with its
name-plate upon the door. From some of these--as from meteorology and
geology--the geographer, in the course of the studies we have just
outlined, borrows such data as are necessary to his purpose, and puts
them to his special uses. It is no part of a history of geography
to deal with that of meteorology or of geology, though both these
sciences are fundamentally geographical, owe an obvious debt to
exploration and travel, and make ample use of cartography. On the other
hand, there are some departments of research which, though standing
under their own names, are grouped perhaps more closely as offspring
of physical geography. Such are oceanography (the study of the sea),
limnology (the study of lakes), potamology (that of rivers). The last
term might be justified on the ground that it helps to lighten the
burden of different meanings which rests upon the term “hydrography”;
it at any rate defines a clear field of study which, in view of its
practical importance, has attracted much recent attention. The study
of lakes--the depth, movement, and composition of their waters,
the life in them, the physical nature of their basins--which was
practically initiated by Professor F. A. Forel’s investigations of Lake
Geneva published in 1892–94, has already a notable monument in the
bathymetrical survey of the Scottish fresh-water lochs, completed under
Sir John Murray’s direction in 1908.
The line between these various branches of science is for our present
purpose difficult to draw; but at the risk of a charge of arbitrary
treatment it appears pertinent to refer to certain facts in the
history of oceanography. As an organized department this is no less a
creation of the nineteenth century than others we have named. Among
ancient geographers there was certainly some speculation as to the
physical character of the seas, known and unknown. From a very early
period sounding in shallow waters has been recognized as a method
of navigation, and Strabo, for example, displays some knowledge of
the greater depths of the Mediterranean. But to mere navigation a
close study of the sea was not essential, and explorers with their
eyes fixed on distant lands were concerned merely to make the best
of their way over the intervening waters. It is not, therefore,
until towards the close of the eighteenth century, the period of
the scientific exploration of the Arctic region and of Cook’s great
voyages--exploration necessarily carried out mainly on shipboard--that
any systematic investigation of the deep seas is found. Phipps,
Scoresby, John and James Clark Ross, and especially the last, made deep
soundings; but the whole subject of oceanography may be said to have
been first organized by Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806–73), an American
naval officer, who, after his appointment to the United States Dépôt
of Charts and Instruments (which became the Hydrographic Office),
systematized the collection of navigators’ observations on winds and
currents, while his example inspired the establishment of similar
collections in other countries. He also devoted himself to the study of
the relief of the ocean floor, an investigation which was forwarded by
the invention of a compatriot, J. M. Brooke, of the United States Navy,
who introduced the principle of sounding in great depths by means of a
lead which was detached from the line on reaching the bottom, so that
the line might be easily hauled aboard. Maury published his _Physical
Geography of the Sea_ in 1855. Meanwhile the possibility of connecting
England and America by submarine telegraphic cable had been discussed
ten years earlier. Communication across the Channel with France had
been successfully established in 1851, and in 1856 the first signals
passed across the Atlantic. This first trans-oceanic cable survived
only for a little, but the investigation of the sea-floor had now
acquired a commercial as well as a scientific interest.
As early as 1834 Edward Forbes had made biological investigations
in the Irish Sea, and in 1841–42 in the Mediterranean; while in
1868–70 similar studies, together with soundings and observations
for water-temperature, salinity, and deposits, were carried on
in the British seas, the Bay of Biscay, and the Mediterranean by
investigators on board vessels of the Royal Navy--the _Lightning_,
_Porcupine_, and _Shearwater_. This and similar work elsewhere was
preparatory to the greatest of all marine scientific expeditions, that
of H.M.S. _Challenger_ in 1872–76. That vessel was commissioned at the
instigation of the Royal Society, in command of Captain (afterwards
Sir) George Nares, and a scientific staff under Sir C. Wyville Thompson
as director, and including Sir John Murray, H. N. Moseley, and J. Y.
Buchanan. The Atlantic was the first field of study, and was crossed
several times; the southern ocean was then traversed south-east and
east from Cape Town; the _Challenger_ was the first steamer to cross
the Antarctic circle, and afterwards proceeded into the Pacific. The
route now lay from Melbourne to New Zealand, Fiji, Torres Strait, the
Malay Archipelago, and Chinese and Japanese waters, after which the
Pacific was crossed from Yokohama by Honolulu and Tahiti to Valparaiso.
The homeward route lay by the Straits of Magellan, Montevideo,
Ascension Island, and the Azores. Every branch of oceanographical
research was fully dealt with in the fifty volumes of reports upon the
voyage. More lately other vessels of the British, American, German,
and other navies have been detailed for scientific research; and cable
laying has afforded additional opportunities. Mention must be made of
the Dutch expedition in the eastern Malay seas on board the _Siboga_
in 1899–1900, the work of the German surveying vessel _Planet_ in the
Pacific and elsewhere in 1906 and following years, and the Atlantic
expedition of Sir John Murray and Dr. Johan Hiort on the _Michael Sars_
in 1910. The observations of the last-named expedition, especially
on the distribution of life in the sea, are of the first importance.
Oceanographical work has remained an integral function of scientific
expeditions in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Among the names
of investigators which are specially identified with oceanography
(independently of other departments of geographical research) reference
is perhaps most justly due to those of Professor Alexander Agassiz
in the United States, and the Prince of Monaco. The establishment of
the International Council for the Study of the Sea in 1901, nominated
by nine European Governments, with its headquarters in Copenhagen,
was not only an outstanding event in the history of the science at
large, but also draws attention to one of its most important practical
applications, for the Council is specially concerned with the study and
improvement of the fisheries in the North Sea and other European waters.
The educational value of geography, as we have seen, was recognized in
a practical manner by Newton; and towards the close of the eighteenth
century physical geography was taken as a lecture-subject by the
philosopher Immanuel Kant at Königsberg, and by him was given exalted
rank as a “summary of nature.” Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
further systematized the theory of the control of land-forms and
climate over the distribution and habits of plants, animals, and man,
and was able to draw not only upon the collection of facts made by
other travellers, but also upon his own observations. His journey
in 1799–1802 in America, during which he explored the Orinoco and
discovered its connection with the Amazon through the Casiquiare, and
visited Cuba, Quito and Mount Chimborazo, and Mexico, was the practical
foundation of his scientific career. In the course of it he collected
material for his researches into temperature at different elevations,
into plant geography, terrestrial magnetism, volcanic phenomena, and
much besides, while he also travelled through Russia to the Yenisei in
1829. In the work of Karl Ritter (1779–1859) is found the importance of
establishing comparisons and investigating differences between similar
regions in different parts of the world. Oscar Peschel (1826–75)
corrected Ritter’s marked tendency to give excessive prominence
to historical detail. The exposition of theoretical geography was
carried on by Ferdinand von Richthofen, Hermann Wagner, and Friedrich
Ratzel; and with the work of these and other leaders in the school of
German geographical thinkers and teachers is associated the German
pre-eminence in cartography during the nineteenth century, in which
connection a passing tribute should be paid to Humboldt’s introduction
to cartographers of the principle of drawing upon maps lines to show
areas of equal temperature (isotherms), rainfall, etc.
Geography as an educational subject of widely-recognized value is
coming by its rights, though the majority of the last generation may
recall it as affording little else than superficial instruction in
the position of countries, places, mountains, and rivers. But now,
not only in Germany, but in Great Britain and elsewhere, it has
been widely adopted as an examination-subject in both primary and
secondary education, as well as for certain specific purposes, and
geographical chairs or lectureships have been established in a number
of universities. The fostering of geography as an educational subject
has been one of the great tasks, and that of furthering exploratory and
other research another, of the many geographical societies which have
been founded throughout the civilized world in the nineteenth century
and after. That of Paris in 1825, and that of Berlin in 1827, are the
oldest of these now flourishing, though with the Royal Geographical
Society in London (1830) was merged the older African Association.
The theory of evolution, as set forth by Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel
Wallace, Sir Joseph Hooker, and others in the middle of the nineteenth
century, has clearly the closest relationship with the geographical
theory of the control exercised by environment; it has become,
indeed, its fundamental principle. Darwin accompanied the _Beagle_
surveying expedition round the world in 1831–36, and his observations
during the voyage qualified him for his life-work. Wallace’s study
of the distribution of animals brings at once to the mind his line
of demarcation between faunal regions passing through the Malay
Archipelago. Hooker was prepared for his interest in plant geography
by his voyage with Ross to the Antarctic, by his travels in northern
India (1847–51), and other journeys of wide range. Such men were
geographers though their fame does not name them so. The application of
geographical method is either essential or at least valuable in every
branch of natural science; in itself it fulfils functions which the
other natural sciences, taken individually, do not, and that is its
justification.
SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHY
A general history of geography (mainly, however, concerned with
exploration and mapping) is Vivien de Saint-Martin’s _Histoire de la
Géographie_ (Paris, 1873); a short historical review dealing more
especially with geographical theory will be found in H. Wagner’s
_Lehrbuch der Geographie_ (Leipzig, 1900). No English parallels to
these works are to be cited, but reference may be made to H. R. Mill’s
_International Geography_ (1897) and his article on “Geography” and
E. G. Ravenstein’s on “Map” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ (eleventh
edition). On the earliest period see E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient
Geography_ (2 vols., London, 1879), and H. F. Tozer, _History of
Ancient Geography_ (1897), in the Cambridge Geographical Series; on the
“dark age” and down to 1460, C. R. Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_
(3 vols., London, 1897–1906); the sixteenth century is principally
covered by the voluminous literature on Columbus, such as Sir C. R.
Markham’s _Life of Christopher Columbus_ (London, 1892), E. J. Payne’s
_History of the New World called America_ (Vol. I., Oxford, 1892); on
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, E. Heawood, _Geographical
Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries_ (Cambridge
Geographical Series, 1912). Some of the earlier theoretical works
have been cited in the text; a few modern works representative of the
various departments of geography may be mentioned here. Those of which
the prime purpose is description are represented by E. Reclus’s _La
Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_ (19 vols., Paris, 1876–95; there is
an English translation) and by _Stanford’s Compendium of Geography
and Travel_ (various authors.) F. Ratzel, _Anthropogeographie_
(2 vols., Stuttgart, c. 1891); Ellen C. Semple, _Influences of
Geographic Environment_ (London, 1911); E. Suess, _Das Antlitz der
Erde_ (translated as _The Face of the Earth_, Oxford, 1904); G. G.
Chisholm, _Manual of Commercial Geography_ (1890 and later editions);
and volumes of the Cambridge Geographical Series already referred to
may be taken as representative of various departments of geography
of which an outline has been attempted in the last chapter of this
book. A. R. Clarke’s _Geodesy_, the section of the article on “Map”
in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ by the same writer, and Col. C. F.
Close, for projections, and H. M. Wilson’s _Topographic Surveying_
(New York and London, 1901) are to be referred to in the department of
mathematical geography, but this subject has to be pursued mainly in
official publications and scientific journals. For illustrations of
cartographical method it is unnecessary in order to study the highest
development of large-scale mapping to go beyond the Ordnance Survey of
Great Britain and (particularly as illustrating the layer system of
showing relief) the reduction therefrom by Bartholomew (Edinburgh),
whose cartographical methods in such special scientific applications
as meteorology, the distribution of population, etc., also render
it unnecessary to consider sources other than English. But for best
examples of the map-making art combined with the most careful use of
existing data in the compilation of topographical atlases, such a work
as Stieler’s Hand Atlas (Justus Perthes, Gotha) must be studied. There
are examples of cartographical work from all periods in E. A. Reeves’s
_Maps and Map-making_ (London, Royal Geographical Society, 1910),
a series of three lectures on the history and methods of surveying
and cartography. Ancient methods may be studied in several facsimile
atlases, such as A. E. Nordenskiöld’s (Stockholm, 1889). The student
of oceanography must consult the “Narrative” of the _Challenger_
expedition by Sir John Murray, forming two of the fifty volumes of the
Report of that great undertaking. Special treatises on the subject are
those by Otto Krümmel, _Handbuch der Oceanographie_; Murray and Hjört,
_The Depths of the Ocean_; Fowler, _Science of the Sea_ (elementary);
Richard, _L’Océanographie_; Thoulet, _L’Océan, ses Lois et ses
Problèmes_. On limnology (the study of lakes) see Forel’s _Handbuch der
Seenkunde_.
INDEX
Abruzzi, Duke of, 114, 126
Abu Zaid, 40
Abyssinia, 44, 54, 108, 110, 111
Adam of Bremen, 36
Adams, William, 71
Adare, Cape, 131
Adélie Land, 130, 133
Ægean civilisation, 4
Æschylus, 10
Afghanistan, 115
Africa, 5, 7, 13, 27, 31, 39, 50, 51, 53, 55, 57, 99, 113,107–14
African Association, 108, 146
Agartharchides of Cnidus, 23
Agassiz, Alexander, 144
Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 25
Alaska, 78
Albert Edward, Lake, 113
---- Nyanza, 111, 113
Alexander Island, 128
---- the Great, 20
Alfred the Great, 37
Alleghany Mts., 67
Almagro, Diego, 66
Al-Mamun, Caliph, 39
Alonzo, Martin, 59
Amazon, River, 62, 66, 67
America. _See_ North America, South America
Amundsen, Capt Roald, 127, 133
Amur, River, 72
Anaximander, 9
Anaximenes, 9
Andrada, Antonio, 72
Andree, 137
Angelus, Jacobus, 54
Angola, 53
Antarctic regions, 81, 128–134
Antilles, 61
Antillia, 56, 58
Antipodes, 23, 36
Antœci, 23
Antonine Itinerary, 26
Apianus, Peter, 97, 99, 104
Arabia, 13, 73, 117
Arabs, 39
Arctic regions, 44, 74, 122
Aristagoras, 9
Aristotle, 19
Arkansas, 69
Arrowsmith, Aaron, 104
Asia, 9, 13, 20, 27, 39, 42, 71, 72
Asia Minor, 7, 8, 71
Astrolabe, 90
Atlantis, 18, 56
Australia, 69, 83, 85, 87, 89, 117–21
Avila, Gil Gonçalez de, 64
Azores, 50, 52
Azov, Sea of, 14, 30
Babbage, 120
Babylonia, 3
Bäcklund, O., 138
Bacon, Roger, 43
Baeyer, 77, 136
Baffin Bay, 123
---- Land, 77
----, William, 77, 123
Bahr-el-Ghazal, 114
Baker, Samuel, 111
Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, 64
Balleny, John, 129
Baltic Sea, 21, 30, 41
Baluchistan, 115
Barents, William, 79
Barlæus, Kaspar, 84
Barrow, Pt., 123
----, Sir John, 122
Barth, H., 109
Bartholomew, John, 138
Bass, George, 117
---- Strait, 117
Batavia, 87
Beatus, 39
Beaufort Sea, 128
Beaumont, Elie de, 139
Bede, the Venerable, 36
Behaim, Martin, 57
Behm, 137
Bellingshausen, Fabian von, 89, 128
Bengal, 104
Benin, Bight of, 6
Bent, J. T., 117
Berghaus, H., 137
Bering Strait, 80, 122
----, Vitus, 80
Berlinghieri, Francesco, 55
Bertrand, M., 139
Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 136
Best, Capt., 71
Bianco, Andrea, 56
Bienewitz, Philip, 102
Biogeography, 140
Biscoe Is., 129
----, John, 129
Blache, Vidal de la, 138
Black Sea, 14, 30, 49
Blue Nile, 103
Blunt, Wilfrid, 117
Bonvalot, 116
Borchgrevink, C. E., 131
Bornu, 109
Borough, Stephen, 79
Borysthenes, River, 14
Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, 85
Bouguer, Pierre, 96
Bouvet Is., 86, 131
----, Lozier, 86
Bower, Hamilton, 116
Boyle, George, 73
Brahmaputra, River, 115
Brazil, 56, 60, 62, 66, 82
Britain, 5, 6, 21, 30, 37, 118
Brooke, J. M., 142
Bruce, James, 108
----, W. S., 132
Brunel, Olivier, 79
Buache, P., 101
Buchanan, T. Y., 143
Burckhardt, J. L., 117
Burke, Robert, 121
Burroughs, Christopher, 71
Burrus, 101
Burton, R. F., 110, 117
Button, Sir Thomas, 77
Byron, John, 85
Cabot, John, 61, 75
----, Sebastian, 79
Cabral, 62
Cadamosto, Aloise, 52
Cæsar, Julius, 24
Caillié, R., 109
California, Gulf of, 65
Cameron, Lovett, 113
Canada, 67
Canary Islands, 18, 27, 52
Cano, Sebastian del, 65
Canton, 69
Cão, Diogo, 53
Cape of Good Hope, 5, 53, 68
Cape Verde Islands, 52
Carpentaria, Gulf of, 70, 118
Carpenter, Nathanael, 105
Carpini, Joannes de Plano, 42
Carteret, Philip, 85
Carthage, 5
Cartier, Jacques, 66
Cartography. _See_ Map-making
Caspian Sea, 30, 39, 49, 71
Cassini, J. and D., 95, 104
Catalan map, 50
Catalonians, 49
Cavendish, Sir Thomas, 67
Ceylon, 31, 50, 57
Chad, Lake, 109
Challenger, 130, 143
Champlain, Samuel, 67
Chancellor, Richard, 79
Charcot, J. B., 132
Chelyuskin, Lieut. T., 80
Chile, 66
China, 3, 30, 34, 43, 44, 71, 117
Chorography, 104
Chronometer, 97
Chrysoloras, Emanuel, 54
Cintra, Pedro de, 52
Clapperton, H., 109
Clarke, Capt., 122
Cluverius, Philip, 105
Coats Land, 132, 133
Cochin-China, 72
Columbus, Christopher, 56, 59
Compass, 48
Condamine, Charles de la, 96
Congo Free State, 113
---- River, 53, 103, 113, 114
Cook Archipelago, 88
Cook, Captain James, 78, 87, 103, 122
Coppermine River, 78
Cordova, Hernandez de, 64
Cortereal, Gaspar, 75
Cortez, 65
Covilhão, Pedro de, 53
Crates of Mallus, 23
Crete, 4, 18
Cross-staff, 91
Crozet Is., 86
Cruquius, M. S., 101
Crusades, 42, 48
Cuba, 61
Cunningham, 119
Cyrus, 17
Dahna, 117
d’Ailly, Cardinal, 56
Dampier, William, 85
Danes, 125, 127
Danfrie, 93
D’Anville, J. B. B., 103, 108
Darling, River, 119
Darwin, Charles, 146
----, Sir George, 139
David, T. W, E., 132
Davis, Edward, 84
----, John, 70, 77
---- Strait, 77
Deasy, Capt. H. H. P., 116
Debes, 137
Delisle, 9, 103
De Long, 127
Democritus of Abdera, 17
d’Entrecasteaux, 89
Desbarres, J. F. W., 103
Desideri, Fra, 72
Dezhnev, Simon, 80
Diaz, Bartolomeu, 53, 82
Dicæarchus of Messana, 20
Dicuil, 36
Digges, Leonard, 93
Diopler, 90
Dominica, 61
Donis. _See_ Germanus
Doughty, Charles, 117
Drake, Sir Francis, 66, 84
Drygalski, E. von, 132
Dufour, Gen. H., 135
Dupain-Triel, 101
Duperrey, Louis, 89
D’Urville, Dumont, 89, 129
Dutch East India Co., 69
Earth, figure of, 19, 22, 34, 36, 43, 81, 90, 94, 104
Easter Island, 84
East India Co., 70, 115
---- Indies, 68
Egypt, 3, 7
Elephantine, 16
Emin Pasha, 113
Enderby Bros., 129
---- Land, 129
Ephemerides, 97
Ephorus of Cyme, 18
Equator, 21, 62
Eratosthenes, 22
Erebus, Mt., 130, 131
Eric the Red, 75
Erichsen, L. Mylius, 127
Ericsson, Leif, 75
Eskimo, 2
Eudoxus of Cnidus, 19
---- of Cyzicus, 24
Europe, 9, 13, 14, 27, 39
Europus, 10
Everest, Sir George, 135
Eyre, 120
Faeröe Islands, 37
Fernandez, John, 52
Fernel, Jean, 93
Filchner, Lieut., 133
Firmianus, Lactantius, 34
Flinders, Matthew, 117
Florida, 64, 66
Forbes, Edward, 143
Forel, F. A., 141
Forrest, Sir J., 121
Fortunate Isles, 27
Franklin, J., 122, 123
Franz Josef Land, 125, 127
Freycinet, J. C. D. de, 89
Freyre, Fra, 72
Frisius, Gemma, 97, 104
Frisland, 76
Frobisher, Martin, 76
---- Strait, 77
Gaetano, 88
Gama, Vasco da, 68
Gambia, River, 108
Ganges, River, 115
Gastaldi, 103
Geodesy, 138
Geomorphology, 139
Germanus, Nicolaus, 55
Gerrits, Dirk, 84
Giles, Ernest, 121
Gill, Sir David, 138
Glaser, E., 117
Gnomon, 9, 90
Gold Coast, 52
Gomez, Diego, 52
Goyder, 120
Graham Land, 129
Grant, T. A., 111
---- Land, 128
Graphometer, 93
Great Australian Bight, 118
---- Ice Barrier, 130, 131
Greeks, 8
Greeley, Lieut. A. W., 126
Green, Lowthian, 139
Greenland, 37, 75, 76, 80, 124, 126, 127, 128
Gregory, 121
----, A. C., 120
----, J. W., 139
Grenard, F., 116
Griesbach, L., 116
Grinnell Land, 124, 126
Grisalva, Juan de, 64
Haiti, 61
Halévy, J., 117
Hall, Charles, 124
Halley, E., 101
Hanno, 6
Harrison, John, 97
Hausaland, 109
Hawaii, 88
Hawkins, Captain, 70
Hayton, 43
Hearne, Samuel, 78
Hecatæus of Miletus, 11
Hedin, Sven, 116
Henry the Navigator, 51
Herodotus, 5, 11, 23, 30
Himilco, 6
Hiort, Dr. Johan, 144
Hipparchus, 22, 25
Hispaniola. _See_ Haiti
Hollar, 102
Homann, 101
Homer, 7
Honduras, 61
Hooker, Sir Joseph, 146
Horn, Cape, 67, 82, 84
Houtman, Cornelis, 69
Howell, 119
Huber, C., 117
Hudson Bay, 67, 76, 80
---- Bay Co., 78, 123
----, Henry, 76, 80
Humboldt, Alexander von, 67, 144
Hume, Hamilton, 119
Huygens, Christiaan, 94
Ibn Batuta, 46
Ibn Haukal, 40
Iceland, 37, 75
Idrisi, 40
India, 3, 13, 20, 31, 44, 45, 50, 54, 57, 68, 69, 71, 115
Indicopleustes, Cosmas, 35
Inglefield, Captain, 124
International Council for the Study of the Sea, 144
---- Geographical Congress, 138
Ireland, 30, 37, 75, 102
Irtish, River, 72
Istakhri, 40
Ister, River, 14
Jackman, Charles, 79
Jackson, Frederick, 126
Jäderin, E., 137
Jamaica, 61
Jan Mayen Island, 80
Japan, 69, 70
Jefferys, Thomas, 104
Jenkinson, Anthony, 71
Jerusalem, 39, 49
Jesuits, 72
John of Montecorvino, 45
Johnston, W. and A. K., 138
Jones Sound, 127
Junker, W., 114
Justinian, Emperor, 34
Kaiser Wilhelm II. Land, 132
Kalahari Desert, 112
Kamchatka, 72, 89
Kane, Elisha Kent, 124
Kant, Immanuel, 144
Kara Sea, 79
Karlsefne, Thorfinn, 75
Kaulbars, Baron H., 116
Kemp, John, 129
Kennedy, 120, 123
Kenya, Mt., 110, 113
Kepler, 97
Kerguelen Is., 86
Kerguelen-Trémarec, Yves de, 86
Kiepert, H., 137
Kilimanjaro, Mt., 110, 113
Kimberley, 121
King, Capt. P. P., 118
King Edward Land, 130, 131
King George Sound, 117
Kircher, A., 101
Kola Peninsula, 79
Koldewey, 126
Kotzebue, Otto von, 89
Kozlov, P. K., 116
Krapf, L., 110
Kremer, Gerhard. _See_ Mercator
Krishna, 115
Krusenstern, Adam, 89
Kublai Khan, 43
Labrador, 75
Lacerda, Francisco de, 109
Lachlan, River, 118, 119
Laing, A., 9, 109
Lambton, Col. W., 135
Lancaster, James, 70
---- Sound, 123
Langhans, 137
Lapparent, A. de, 139
Lapworth, C., 139
Latitude, 21, 97
Lauder, Richard, 109
Leachman, 117
Lefroy, H. M., 121
Lehmann, J. G., 101
Leichhardt, 120
Lemaire, Jacob, 84
Leon, Juan Ponce de, 63
Le Testu, Guillaume, 69
Lhasa, 72, 115
Limnology, 141
Littledale, St. George, 116
Liverpool Plains, 119
Livingstone, David, 112
Longitude, 97
Loubet Land, 132
Louisiana, 67
Louis Philippe Land, 129
Love, A. E. H., 139
Lualaba, River, 112
Luque, Hernando de, 66
McClintock, 124
McClure, 124
Mackenzie, Alexander, 78
---- River, 78
McKinlay, T., 121
McMurdo Sound, 132
Macquarie, River, 118, 119
Madagascar, 44, 57
Madeira, 50, 52
Magalhães, Fernao de, 64, 82
Magellan. _See_ Magalhães
Magnetic Pole, 123, 127
Magnus, Albertus, 43
Mahomed Ali, 110
Malacca, 68
Malay Archipelago, 44, 57, 68, 69, 70
---- Peninsula, 5
Mam, Island of, 56
Manchuria, 89
Mandeville, Sir John, 45
Maoris, 2
Map-making, 2, 9, 12, 37, 41, 46, 54, 98, 137, 145
Marianne Islands, 65
Marinus of Tyre, 26, 40
Marion-Dufresne, 86
Marion Is., 86
Markham, 126
----, Albert, 124
Marquesas Is., 83
Martianus Capella, 34
Masailand, 113
Masudi, 40
Maupertuis, P. L. M. de, 96
Mauro, Fra, 50, 55
Maury, Matthew F., 14, 20
Mawson, Dr. D., 132, 133
Mediterranean, the, 3, 5, 37, 39, 48, 58, 143
Melville Island, 123
Mendana, 83
Mercator, 98, 102, 103
Meridian, 22, 41
Meroe, 16
Mexico, 64, 65
Middleton, Christopher, 78
Mill, H. R., 106
Mitchell, Sir Thomas, 120
Moeris, Lake, 3
Moluccas, 60, 69
Monaco, Prince of, 144
Mongolia, 115
Moseley, H. N., 143
Mota, Antonio de, 69
Mountains of the Moon, 31
Muhammad ben Musa, 90
Münster, Sebastian, 105
Murray, River, 119
----, Sir John, 141, 143
Murrumbidgee, River, 119
Muscovy Company, 79, 80
Musil, 117
Nachtigal, G., 114
Nain Singh, 115
Nansen, Fridtjof, 126
Nares, Sir George, 124, 143
Nasamonian youths, the, 16
Natal, 68
Nathorst, 127
Nearchus, 20
Necho, 5
Neckam, Alexander, 48
New Caledonia, 88
Newfoundland, 75
New Granada, 66
New Guinea, 69, 83, 87
New Hebrides, 83, 85, 88
New Pomerania, 84
New Siberian Is., 127
New South Wales, 117
Newton, Sir Isaac, 94, 105, 144
New Zealand, 70, 83, 87
Nicaragua, 64
Niebuhr, Carsten, 73
Niger, River, 16, 108, 109
Nile, River, 16, 31, 37, 49, 108, 110, 111
Nordenskiöld, A. E., 125, 126
Norfolk Is., 88
Norsemen, 37
North America, 2, 61, 67, 75
North American Indians, 2
North Cape, 75
North-East Passage, 78
North-West Passage, 76, 127
Norwood, Richard, 93
Nova Scotia, 75
Novaya Zemlya, 72, 75, 80
Ob, River, 80
Oceanography, 141
Odoric, 45, 71
Œcumene, 22, 23
Ohio, River, 66
Okhotsk, Sea of, 72
Orellana, Francisco de, 66
Orinoco, River, 61, 145
Orkney Islands, 37
Orléans, Prince Henry of, 116
Orontius, 82
Ortelius, 65, 102
Oudney, W., 109
Oxley, Lieut., 118
Pacific Ocean, 64, 65, 82, 83, 87
Palestine, 48
Palgrave, W. G., 117
Pamirs, 115
Paradise, 39
Paris, Matthew, 48
Park, Mungo, 108
Parmenides, 9
Parry (Arctic), 122, 126
---- (Australia), 120
Pascal, 93
Paulmyer, Sieur de Gonneville, 69
Paumotu Is., 84, 85
Pausanias, 32
Payer, Lieut. Julius, 125
Payva, Alphonso, 53
Peary, Robert E., 126, 127
Peking, 69
Penna, Orazio della, 72
Periodos (circuit of the earth), 12
Periœci, 23
Periplus, 12, 18
---- of the Erythræan Sea, 3
Pérouse, J. F. D. de la, 89
Persia, 71
Persian Gulf, 20
Perthes, Justus, 137
Peru, 3, 66
Peschel, Oscar, 145
Pet, Arthur, 79
Peter Is., 128
Petermann, A., 137
Peutinger Table, 26
Pevtsov, 116
Phasis, River, 11
Philip, George, 138
Philippine Islands, 65
Phipps, Captain, 122, 142
Phœnicians, 4
Picard, Jean, 94, 101
Pigafetta, F., 99
Pines, Isle of, 88
Pinzon, Vicente Yañez, 59, 62
Pizarro, Francisco, 66
Plane-table, 93
Plato, 18
Pliny the Elder, 26
Polo, Marco, 43, 69
Polybius of Megalopolis, 23
Polyhistor, Julius Solinus, 35
Pomponius Mela, 26
Pont, Timothy, 102
Portolano maps, 48, 50, 55
Portuguese, 51, 55, 60, 68, 79, 108
Posidonius the Stoic, 23, 72
Potamology, 141
Potanin, 116
Prester John, 53
Pretorius, Jean, 93
Prjevalsky, Nicolai, 116
Procopius, 34
Ptolemy, 26, 39, 54, 72
Putte, Samuel van der, 72
Pygmies, 7, 17
Pythagoras, 8
Pytheas of Massilia, 21
Quadrant, 91, 94
Queensland, 119, 120
Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de, 83
Rae, Dr. John, 124
Ramsden, 97
Ratzel, Friedrich, 145
Ravenstein, A., 137
Rawling, Capt. G. C., 116
Rebmann, T., 110
Red Sea, 5, 35
Regiomontanus, 97
Rennell, Maj. James, 104
Retes, Inigo Ortes de, 83
Retreat of the Ten Thousand, 17
Rhins, Dutreuil de, 116
Rhodesia, 5
Richard of Haldingham, 48
Richardson, Sir John, 124
Richer, Jean, 94
Richthofen, Ferdinand, Baron von, 117, 145
Rio de la Plata, 62
Ripon Falls, 111
Ritter, Karl, 145
Roborovsky, 116
Rockhill, W. W., 116
Roe, J. S., 121
Roggeveen, Jacob, 85
Rohlfs, G., 114
Romans, 24
Rome, 19
Rosen, P. G., 138
Ross, Capt., 122, 123, 142
----, James Clark, 123, 142
----, Sir James, 130
Roy, General, 103, 104
Royal Geographical Soc., 146
Russians, 72, 78, 80, 116
Rusticiano of Pisa, 44
Ruwenzori Mts., 113
Sadlier, Capt. G. F., 117
Sahara Desert, 52, 109, 114
St. Basil the Great, 34
St. Brandon, Island of, 58
St. Francis Xavier, 69
St. Lawrence River, 66
St. Martin, Vivien de, 138
Samoa, 85
San Salvador, 60
Sanson, Nicolas, 99
Saxton, Christopher, 102
Scandinavia, 7, 21, 30, 37, 49, 58, 75
Scaph, 90
Schouten, Willem Cornelis, 84
Schrader, F., 138
Schweinfürth, Georg, 114
Scoresby, William, 81, 126, 142
Scotland, survey, 103
Scott, Capt. R. F., 131, 133
Scroggs, John, 78
Scylax of Caryanda, 12
Semliki River, 113
Senegal, 109
Shackleton, Sir E., 131, 132
Shetland Islands, 37
Shirley, Sir Anthony and Robert, 71
Siberia, 44, 72, 80
Sicily, 7
Sidon, 7
Sierra Leone, 52
Sission, Jonathan, 97
Smith, William, 128
----, Leigh, 125
---- Sound, 78, 124, 128
Snell, Willibrord, 93
Society Is., 85, 87
Sokoto, 109
Solis, Juan Diaz de, 62
Somaliland, 110
Soto, Hernandez de, 66
South America, 56, 62, 66, 67, 82
Southern Continent, 81, 83
South Orkney Is., 128
South Shetland Is., 84, 128
Spaniards, 60, 63
Speed, John, 102
Speke, T. H., 110
Spitsbergen, 75, 79, 124, 127
Spruner, K. von, 137
Stanford, Edward, 138
Stanley, H. M., 112, 113
Stefansson, 128
Stein, Sir M. A., 116
Stieler, A., 137
Stony Desert, 120
Strabo, 18, 24, 141
Stuart, J. M., 121
Sturt, Charles, 119, 120
Submarine cable, 142
Sudan, 114
Suess, E., 139
Suleiman, 40
Supan, A., 137, 139
Surveying, 93, 102, 135
Sverdrup, 127
Swartha, Claudius Clavus, 55
Sydney, 117
Syene, 22
Syria, 71
Tachard, P., 72
Tahiti, 87
Tanais, River, 14, 21, 37
Tanganyika, Lake, 111, 112
Tasman, Abel Janszoon, 70, 83
Tasmania, 70, 117
Terror, Mt., 130, 131
Texeira, Pedro, 67
Thales of Miletus, 8
Theodolite, 97
Theophanes of Mytilene, 24
Theophrastus of Lesbos, 20
Thompson, Sir C. Wyville, 143
Thomson, Joseph, 113
Thule, 21
Thury, Cassini de, 104
Tibet, 44, 71, 73
Tierra del Fuego, 67, 84
Timbuktu, 109
Toll, Baron, 127
Tongan Archipelago, 84, 88
Torrens, Lake, 120
Torres, 70, 83
---- Strait, 83
Torricelli, 93
Toscanelli, Paolo del Pozzi, 56
Traverse Is., 128
Trinidad, 61
Triquetum, 90
Turkestan, 115
Turnagain, Cape, 123
Turner, Capt., 73
Tyre, 4
Uganda, 111
Ugyen Gyatso, 115
Unyamwezi, 111
Varenius, Bernhard, 105
Vernier, François, 93
Vesconte, Petrus, 49
Vespucci, Amerigo, 62
Victoria, 119
---- Falls, 112
---- Land, 130, 133
---- Nile, 111
---- Nyanza, 111, 113
Vinci, Leonardo da, 82
Vineland, 37, 75
Virgilius, Bishop of Salzburg, 36
Vlamingh, William de, 70
Volga, River, 30
Wagner, Hermann, 145
Waldseemüller, Martin, 63, 103
Wallace, Sir Alfred Russel, 146
Wallis, Samuel, 85
Warburton, 121
Watling Island, 60
Weddell, James, 129
Wellby, Capt. W. S., 116
Welle, River, 114
Werner, 99
Western Australia, 121
West Indies, 60
Weyprecht, Lieut., 125
Whale fisheries, 80
White Nile, 108
---- Sea, 75, 79
Wiggins, Capt. Joseph, 125
Wilkes, Charles, 89, 130
William of Rubruquis, 42
Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 79
Wills, William, 121
Wilson, 131
Wissmann, 113
Wright, Edward, 99
Xenophon, 17
Yenisei, River, 80, 125
Yucatan, 64
Zambezi, River, 5, 109, 112
Zanzibar, 44, 57, 110
Zeno, Nicolo, 76
Zoogeography, 140
PRINTED BY WATTS AND CO., JOHNSON’S COURT, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
Transcriber’s Notes
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