From an ancient manuscript of Caedmon's poems.]

With the reign of Mary the old religion was re-established; and it was not

till that of Elizabeth that the Church of England was finally instituted in

its present form. The doctrines of the Church were again modified, and the

Forty-two Articles were reduced to thirty-nine by the convocation of the

clergy in 1563. As no change was made in the episcopal form of government,

and some rites and ceremonies were retained which many of the reformed

considered as superstitious, this circumstance gave rise to many future

dissensions. In 1559, before the close of the first year of Elizabeth's

reign, the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity were passed with the object of

bringing about the entire subjection of the Church and the people in

religious matters to the royal authority.

From James I some relief was anticipated by Puritans and Nonconformists,

but they were disappointed. Under Charles I the attempt was made, through

the instrumentality of Laud, to place all the Churches of Great Britain

under the jurisdiction of bishops. But after the death of Laud the

Parliament abolished the episcopal government, and condemned everything

contrary to the doctrine, worship, and discipline of the Church of Geneva.

As soon as Charles II was restored, the ancient forms of ecclesiastical

government and public worship were re-established, and three severe

measures were passed against nonconformity, namely, the Corporation Act of

1661, the Act of Uniformity, passed in 1662, and the Test Act, passed in

1673 (see _Act of Uniformity, Corporation and Test Acts_). In the reign of

William III, and particularly in 1689, the divisions among the friends of

Episcopacy gave rise to the two parties called the _high-churchmen_ or

_non-jurors_, and _low-churchmen_. The former maintained the doctrine of

passive obedience to the sovereign; that the hereditary succession to the

throne is of divine institution; and that the Church is subject to the

jurisdiction of God alone. The gradual progress of civil and religious

liberty since that time has settled practically all such controversies. The

measures of relief granted to those outside the Established Church include

the repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts (1828), Catholic emancipation

(1829), and the opening of the old universities to Dissenters (1871).

The Established Church of England has always adhered to Episcopacy. Under

the sovereign as supreme head, the Church is governed by three archbishops

and forty bishops, of Canterbury, York, and Wales. The Archbishop of

Canterbury is styled the _Primate of all England_, and to him belongs the

privilege of crowning the kings and queens of England. The province of

Canterbury comprehends 30 bishoprics; in the province of the Archbishop of

York, who is styled _Primate of England_, there are 12 bishoprics, the

province comprising Cheshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the other northern

counties. Wales has now been formed into a separate archbishopric. An Act

was passed in 1914 disestablishing and disendowing the Church in Wales and

Monmouthshire. The Act, suspended during the European War, came into force

on 31st March, 1920. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the sovereign

by what is called a_cong['e] d'['e]lire_ or leave to elect, naming the

person to be chosen and sent to the Dean and Chapter. The National Assembly

of the Church of England (Powers) Act of 1919 instituted a National

Assembly in England consisting of the House of Bishops, a House of Clergy,

and a House of Laymen, which has power to legislate in Church matters. The

archbishops and bishops, to the number of 24, have seats in the House of

Lords, and are styled Lords Spiritual. The following are the bishops' sees:

London, Winchester, Bangor, Bath and Wells, Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol,

Chelmsford, Chichester, Coventry, Ely, Exeter, Gloucester, Hereford,

Ipswich, Lichfield, Lincoln, Llandaff, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough,

Rochester, St. Albans, St. Asaph, St. David's, Salisbury, Southwark,

Southwell, Truro, Worcester, Durham, Carlisle, Chester, Liverpool,

Manchester, Newcastle, Ripon, Sheffield, Wakefield, Sodor and Man. To every

cathedral belong several prebendaries and a dean; these together, spoken of

as 'the Dean and Chapter', form the council of the bishop. The bishops are

aided in their work by 36 suffragan and assistant bishops in England and

Wales. The ordinary clergy are the _priests_, whether curates, vicars, or

rectors. A _parson_ is a priest in full possession of all the rights of a

parish church; if the great tithes are _impropriated_, the priest is called

a vicar; if not, a rector; a _curate_ (in popular speech) is one who

exercises the spiritual office under a rector or vicar. The _deacons_ form

the third order of ordained clergy. The doctrines of the Church are

contained in the Thirty-nine Articles; the form of worship is directed by

the _Book of Common Prayer_. The revenue of the Church from endowments is

over L6,000,000 annually. The clergy number about 27,000.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Wakeman, _Introduction to the History of the Church of England_; Newbolt

and Stone, _Church of England_.

_English Art._--As regards _architecture_ little can be said with regard to

the style prevalent between the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman

Conquest, from the fact that the remains of buildings erected in England

before the Conquest are few and insignificant. The Norman style was

introduced in the reign of Edward the Confessor, though the workmen, both

then and after the Conquest, being English, the earlier work preserved many

native characteristics. The Norman period proper extends from about 1090 to

1150, some of the best examples being parts of the cathedrals of Rochester,

Winchester, Durham, and Canterbury. In the brief period 1160 to 1195 a

marked change took place in the adoption of the pointed arch and what is

known as the _Early English style_. Improved methods of construction led to

the use of lighter walls and pillars instead of the heavy masses employed

in the Norman style. Narrow lancet-shaped windows took the place of the

round arch; bold projecting buttresses were introduced; and the roofs and

spires became more lofty and more pointed, while in the interiors pointed

arches rested on lofty clustered pillars. The best Early English type is

Salisbury Cathedral. The Early English style has been regarded as lasting

from 1190 to 1270, when the _Decorated style_ of Gothic began to prevail.

The transition to the Decorated style was gradual, but it may be considered

as lasting to 1377. Exeter Cathedral is an excellent example of the

earliest Decorated style. Between 1360 and 1399 the Decorated style gave

place to the _Perpendicular_, which prevailed from 1377 to 1547, and was an

exclusively English style. Gothic architecture, though it lingered on in

many districts, practically came to an end in England in the reign of Henry

VIII. The _Elizabethan_ and _Jacobean styles_, which followed, were

transitions from the Gothic to the Italian, with which these styles were

more or less freely mixed. Many palatial mansions were built in these

styles. In the reign of Charles I Inigo Jones designed, among other

buildings, Whitehall Palace and Greenwich Hospital in a purely classic

style. After the great fire in London (1666) Sir Christopher Wren designed

an immense number of churches and other buildings in Classic style,

particularly St. Paul's Cathedral, the Sheldonian Theatre of Oxford, and

Chelsea Hospital. Various phases of Classic or Renaissance continued to

prevail during the eighteenth and earlier part of the nineteenth century.

About 1836 the Gothic revival commenced, and that style has been employed

with considerable success in the churches erected in recent times. The

Houses of Parliament, erected between 1840 and 1860 in the Tudor style, the

Law Courts of Salford, St. Pancras railway station, and the Law Courts of

London (opened 1882) in the Gothic served to sustain an impetus that had

been given to the use of that style. At the present day Gothic is much

employed for ecclesiastical and collegiate buildings, and a modified type

of Renaissance for civil buildings. Of late years a style that has received

the name of 'Queen Anne' is much in vogue for private residences. It is

very mixed, but withal highly picturesque. The most striking novelties in

the nineteenth century have been induced by the extensive use of iron and

glass, as exemplified in the Exhibition building of 1851, the Crystal

Palace, Sydenham, and the great railway stations.

Very little is known of the state of the art of _painting_ among the

Anglo-Saxons; but in the ninth century Alfred the Great caused numerous

MSS. to be adorned with miniatures, and about the end of the tenth century

Archbishop Dunstan won reputation as a miniature painter. Under William the

Conqueror and his two sons the painting of large pictures began to be

studied, and Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, adorned the vault of his

church with paintings. Numerous miniatures of the thirteenth and fourteenth

centuries have come down to us, rude in execution, but not without

originality. From this period down to the eighteenth century a succession

of foreign painters resided in England, of whom the chief were Mabuse, Hans

Holbein, Federigo Zucchero, Cornelius Jansen, Van Dyck, Lely, and Kneller.

Of native artists few are of importance prior to that original genius

William Hogarth (1697-1764). Throughout the eighteenth century English

artists attained higher eminence in portrait painting than in other

departments, and it culminated in Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92), Thomas

Gainsborough (1727-88), and Romney (1734-1802). These were followed by

Raeburn (1756-1823) and Lawrence (1769-1830). Barry (1741-1806), West

(1738-1820), and Copley (1737-1815) gained distinction in historical

compositions, especially in pictures of battles. Landscape painting was

represented by Richard Wilson (1714-82), who painted classical scenes with

figures from heathen mythology, and by Gainsborough, already mentioned, who

painted scenes of English nature and humble life. The Royal Academy of

Arts, of which Reynolds was the first president, was established in London

in 1769. Sir David Wilkie (1785-1841), in what is known abroad as genre

painting, gained a European reputation that is unsurpassed. In the same

class of art C. R. Leslie (1794-1859), Newton (1795-1835), Collins

(1788-1847), and Mulready (1786-1863) gained great distinction. In

landscape the reputation of Turner (1775-1857) stands alone. Other

distinguished landscape painters are Clarkson Stanfield (1798-1867); David

Roberts (1796-1864), who greatly excelled in picturesque architecture; Wm.

M[:u]ller (1812-45); and John Constable (1776-1837), whose works exercised

great influence in France; and Calcott (1799-1844). In historical painting

Hilton (1786-1839), Eastlake (1793-1865), Etty (1787-1849), E. M. Ward

(1816-79), C. W. Cope (1811-90), and D. Maclise (1811-70) attained

celebrity. John Philip (1817-67) greatly distinguished himself by his

scenes from Spanish life and by his mastery in colour. Landseer (1802-73)

stands by himself as a painter of animals.

In 1824 the nucleus of the National Gallery was formed by the purchase of

the Angerstein collection, and in 1832 the vote was passed for the erection

of the National Gallery building. The competitions held in Westminster Hall

in 1843, 1844, and 1847, with a view to the decoration of the Houses of

Parliament, exercised great influence on art. Up to this time English

pictures were rather distinguished for colour and effect of light and shade

than for carefulness of modelling and exactness of drawing. In aiding to

bring about a more accurate and careful style of work, the Pre-Raphaelites

(1840-60), while seeking to restore in their practice an early phase of

Italian art, exercised a beneficial influence, while they themselves

ultimately abandoned the style to which at the first they had been devoted.

The modern group of British painters may be held to date from about 1850.

Prominent among these the following may be named: In historical painting

Leighton, Alma-Tadema, Watts, Poynter, Long, Goodall, Holman Hunt, Noel

Paton, Burne-Jones, and Madox Brown, as also W. P. Frith, whose _Derby Day_

and _Railway Station_, so descriptive of modern life, may well be classed

as historical. In figure painting or genre T. Faed, Erskine Nicol, Fildes,

Orchardson, Herkomer, Millais, and Pettie. In portraiture Millais, Frank

Holl, Ouless, and Richmond. In landscape Linnell, Hook, W. J. M[:u]ller,

Peter Graham, John Brett, Vicat Cole, H. Moore, Keeley Halswelle. In

water-colours the most eminent artists have been Girtin (1773-1802), Cotman

(1782-1842), Liverseege (1803-32), Stothard (1755-1834), Turner, David Cox

(1788-1859), De Wint (1784-1849), Copley Fielding (1787-1855), Samuel Prout

(1783-1852), W. H. Hunt (1790-1864), Louis Haghe (1806-85), W. L. Leitch

(1804-83), Sam Bough (1822-78), John Gilbert (1817-97).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R.

Muther, _History of Modern Painting_; S. Reinach, _Apollo_.

English _sculpture_ was long merely an accessory to architecture, and few

English sculptors are known by name till comparatively modern times. During

the Renaissance period Torregiano came from Italy and executed two

masterpieces in England, the tomb of the mother of Henry VII, and that of

Henry himself at Westminster. The troubles of the reign of Charles I and

the Commonwealth produced a stagnation in the art, and were the cause of

the destruction of many valuable works. After the Restoration two sculptors

of some note appeared, Grinling Gibbons, a wood-carver, and Caius Gabriel

Cibber. During the eighteenth century there was no English sculptor of

great eminence till John Flaxman (1755-1826). He had for rival and

successor Sir Francis Chantrey (1781-1841), who acquired renown by the

busts and statues which he made of many of the eminent men of his time.

John Carew, Sir Richard Westmacott (1775-1856), E. H. Baily (1788-1867),

John Gibson (1790-1866), P. MacDowell (1799-1870), H. Weekes (1807-77),

J. H. Foley (1818-74), J. Edgar Boehm (1834-90), and Thomas Woolner

(1825-92) are a few of the eminent sculptors of the nineteenth century.

W. H. Thorneycroft, E. Onslow Ford, C. B. Birch, Alfred Gilbert, G. F.

Watts, Henry H. Armstead, G. Simons, Sir Thomas Brock, Harry Bates, and Sir

George Frampton are among the foremost sculptors of the present time. The

sculptures of the English school in general are characterized by a sort of

romantic grace which is their distinguishing mark, and by extraordinary

delicacy and finish in detail; but they frequently exhibit weakness in

their treatment of the nude.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wilhelm L[:u]bke, _History of

Sculpture_; E. H. Short, _History of Sculpture_.

_English Language._--The language spoken in England from the settlement of

the Anglo-Saxons to the Norman Conquest (say 500-1066) is popularly known

as Anglo-Saxon, though simply the earliest form of English. (See

_Anglo-Saxons_.) It was a highly inflected and purely Teutonic tongue

presenting several dialects. The Conquest introduced the Norman-French, and

from 1066 to about 1250 two languages were spoken, the native English

speaking their own language, the intruders speaking French. During this

period the grammatical structure of the native language was greatly broken

up, inflexions fell away, or were assimilated to each other; and towards

the end of the period we find a few words written in a language resembling

the English of our own day in grammar, but differing from it by being

purely Saxon or Teutonic in vocabulary. Finally, the two languages began to

mingle, and form one intelligible to the whole population, Normans as well

as English, this change being marked by a great infusion of Norman-French

words, and English proper being the result. English is thus, in its

vocabulary, a composite language, deriving part of its stock of words from

a Teutonic source and part from a Latin source, Norman-French being in the

main merely a modified form of Latin. In its grammatical structure and

general character, however, English is entirely Teutonic, and is classed

with Dutch and Gothic among the Low German tongues. If we divide the

history of the English language into periods, we shall find three most

distinctly marked: first, the Old English or Anglo-Saxon, extending down to

about 1100; second, the Middle English, 1100-1400 (to this period belong

Chaucer, Wycliffe, Langland); third, Modern English. A more detailed

subdivision would give transition periods connecting the main ones. The

chief change which the language has experienced during the modern period

consists in its absorbing new words from all quarters in obedience to the

requirements of advancing science, more complicated social relations, and

increased subtlety of thought. At the present time the rapid growth of the

sciences already existing, and the creation of new ones, have caused whole

groups of words to be introduced, chiefly from the Greek, though

unfortunately not a few are hybrid words, coined by some scientist who had

small Latin and less Greek.--Cf. H. Sweet, _New English Grammar, Logical

and Historical_.

_English Literature._--Before any English literature, in the strict sense

of the term, existed, four literatures had arisen in England--the Celtic,

Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Norman. The first includes such names as

those of Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, Aneurin, and Merlin or Merddhin. The Latin

literature prior to the Conquest presents those of Aldhelm, Bede, Alcuin,

Asser, Ethelwerd, and Nennius. For Anglo-Saxon literature, see the article

_Anglo-Saxons_. With the coming of the Normans, although the _Anglo-Saxon

Chronicle_ was continued until 1154, the native language practically ceased

for a time to be employed in literature, Latin being used in law, history,

and philosophy, French in the lighter forms of literature. The Norman

_trouv[`e]re_ displaced the Saxon _scop_, or gleeman, introducing the

_Fabliau_ and the Romance. By the _Fabliau_ the literature was not greatly

influenced until the time of Chaucer; but the Romance attained an early and

striking development in the Arthurian cycle, founded upon the legends of

Geoffrey of Monmouth's Latin _History of the Britons_ (1147), by Geoffrey

Gaimar, Wace, Walter Map, and other writers of the twelfth century. The

Latin literature included important contributions to the Scholastic

philosophy by Alexander Hales (died 1245), Duns Scotus (died 1308) and

William of Occam (died 1347); the philosophic works of Roger Bacon

(1214-92); the Golias poems of Walter Map; and a long list of chronicles or

histories, either in prose or verse, by Eadmer (died 1124); Ordericus

Vitalis (died 1142), William of Malmesbury (died 1143), Geoffrey of

Monmouth (died 1154), Henry of Huntingdon (died after 1154), Joseph of

Exeter (died 1195), Gervase of Tilbury (twelfth century), Roger of Wendover

(died 1237), Roger de Hoveden (twelfth and thirteenth centuries), Giraldus

Cambrensis (died 1222), Joscelin de Brakelonde (twelfth and thirteenth

centuries), and Matthew Paris (died 1259).

Apart from a few brief fragments, the first English writings after the

Conquest are the _Brut_ of Layamon (about 1200), based on the _Brut_ of

Wace; and the _Ormulum_, a collection of metrical homilies attributed to

Orm or Ormin, an Augustine monk. Next in importance come the rhyming

chroniclers Robert of Gloucester (time of Henry III, Edward I) and Robert

of Brunne or Mannyng (died 1340), other writers being Dan Michel of

Northgate (_Ayenbite of Inwyt_, 1340); Richard Rolle of Hampole (_Pricke of

Conscience_, 1340); Laurence Minot (author of eleven military ballads; died

1352); and several works of uncertain authorship, including the _Ancren

Riwle_ (? Richard Poor, died 1237), _The Owl and the Nightingale_ (?

Nicholas of Guildford), _The Land of Cockayne_ (? Michael of Kildare), the

song against the King of Almaigne, and a dialogue between the Body and the

Soul. To this pre-Chaucerian period belong also several English

translations of French romances--_Horn_, _Tristrem_, _Alisaunder_,

_Havelok_, and others. Between the beginning and middle of the fourteenth

century the English speech had entered upon a new phase of development in

the absorption of Norman-French words. A rapid expansion of the literature

followed, having as the foremost figure that of Chaucer (1340-1400), who,

writing at first under French influences, and then under Italian, became in

the end the most representative English writer of the time. Contemporary

with him was the satirist William Langland or Langley (1332-1400), the

indefatigable John Gower (1325-1408), and the Scot John Barbour (1316-95).

In prose the name of John Wycliffe (1324-84) is pre-eminent, the English

version of Mandeville's _Travels_ being apparently of later date.

The period from the time of Chaucer to the appearance of Spenser, that is,

from the end of the fourteenth to near the end of the sixteenth century, is

a very barren one in English literature, in part probably owing to foreign

and domestic wars, the struggle of the people towards political power, and

the religious controversies preceding and attending the Reformation. The

immediate successors of Chaucer, Occleve (1370-1454) and Lydgate (died

1460), were neither men of genius, and the centre of poetic creation was

for the time transferred to Scotland, where James I (1394-1437) headed the

list which comprises Andrew de Wyntoun (fifteenth century), Henry the

Minstrel or Blind Harry (died after 1492), Robert Henryson (died before

1508), William Dunbar (1460-1520), Gavin Douglas (1474-1522), and Sir David

Lyndsay (1490-1557). In England the literature was chiefly polemical, the

only noteworthy prose prior to that of More being that of Reginald Pecock

(1390-1460); Sir John Fortescue (1395-1485); the _Paston Letters_

(1422-1505), which are, however, much more interesting for their subject

matter than their style; and Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_ (completed 1469-70);

the only noteworthy verse, that of John Skelton (1460-1529).

It was now that several events of European importance combined to stimulate

life and enlarge the mental horizon--the invention of printing, or rather

of movable types, the promulgation of the Copernican system of astronomy,

the discovery of America, the Renaissance, and the Reformation. The

Renaissance spread from Florence to England by means of such men as Colet,

Linacre, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More (1480-1535), the last noteworthy as

at the head of a new race of historians. Important contributions to the

prose of the time were the Tyndale _New Testament_, printed in 1525, and

the Coverdale _Bible_ (1535). The first signs of an artistic advance in

poetic literature are to be found in Wyatt (1503-42) and Surrey (1516-47),

who nationalized the sonnet; Surrey was also a pioneer in the use of blank

verse. The drama, too, had by this time reached a fairly high stage of

development. The mystery and miracle plays, after the adoption of the

vernacular in the fourteenth century, passed from the hands of the clergy

into those of the laity, and both stage and drama underwent a rapid

secularization. The morality began to embody matters of religious and

political controversy, historical characters mingled with the

personification of abstract qualities, real characters from contemporary

life were introduced, and at length farces on the French model were

constructed, the _Interludes_ of John Heywood (died 1565) being the most

important examples. To Nicholas Udall (1504-56) the first genuine comedy,

_Ralph Roister Doister_, was due, this being shortly afterwards followed by

John Still's _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ (1566). The first tragedy, the

_Ferrex and Porrex_, or _Gorboduc_ of Sackville (died 1608) and Norton

(died 1600), was performed in 1561, and the first prose play, the

_Supposes_ of Gascoigne (died 1577) in 1566. Gascoigne and Sackville were

noteworthy amongst the earlier Elizabethans apart from their plays; but the

figures which bulk most largely are those of Sidney (1554-86) and Spenser

(1552-99). In drama Lyly, Peele, Greene, Nash, and Marlowe (1564-93) are

the chief immediate precursors of Shakespeare (1564-1616), Marlowe alone,

however, being at all comparable with the great master. Contemporary and

later dramatic writers were Ben Jonson (1573-1637), the second great

Elizabethan dramatist, Middleton (died 1627), Marston (better known as a

satirist), Chapman (1557-1634), Thomas Heywood, Dekker (died 1639), Webster

(seventeenth century), Ford (1586-1639), Beaumont (1586-1616) and Fletcher

(1576-1625), and Massinger (1584-1640). The minor poets include Michael

Drayton (1563-1631), Samuel Daniel (1562-1619), John Davies (1570-1626),

John Donne (1573-1631), Giles Fletcher (1580-1623), and Phineas Fletcher

(1584-1650), Drummond of Hawthornden (1585-1649). In Elizabethan prose the

prominent names are those of Roger Ascham (1515-68), John Lyly (1553-1606),

Hooker (1554-1600), Raleigh (1552-1618), Bacon (1561-1626), the founder in

some regards of modern scientific method, Burton (1576-1640), Herbert of

Cherbury (1581-1648), and Selden (1584-1654), with Overbury, Knolles,

Holinshed, Stowe, Camden, Florio, and North. The issue of the Authorized

Version of the Bible in 1611 may be said to close the prose list of the

period, as it represents the finest flower of English prose.

After the death of James I the course of literature breaks up into three

stages, the first from 1625 to 1640, in which the survivals from the

Elizabethan Age slowly die away. The 'metaphysical poets', Cowley, Wither,

Herbert, Crashaw, Habbington, and Quarles, and the cavalier poets,

Suckling, Carew, Denham, all published poems before the close of this

period, in which also Milton's early poems were composed, and the _Comus_

and _Lycidas_ published. The second stage (1640-60) was almost wholly given

up to controversial prose, the Puritan revolution checking the production

of pure literature. In this controversial prose of the time Milton was

easily chief. With the Restoration a third stage was begun. Milton turned

his new leisure to the composition of his great poems; the drama was

revived, and Davenant and Dryden, with Otway, Southerne, Etherege,

Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar in their first plays, and minor

playwrights, are the most representative writers of the period. Butler

established a genre in satire, and Marvell as a satirist in some respects

anticipated Swift; Roscommon, Rochester, and Dorset contributed to the

little poetry; while in prose we have Hobbes, Clarendon, Fuller, Sir Thomas

Browne, Walton, Cotton, Pepys and Evelyn, John Bunyan, Locke, Sir William

Temple, Owen Feltham, Sir Henry Wotton, James Harrington, and a crowd of

theological writers, of whom the best known are Jeremy Taylor, Richard

Baxter, Robert Barclay, William Penn, George Fox, Isaac Barrow, John

Tillotson, Stillingfleet, Bishop Pearson, Sherlock, South, Sprat, Cudworth,

and Burnet. Other features of the last part of the seventeenth century were

the immense advance in physical science under Boyle, Isaac Newton, Harvey,

and others, and the rise of the newspaper press.

Dryden's death in 1700 marks the commencement of the so-called Augustan Age

in English literature. During it, however, no greater poet appeared than

Pope (1688-1744), in whom sagacity, wit, and fancy take the place of the

highest poetic faculty, but who was a supreme artist within the formal

limits of his conception of the art of poetry. Against these formal limits

signs of reaction are apparent in the verse of Thomson (1700-48), Gray

(1716-71), Collins (1720-59), Goldsmith (1728-74), and in the productions

of Macpherson and Chatterton. The poets Prior (1664-1721), Gay (1688-1732),

and Ambrose Phillips (1671-1749) inherit from the later seventeenth

century, Gay being memorable in connection with English opera; and there

are many minor poets--Garth, John Philips, Blackmore, Parnell, Dyer,

Somerville, Green, Shenstone, Blair, Akenside, Falconer, Anstey, Beattie,

Allan Ramsay, and Robert Fergusson. It is in prose that the chief

development of the eighteenth century is to be found. Defoe (1661-1731) and

Swift (1667-1745) led the way in fiction and prose satire; Steele

(1672-1729) and Addison (1672-1719), working on a suggestion of Defoe,

established the periodical essay; Richardson (1689-1761), Fielding

(1707-54), Smollett (1721-71), and Sterne raised the novel to sudden

perfection. Goldsmith also falls into the fictional group as well as into

that of the poets and of the essayists. Johnson (1709-84) exercised during

the latter part of his life the power of a literary dictator, with Boswell

(1740-95) as his 'Secretary of State'. The other chief prose writers were

Bishop Berkeley (1685-1753), Arbuthnot (1675-1735), Shaftesbury

(1671-1713), Bolingbroke (1678-1751), Burke, the historians David Hume

(1711-76), William Robertson (1721-93), Edward Gibbon (1737-94); the

political writers Wilkes and 'Junius', the economist and moral philosopher

Adam Smith (1723-90); the philosophical writers Hume, Bentham (1749-1832),

and Dugald Stewart (1753-1828); the scholars Bentley (1662-1742), Sir

William Jones (1746-94), and Richard Porson (1759-1808); the theologians

Atterbury, Butler (1692-1752), Warburton, and Paley; and some playwrights,

of whom the most important was Sheridan, but who also included Rowe, John

Home, Colley Cibber, Colman the elder, and Foote.

With the French Revolution, or a few years earlier, the modern movement in

literature may be said to have commenced. The departure from the old

traditions, traceable in Gray and Collins, was more clearly exhibited in

the last years of the century in Cowper (1731-1800) and Burns (1759-96),

and was developed and perfected in the hands of Blake (1757-1828), Bowles

(1762-1850), and the 'Lake poets' Wordsworth (1770-1850), Coleridge

(1772-1834), and Southey (1774-1843); but there were at first many

survivals from the poetic manner of the seventeenth century, such as

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Dr. John Wolcot (1738-1819), and Samuel Rogers

(1763-1855). Amongst the earlier poets of the nineteenth century, also,

were George Crabbe (1754-1832), Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), Hogg

(1772-1835), Campbell (1777-1844), James Montgomery, Mrs. Hemans, Bryan

Waller Procter ('Barry Cornwall'), Joanna Baillie, Robert Montgomery. A

more important group was that of Byron (1788-1824), Shelley (1792-1822),

and Keats (1796-1821), with which may be associated the names of Leigh Hunt

(1784-1859), Thomas Moore (1779-1852), and Landor (1775-1864). Among the

earlier writers of fiction there were several women of note, such as Maria

Edgeworth (1767-1849) and Jane Austen (1775-1817). The greatest name in

fiction is unquestionably that of Scott. Other prose writers were Malthus,

Hallam, James Mill, Southey, Hannah More, Cobbett, William Hazlitt, Sydney

Smith, Francis Jeffrey, Lord Brougham. In the literature since 1830 poetry

has included as its chief names those of Praed, Hood, Sidney Dobell, Gerald

Massey, Charles Mackay, Philip James Bailey, William Allingham, Elizabeth

Barrett Browning, Coventry Patmore, the second Lord Lytton ('Owen

Meredith'), Arthur Hugh Clough, Matthew Arnold, Dante G. Rossetti, Robert

Buchanan, Wm. Morris, Lewis Morris, Jean Ingelow, Swinburne, and last and

greatest, Tennyson and Browning. Among more modern English poets are

Stephen Phillips (1868-1915), Francis Thompson (1860-1907), Sir William

Watson (born 1858), John Davidson (1857-1909), and R. Kipling (born 1865).

A brilliant list of nineteenth-century novelists includes Marryat, Michael

Scott, the first Lord Lytton, Ainsworth, Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of

Beaconsfield), Dickens, Thackeray, Charles Kingsley, Charlotte Bronte,

Lover, Lever, Wilkie Collins, Mayne Reid, Charles Reade, George Eliot,

Anthony Trollope, William Black, Thomas Hardy, R. D. Blackmore, George

Meredith, R. L. Stevenson, Miss Braddon, Mrs. Craik (Miss Mulock), Mrs.

Oliphant, Miss Yonge, and others. Towards the end of the nineteenth and at

the beginning of the twentieth century there was a deepening interest in

the drama, and the list of brilliant dramatists includes the names of

Barrie, H. A. Jones, G. B. Shaw, Pinero, Granville Barker, and others. The

tendency in the fiction of the twentieth century is a concrete and

imaginative presentation of the social, ethical, and sentimental problems

of the day. This tendency is clearly seen in the novels of John Galsworthy

and H. G. Wells. To the historical and biographical list of the nineteenth

century belong Macaulay, Buckle, Carlyle, Thirwall, Grote, Milman, Froude,

Lecky, S. R. Gardiner, Kinglake, John Richard Green, E. A. Freeman, Stubbs,

Dean Stanley, John Morley, Leslie Stephen. In science and philosophy among

the chief writers of the nineteenth century have been Whewell, Sir W.

Hamilton, Mansel, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Hugh Miller, Charles

Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, Max M[:u]ller, Herbert Spencer, T. H.

Green.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Cambridge History of English Literature_; Taine,

_History of English Literature_; Saintsbury, _Short History of English

Literature_; Chambers, _Cyclopaedia of English Literature_.

ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE, ART, CHURCH, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, &c. See _England_.

ENGLISH CHANNEL (Fr. _La Manche_, the sleeve), the arm of the sea which

separates England from France, extending, on the English side, from Dover

to Land's End; and on the French, from Calais to the Island of Ushant. On

the east it communicates with the North Sea by the Straits of Dover, 21

miles wide; and on the west it opens into the Atlantic by an entrance about

100 miles wide. At its greatest breadth it is about 150 miles. The pilchard

and mackerel fisheries are very important. The advantages of a railway

tunnel under the Channel at or near its narrowest part have been frequently

urged; and an English company, formed in 1887 for constructing a tunnel

from Dover, to meet a similar tunnel starting from near Calais, has pushed

an excavation under the sea for over 2000 yards. The plan, opposed by the

British Government for military reasons in 1907, has now been approved of.

Plans have also been put forward for a railway bridge across the Straits of

Dover.

ENGRAVING, the art of drawing or writing on metal, wood, precious stones,

&c., by means of incisions made with instruments variously adapted to the

substances operated upon and the description of work intended. The term is

also applied to the work so performed, and to impressions taken on paper or

similar material from the engraved work. Impressions from metal plates are

called engravings, prints, or plates; those printed from wood being termed

indifferently wood engravings or wood-cuts. While, however, these

impressions are not altogether dissimilar in appearance, the processes are

distinct. As a rule, in prints from metal the lines intended to print are

incised, and in order to take an impression the plate is daubed over with a

thick ink which fills all the lines. The surface is then wiped perfectly

clean, leaving only the incised lines filled with ink. A piece of damp

paper is then laid on the face of the plate, and both are passed through

the press, which causes the ink to pass from the plate to the paper. This

operation needs to be repeated for every impression. In the wood block, on

the contrary, the spaces between the lines of the drawing are cut out,

leaving the lines standing up like type, the printing being from the inked

surface of the raised lines, and effected much more rapidly than plate

printing. This process has also been used to a certain extent with metal.

Engraving on wood, intended for printing or impressing from, long preceded

engraving on metals. The art is of Eastern origin, and at least as early as

the tenth century engraving and printing from wood blocks was common in

China. We first hear of wood engraving being cultivated in Europe by the

Italians and Germans for impressing patterns on textiles, but no paper

impressions earlier than the fourteenth century are known. For a hundred

years there is small indication of the practice of the art, which was at

first confined to the production of block-books, playing-cards, and

religious prints. According to Vasari, the art of printing from engraved

plates was discovered in Florence by Maso Finiguerra about 1460, but

engravings of earlier date are known to exist. Engraving had long been used

as a means of decorating armour, metal vessels, &c., the engravers

generally securing duplicates of their works before laying in the niello (a

species of metallic enamel) by taking casts of them in sulphur, and rubbing

the lines with black. The discovery of the practicability of taking

impressions upon paper helped the development of engraving upon copper

plates for the purpose of printing from. The date of the earliest known

niello proof upon paper is 1452. The work of the Florentine engravers,

however, was almost at once surpassed in Venice and elsewhere in North

Italy by Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Girolamo Mocetto, Jacopo de' Barbari,

and others. In Marc Antonio Raimondi (1475-1534), who wrought under the

guidance of Raphael, and reproduced many of his works, the art reached its

highest point of the earlier period, and Rome became the centre of a new

school, which included Marco da Ravenna (died 1527), Giulio Bonasone

(1531-72), and Agostino de Musis (flourished 1536). In the meantime, in

Germany the progress of the art had been not less rapid. Of the oldest

school the most important engraver is Martin Schongauer (1420-88). He was,

however, surpassed a generation later by Albert D[:u]rer (1471-1528), who

excelled both in copper and wood engraving, especially in the latter, and

also etched a few plates. Among his most famous contemporaries and

successors were Burgkmair and Lucas Cranach. The Dutch and Flemish schools,

of which D[:u]rer's contemporary Lucas van Leyden was the head, did much to

enlarge the scope of the art, either by paying increased attention to the

rendering of light and shade, and the expression of tone and surface

quality, as in the case of Cornelius Cort and Bloemart; or by developing

freedom and expression of line, as in the case of Goltzius and his pupils.

Rubens (1577-1640) influenced engraving through the two Bolswerts,

Vorstermann, Pontius, and P. de Jode, who engraved many of his works on a

large size. Towards the end of the seventeenth century etching, which had

before been rarely used, became more common, and was practised with supreme

mastery by Rembrandt (1607-69) and other painters of that period. In

France, Noel Garnier founded a school of engraving about the middle of the

sixteenth century; but it produced no work of any high distinction until

the reign of Louis XIV, when Robert Nanteuil, his follower Gerard Edelinck,

and Antoine Masson produced many fine portraits, and Gerard Audran engraved

works by Nicolas Poussin and Le Brun. Jacques Callot also produced some

admirable etchings. These were followed about the middle of the eighteenth

century by Wille (1717-1807), a German resident in Paris, who gave new

vitality to a waning art, and by the school of French illustrators. Before

the middle of the seventeenth century England produced little noteworthy

work, availing herself principally of the work of foreign engravers such as

Wenzel Hollar, of whom many took up temporary and even permanent residence.

The first English engraver of marked importance was William Hogarth

(1697-1764), whose works are distinguished for a power of vivid

characterization. Vivares (1712-82), a Frenchman by birth, laid the

foundation of the English school of landscape engraving, which was still

further developed by William Woollet (1735-85), who was also an excellent

engraver of the human figure. In historical engraving a not less remarkable

advance was made by Sir Robert Strange (1721-92); and Richard Earlom

(1743-1822), Valentine Green, and J. R. Smith produced some admirable works

in mezzotint. In succession to these came William Sharp (1746-1824), James

Bazire (1730-1802), Bartolozzi (1727-1815), who practised stipple

engraving, James Heath, Bromley, Raimbach, and others. The substitution of

steel for copper plates (1820-30) gave the power of producing a much larger

number of fine impressions, and opened new possibilities for highly

finished work. During the closing years of the eighteenth century, line

engraving attained a depth of colour and fullness of tone in which earlier

works are often deficient, and during the following century it reached a

perfectness of finish which it had not previously attained. A picture,

whether figure or landscape, came to be translated by line engraving with

all its depth of colour, delicacy of tone, and effect of light and shade;

the various textures, whether of naked flesh, silk, satin, woollen, or

velvet, were all successfully rendered by ingenious modes of laying the

lines and combinations of lines of varying strength, width, and depth. At

the same time, original work by engravers declined in quality. Among

engravers who have produced historical works of large size and in the line

manner the names of Raphael Morghen (1758-1833), Longhi (1766-1831),

Anderloni (1784-1849), Garavaglia (1790-1835), and Toschi, in Italy; of

Forster (1790-1872), Henriquel-Dupont (born 1797), Bridoux (born 1812), and

Blanchard (born 1819), in France; of John Burnet (1784-1868), J. H.

Robinson (1796-1871), Geo. T. Doo (1800-86), J. H. Watt (1799-1867), and

Lumb Stocks (1812-92), in England, stand pre-eminent. Among historical and

portrait engravers in the stipple or dotted manner the names of H. T.

Ryall, Henry Robinson, William Holl (1807-71), and Francis Holl may be

mentioned. In the period 1820-60 landscape engraving attained a perfection

in Great Britain which it had not attained in any other country, or at any

other time. In fact, most of the work was done by etching, details being

sharpened by the graver. Among landscape engravers the names of Geo. Cooke

(1781-1834), William Miller (1796-1882), E. Goodall (1795-1870), J. Cousen

(1804-80), R. Brandard (1805-62), and Wm. Forrest (born 1805) hold the

foremost places. Most of these were associated with the reproduction of

Turner's pictures, and owed much to his control and direction. In mezzotint

engraving Samuel Cousins (1801-87) and David Lucas, who was associated with

John Constable in the 'English Landscape' series, achieved considerable

success. In the period 1830-45 various publications called Annuals,

composed of light literature in prose and verse, and illustrated by highly

finished engravings in steel, were very popular. The engravings were

necessarily of small size, and are generally of great excellence. A number

of them, both figure and landscape, are executed with such finish and

completeness as to be esteemed perfect works. The illustrations of Rogers's

_Poems_ and Rogers's _Italy_ after Turner and Stothard belong to this

period. Many of the originals of the engravings in the Annuals were

finished pictures of large size. A great part of the difficulty in

engraving on a small scale from a large picture consists in determining

what details can be left out, and still preserve the full effect and

character of the original. The most noted engravers for work of this kind

are Charles Heath, Charles Rolls, W. Finden, E. Finden, E. Portbury, J.

Goodyear, F. Engleheart, Henry le Keux, E. Goodall, and W. Miller. Since

1870 many reproductions of paintings have been produced by means of

etching, a comparatively cheap and rapid process. Such works have been

fashionable and very popular with collectors. But while some of them have

been excellent of their kind, the process is of limited resource, and the

best works in this manner do not compare with the masterpieces of line

engraving. In original work, however, etching and dry-point (q.v.) have

produced some excellent work, notably in the hands of Charles Meryon, J. M.

Whistler, Sir Seymour Haden, and Anders Zorn. A revival of mezzotint owes

much to Sir Frank Short. Through lack of encouragement, change of fashion,

and the adoption of other methods of reproduction, line engraving on metal

has become almost a lost art in Great Britain, though a revival in wood

engraving has taken place of recent years.

_Line Engraving_, as implied by the term, is executed entirely in lines.

The tools are few and simple. They consist of the graver or _burin_, the

scraper, to remove the burr left by the graver, and the burnisher; an

oil-stone or hone, dividers, a parallel square, a magnifying lens; a bridge

on which to rest the hand; a blind or shade of tissue paper, to make the

light fall equally on the plate, callipers for levelling important

erasures, a small steel anvil, a small pointed hammer, and punches. In

etching, the following articles are required: a resinous mixture called

etching-ground, capable, when spread very thinly over the plate, of

resisting the action of the acids used; a dabber for laying the ground

equally; an etching needle; a hand-vice; some brushes of different sizes;

and bordering wax, made of burgundy-pitch, bees'-wax, and a little oil.

In _etching_, the plate, which is highly polished and must be free from all

scratches, is first prepared by spreading over it a thin layer of _ground_.

The surface is then smoked, and the outline of the picture transferred to

it by pressure from the paper on which it has been drawn in fine outlines

by a black-lead pencil. The picture is then drawn on the ground with the

etching-needle, which removes the ground in every form produced by it, and

leaves the bright metal exposed. Sometimes, however, the drawing is made

direct, without the use of tracing. A bank of wax is then put round the

plate and diluted acid poured on it, which eats out the metal from the

lines from which the ground has been removed, but leaves the rest of the

plate untouched. (See also _Dry-point_.) In landscape engraving, as

practised in England in the early nineteenth century, the plate is then

gone over with the graver, the etched lines clearly defined, broken lines

connected, new lines added, &c. Sometimes the plate is _rebitten_ more than

once, those parts which are sufficiently bitten in the first treatment

being _stopped_ with varnish, and only the selected parts exposed to

after-biting. Finally the burnisher is brought into play alternately with

the graver and point to give perfectness and finish. In engraving proper,

the lines are first drawn on the metal with a fine point and then cut in by

the graver, first making a fine line, and afterwards entering and

re-entering till the desired width and depth of lines is attained. Much of

the excellence of such engravings depends on the mode in which the lines

are laid, their relative thickness, and the manner in which they cross each

other. In this method of engraving etching is but little used, if at all,

and then only for accessories and the less important parts.

_Soft-ground Etching._--The ground, made by mixing lard with common

etching-ground, is laid on the plate and smoked as before, but its extreme

softness renders it very liable to injury. The outline of the subject is

drawn on a piece of paper larger than the plate. The paper is then damped,

and laid gently over the ground, face upwards, and the margins folded over

and pasted down on the back of the plate. When the paper is dry and tightly

stretched, a bridge is laid across, and with a hardish pencil and firm

pressure the drawing is completed in the usual manner. The pressure makes

the ground adhere to the back of the paper at all parts touched by the

pencil, and on the paper being lifted carefully off, these parts of the

ground are lifted with it, and the corresponding parts of the plate thus

left bare are exposed to the subsequent action of the acid. The granulated

surface of the paper, causing similar granulations in the touches on the

ground, gives the character of a chalk drawing. The biting-in is effected

in the same manner as already described, and the subject may be finished by

rebiting and dotting with the graver. See _Etching_.

_Stipple_, or _Chalk Engraving_, in its pure state, is exclusively composed

of dots, made with a special form of graver, varying in size and form as

the nature of the subject demands, but few stipple plates are now produced

without a large admixture of line in all parts, flesh excepted. Etching is

often used to put in the more important lines and tone masses.

The processes of _Aquatint_ and _Mezzotint_ will be found under their

respective heads, the latter differing from all other styles of engraving

in that the lights and gradations are scraped or burnished out of a plate

prepared so that it would print quite dark all over, instead of the forms

being corroded or cut into a plain surface.

The _Mixed Style_ is based on mezzotint, which, still forming the great

mass of shading, is in this method combined with etching in the darker, and

stipple in the more delicate parts. By this combination a plate will

produce a larger number of good impressions than it would if it were done

entirely in mezzotint.

_Engraving on Wood._--The wood best adapted for engraving is box. It is cut

across the grain in thickness equal to the height of type, these slices

being subjected to a lengthened process of seasoning, and then smoothed for

use. Every wood engraving is the representative of a finished drawing

previously made on the block, the unshaded parts being cut away, and the

lines giving form, shading, texture, &c., left standing in relief by

excavations of varied size and character, made between them by gravers of

different forms. Drawings on wood are made either with black-lead pencil

alone or with pencil and indian ink, the latter being employed for the

broader and darker masses. It is now much the practice to photograph

drawings made in black and white upon the wood instead of making the

drawing on the wood block. When the drawing is put on the wood by washes or

by photography, instead of being entirely done by pencil lines, the

engraver has to devise the width and style of lines to be employed instead

of cutting in facsimile, as is the case when the drawing is made entirely

in lines. The tools required for wood engraving are similar but more

numerous than those of the engraver on copper or steel. See also

_Die-sinking; Gems_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Y. Ottley, _Early History of

Engraving_; G. Duplessis, _History of Engraving in France_; P. G. Hamerton,

_Graphic Arts_; F. Wedmore, _Fine Prints_; A. M. Hind, _A Short History of

Engraving and Etching_; J. H. Slater, _Engravings and their Value_; H. C.

Levis, _Engraving and Collecting of Prints: Bibliography_.

ENGROSSING, FORESTALLING, and REGRATING, terms formerly in use for the

purchase of corn or other commodities in order to sell again at a higher

price, or in order to raise the market price of the same. The modern

equivalent is 'making a corner'. These practices were once regarded as

criminal, and positive statutes against them were passed in England in

1266-7, in 1350-2, in 1552, in 1562, and in 1570. The offence of

_engrossing_ was described by the statute of Edward III as the "getting

into one's possession, or buying up, large quantities of corn, or other

dead victuals, with intent to sell them again"; _forestalling_, as the

"buying or contracting for any cattle, merchandise, or victual, coming in

the way to the market, or dissuading persons from bringing their goods or

provisions there, or persuading them to enhance the price when there"; and

_regrating_, "the buying of corn or other dead victual in any market and

selling it again in the same market, or within 4 miles of the place". By

the statute of Edward VI the engrossing of corn, which included the buying

of it in one market to sell it in another, was made punishable by

imprisonment and pillory; and no one could carry corn from one part of the

kingdom to another without a licence. All the positive statutes against

these offences were repealed in 1772, but they were still found to be

punishable by common law, and it was not till 1844 that they entirely

ceased to rank among offences.

ENHARMON'IC, in music, is an epithet applied to intervals smaller than the

regular divisions of the scale, i.e. less than semitones. Enharmonic

intervals can be produced on stringed instruments, or on specially

constructed fixed-tone instruments having more than twelve divisions in the

octave.

ENKHUIZEN (engk'hoi-zn), a seaport of Holland, on a projection in the

Zuider Zee, 29 miles north-east of Amsterdam. It had formerly a pop. of

40,000, but the silting up of the harbour has caused its decay, and its

inhabitants number now about 7110.

ENLIST'MENT, the act of engaging oneself or another to perform any service.

In general, the use of the word is confined to engagements for the public

service, and more especially in the armed forces of the Crown. In earlier

days enlistment of soldiers was either for an indefinite period, as, for

instance, for a particular war or campaign, or for life. Up to the middle

of the seventeenth century enlistments were made to serve the officer

raising the force under a contract from the Crown; after this period all

enlistments were to serve the king. In both cases they were for a

particular regiment only. For the next hundred years troops continued to be

raised both in peace and war on the contract system, which by now implied

that the officer accepting the contract, in addition to having a

considerable say in the matter of allotting commissions to his friends,

received a lump sum to cover all expenses of recruiting, pay, and clothing,

out of which he and his officers made what they could. The objections to

such a system are palpable, and it was abolished in 1783, after which year

all duties with regard to the enlistment of troops were placed in the hands

of a Director of Recruiting and Organization. The contract system was last

used in war as late as the fifties of the last century during the Crimean

War. For some eighty years prior to 1847 the term of enlistment was

ordinarily for life, but from that year onward to 1870 various systems of

limited enlistment were in force. In 1870, with the idea of forming a

reserve, the principle of short service was introduced by the Army

Enlistment Act, and this principle has been continued by all succeeding

legislation. The existing law as to enlistment is to be found in Part II of

the Army Act, Sections 78 to 101; more detailed instructions are in the

Recruiting Regulations. The Army Act, brought into force annually by the

Army (Annual) Act, specifies the term of original enlistment to be twelve

years, which may be either entirely in army (colour) service, or partly in

colour service and partly in the reserve. In practice the normal terms are

seven years' colour service and five years' reserve service for the

infantry, with certain modifications in the case of other arms. Enlistment

may be made for general service or for a particular corps, and in the

latter case the recruit will be posted to that corps only, and will

ordinarily spend his whole service in it. A man desiring to enlist should

present himself at a recruiting office, where he will be given a notice

setting forth the terms of service. If, after reading the conditions, he

still desires to enlist, he will be directed to appear before a justice of

the peace (a recruiting officer is ex officio a justice of the peace for

this purpose) for attestation. Attestation consists in giving signed

answers to certain questions contained in the Form of Attestation, and in

taking the oath of allegiance. The completed form is then signed by the

justice, and the man becomes a properly enlisted and attested soldier. The

former practice of giving a shilling to every prospective recruit, and

thereafter considering him for some purposes a soldier, is no longer

recognized, and, at any time before signing the attestation paper, the man

may decline to complete his bargain without rendering himself liable to any

penalty. Should he, however, make a false answer to certain of the

questions contained in his attestation paper, he is liable to punishment on

conviction by court-martial.

ENNIS, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough) in Ireland, County Clare,

on the Fergus, 19 miles north-west of Limerick. It is irregularly built,

the streets being narrow and crooked. There are remains of a Franciscan

abbey founded in 1240. Some linen and flannel are manufactured, and there

is a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. 5472.

ENNISCOR'THY, a town in Ireland, County Wexford, on the River Slaney, 77

miles south of Dublin. An old castle erected by one of the early Norman

conquerors is in the centre of the town. Vinegar Hill in the immediate

vicinity was the scene of a skirmish in 1798, when the town was stormed and

burned by the rebels. Pop. 5495.

ENNISKIL'LEN, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough), Ireland, County

Fermanagh, 34 miles north-east of Sligo, on an island in the river which

connects the upper and lower sections of Lough Erne, with suburbs on both

sides of the adjoining mainland, with which it communicates by two bridges;

a well-built, clean, thriving town. Pop. 4847.

EN'NIUS, Quintus, the father of Latin poetry, was born at Rudiae, in

Calabria, in 239 B.C., and died in 170 B.C. Like our own early poet Gower,

he was trilingual, speaking Greek, Oscan, and Latin. He was of good family,

and claimed descent from the legendary kings of Calabria. Little is known

of his life; he served in the Second Punic War, and held the rank of

centurion in 204 B.C.; at a later date he went to Rome, supported himself

by teaching, and was friendly with the greatest of his contemporaries. He

died of gout in his seventieth year. Ennius was a man of great versatility.

He held perhaps the foremost place among writers of tragedies at Rome. He

wrote good comedies. He wrote satires, and prepared the way for Lucilius.

He wrote didactic poetry, and prepared the way for Lucretius. Most

important of all, he wrote epic poetry--the _Annales_--and prepared the way

for Virgil. He was the first to transplant the hexameter into Italy. His

predecessors wrote in a rough kind of verse scanned by accent rather than

quantity, and known as 'Saturnian verse'. Ennius contemptuously called this

"the verse of fauns and soothsayers", and introduced the strong-winged

music of Homer into his verse. He also brought in the elegiac couplet,

which was to attain perfection at the hands of Propertius and Ovid. He left

a permanent impress on the language. He made a systematic study of

orthography, and invented a system of shorthand. He was fond of

philosophical speculations, and made the Romans acquainted with the

rationalism of Euripides and Euhemerus. He was, therefore, a remarkably

versatile and prolific writer. His translations from the Greek tragedians

were of the greatest importance in the history of Roman drama. His chief

fame, however, rests upon his _Annales_, a great epic in eighteen books.

Like all of the works of Ennius, it only survives in fragments quoted by

later writers. It was a great national epic, recording the history of the

Roman state from the landing of Aeneas down to the poet's own time. The

city itself--_urbs quam dicunt Romam_--may be said to have been the central

figure of his poem, a nobler figure than the pious Aeneas. The verse of

Ennius is sometimes crude and harsh, but it contains many fine lines and

grand passages. Some of these lines are world-famous, like those on Fabius

Maximus beginning with

Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem,

or the great line

Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque,

which sums up some of the qualities which placed Rome at the head of the

civilized world. In a famous simile Quintilian (_Inst. Or._ x, 1, 88)

compares Ennius to a sacred grove of ancient oaks, whose massive immemorial

trunks are awe-inspiring rather than beautiful. In his own epitaph Ennius

boasted that he still lived as he passed to and fro through the mouths of

men (_volito vivu' per ora virum_). Though his works are lost, this is

still true, for he inspired Virgil and influenced all Latin

literature.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Y. Sellar, _Roman Poets of the Republic_; L.

M[:u]ller, _Quintus Ennius_; J. W. Duff, _A Literary History of Rome_.

ENNS, a river in Austria, which rises in the Alps of Salzburg, flows N.,

then E.N.E., then N.N.W., entering Upper Austria (Ober der Enns), which for

15 miles it separates from Lower Austria (Unter der Enns), and finally

enters the Danube a little below the town of Enns (4438 inhabitants). Total

course about 150 miles.

ENOCH ([=e]'nok), (1) the eldest son of Cain, who called the city which he

built after his name (_Gen._ iv, 17). (2) One of the patriarchs, the father

of Methuselah. He "walked with God; and he was not; for God took him"

(_Gen._ v, 24) at the age of 365 years. The words quoted are generally

understood to mean that Enoch did not die a natural death, but was removed

as Elijah was.

ENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal book of an assumedly prophetical character,

to which considerable importance has been attached, particularly on account

of St. Jude quoting it in the 14th and 15th verses of his _Epistle_. It is

referred to by many of the early Fathers; is of unknown authorship, but was

probably written by a Palestinian Jew in Hebrew or Aramaic, was translated

into Greek, and from the Greek the existing Ethiopic version was made in

the first or second century B.C. Till the end of the eighteenth century it

was known in Europe only by the references of early writers. On his return,

Bruce, the African traveller, brought with him from Abyssinia two

manuscripts containing the Ethiopic translation of it. In 1821 Archbishop

Laurence published a translation of the work, and in 1838 the Ethiopic text

followed. _The Book of Enoch_ has since been repeatedly published,

translated, and criticized.

E'NOS, a seaport in Thrace, 38 miles N.W. of Gallipoli, on the Aegean Sea,

in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. 6940.--The Gulf of Enos is 14 miles in length by

about 5 miles in breadth.

ENSCHEDE (ens'_h_e-d[=a]), a town of Holland, province of Overijssel, near

the Prussian frontier, the chief seat of cotton manufacture in Holland. It

has increased rapidly in recent years. Pop. 41,600.

ENSENA'DA (in Sp., a creek or natural harbour), a seaport of the Argentine

Republic, province of Buenos Ayres, the port of the town of La Plata, with

which it is connected by rail and tramway, with recently constructed

harbour works.--Another place of the same name is a rising port of Mexico,

in the northern part of the peninsula of California on the Pacific, in the

Bay of Todos los Santos, with gold- and copper-mines adjacent.

EN'SIGN, formerly, in the British army, the officer who carried the flag or

colours of an infantry regiment; for this title, second lieutenant has been

substituted since 1871. In naval language the ensign is the flag over the

poop or stern which distinguishes the ships of different nations. In the

Royal Navy of Britain it is a flag with a white field divided into quarters

by the red cross of St. George, and having the union (or Union Jack, as it

is commonly called) in the upper corner next the staff. A similar ensign

with a red field is flown by the merchant service.

EN'SILAGE, in agriculture, a mode of storing green fodder or vegetables in

receptacles called 'silos'. These are usually pits of quadrangular form,

lined with wood, brick, concrete, or stone. The fodder is cut and mixed,

placed in the silo, pressed down, and kept compressed by heavy weights

placed on a movable wooden covering. It undergoes a slight fermentation,

and attains a slightly acid taste and smell, which is particularly grateful

to cattle. The modern system of ensilage dates from about 1875, but the

practice was known to the ancient Romans, and the system has been common in

Mexico for centuries. Such advantages are claimed for it, as that in a wet

season grass can be made into ensilage instead of hay, and that there is

little loss of nutritive elements, while it has great feeding powers.

Successful experiments have shown that green fodder may be converted into

ensilage without a pit by simply piling up and consolidating by pressure.

ENTAB'LATURE (Lat. _in_, and _tabula_, a tablet), in architecture, the

horizontal, continuous work which rests upon a row of columns, and belongs

especially to classical architecture. It consists of three principal

divisions--the _architrave_ immediately above the abacus of the column,

next the _frieze_, and then the _cornice_. In large buildings projections

similar to and known also as entablatures are often carried round the whole

edifice, or along one front of it.

[Illustration: Entablature of Tuscan Column]

ENTA'DA, a genus of leguminous plants, subord. Mimoseae, containing about a

dozen species of climbing tropical shrubs, remarkable for the great size of

their pods. _E. scandens_ has pods which measure from 6 to 8 feet in

length. They are sometimes carried from America to the coasts of Europe by

the Gulf Stream. The seeds have a hard, woody, and beautifully polished

shell, and are often made into snuff-boxes, scent-bottles, and other small

articles.

ENTAIL', in law, the settlement of an estate by which a freehold is limited

to a person and the heirs of his body, with such particular restrictions as

the donor may specify. Entailed estates are divided into _general_ and

_special_, the former when the estate is given to the donee and the heirs

of his body without exception, the latter when the estate is limited to

certain heirs to the exclusion of others. By a Bill introduced into

Parliament in 1920 it is proposed that a tenant in tail should have power

of disposal by will.

EN'TASIS, in architecture, the delicate and almost imperceptible swelling

of the lower part of the shaft of a column, to be found in almost all the

Grecian examples, adopted to give a more pleasing effect to the eye.

ENTEL'LUS, an East Indian species of monkey, of the genus Semnopith[=e]cus

(_S. entellus_). It has yellowish fur, with a face of a violet tinge, and a

long and powerful tail, which, however, is not prehensile. It receives

divine honours from the natives of India, by whom it is termed _Hanuman_.

Costly temples are dedicated to these animals; hospitals are built for

their reception, and large fortunes are bequeathed for their support. The

entellus abounds in India; enters the houses and gardens of the natives,

plunders them of fruit and eatables, and the visit is even considered an

honour.

ENTENTE CORDIALE, a term applied in international politics to friendly

relations existing between different countries and statesmen. It is not a

formal alliance, but denotes the existing community of interests and

friendly sentiments between two countries. The term has been especially

applied to the friendly relations which existed between France and England

ever since the reign of Edward VII down to the formal alliance concluded at

the outbreak of the European War.

ENTERIC FEVER, or TYPHOID FEVER, is an acute infectious fever,

characterized by much general disturbance, and giving rise to ulceration in

the small intestine. The distinction between this fever and typhus fever

was only established in the middle of last century. It is due to a

bacillus, difficult to detect, but during an attack found in many of the

internal organs as well as in the stools, urine, and blood of the affected

person. Enteric fever occurs in all parts of the world, and in most

countries it is endemic, with occasional outbursts of epidemic prevalence.

In Great Britain it is most common in the autumn, but epidemics may appear

at any season. The great majority of cases occur between ten and

twenty-five years of age; less common in middle life, it is rare after

sixty. The most common source of infection is from the faeces and urine of

infected persons, hence the channels of infection are contaminated water,

milk, and food-stuffs. Much public interest has been roused by the

infection, through contaminated sewage-water, of watercress, celery,

oysters, and other shell-fish, and various outbreaks have arisen through

these agents. A further danger is the 'enteric carrier', a person who has

once had enteric fever, and who is harbouring the bacillus for many years

in his gall-bladder or elsewhere, and whose stools and urine may be

infectious for an indefinite period.

The incubation period is very variable, ranging from one to three weeks,

while the onset of the disease itself is usually insidious. The patient

complains of feeling out of sorts and of headache, soon followed by the

signs of chill, due to the rising temperature, and associated with

sleeplessness, occasionally severe head symptoms, and much digestive

disturbance.

Attacks vary much in intensity, but during the first three weeks so-called

mild cases may suddenly develop more severe symptoms. Convalescence is slow

and protracted, as in severe cases emaciation and debility are marked. The

chief complications during the acute stage of the illness are perforation

of an ulcer through the bowel, demanding immediate surgical interference,

and intestinal bleeding resulting from haemorrhage from an ulcer. During

convalescence relapses are frequent, brought on by indiscretions of diet,

chill, and undue exposure, or some unknown cause. The most common

_sequelae_ arising from the disease are thrombosis of a vein, usually in

the thigh; bronchitis; one-sided parotitis; outbreaks of boils and

superficial abscesses; and more occasionally heart weakness and disease of

bone.

In its early stages enteric fever is difficult to diagnose, and confusion

may arise between it and lobar- and broncho-pneumonia, influenza, diarrhoea

associated with septic infection, typhus fever, appendicitis, or

septicaemia.

In treatment, good nursing is of first importance. The patient must have

suitable nourishment and stimulation, and requires to have the greatest

care, whatever special form of treatment is being carried out, while

constant watch must be kept for the appearance of any complication. Great

differences in the treatment are observed in different countries and by

different schools of medicine.

ENTERI'TIS (Gr. _enteron_, intestine) is inflammation of the intestines. It

varies from a mild intestinal catarrh, causing slight symptoms, and

yielding to treatment in a few days, to cases of severe vomiting and

diarrhoea with extreme prostration. These severe forms are most frequently

seen in infants and young children during the summer months, and frequently

prove fatal. Removal of the cause of irritation and complete rest to the

intestines are to be aimed at, as far as possible, in the treatment of the

condition.

ENTEROMORPHA, a genus of Green Algae, similar to Ulva, but with a tubular

thallus. _E. intestinalis_ is common in fresh and brackish waters.

ENTERTAINMENTS TAX, first imposed by the Finance (New Duties) Act, 1916, is

an _ad valorem_ duty on payments for admission of persons as spectators or

members of an audience to any entertainment. Entertainment is defined as

including any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which

persons are admitted for payment. The tax is collected by means of stamped

tickets of admission, or (in respect of places of regular entertainment,

and in other cases on special cause shown) on the basis of returns

furnished to the Board of Customs and Excise by arrangement previously made

with the Board. Admission by complimentary ticket is not taxable if no

indirect payment is a condition of such admission.

Exemption from the tax may be claimed in respect of any entertainment (1)

where the gross receipts are entirely devoted to philanthropic or

charitable purposes; or (2) where the purpose is the amusement of children,

and the charge for admission does not exceed one penny per head; or (3)

which is provided by or on behalf of a school or other educational

institution for the furtherance of an object connected therewith, and at

which the performers are children under sixteen years of age who have been

or are in attendance thereat; or (4) which is wholly educational, or, being

partly educational and partly scientific, is conducted by an association

not established or carried on for profit, or, having for its aim the

revival of national pastimes, is provided by such an association founded

for that purpose.

Repayment of the tax may be claimed when the net proceeds of an

entertainment are devoted to philanthropic or charitable purposes, and the

total expenses met from the receipts do not exceed one-fifth of the

receipts.

When admission to an entertainment is dependent upon payment of a

contribution or subscription to a club, society, or association, tax is

payable thereon, and where such payment carries with it the right of

admission, the tax is due whether the right is exercised or not. If,

however, the payment confers the right to other privileges besides

admission to an entertainment, e.g. to the use of library, reading-room,

&c., only such proportion thereof as the Board determines to represent the

right of admission is taxable.

The amount yielded by the tax for the fiscal year 1916-7 was over

L3,000,000, for 1917-8 nearly L5,000,000, while for 1919-20 it was

approximately L10,485,000.

[Illustration: Diagram showing the Parts of Insects

_a_, Head. _b_, Thorax. _c_, Abdomen. _dd_, Front wings. _ee_, Hind wings.

_ff_, Antennae.]

[Illustration: Biting Mouth Parts of an Insect

A, Upper lip. B, Mandibles. C, Maxillae: _c_1_, palp; _c_2_, galea; _c_3_,

lacinia; _c_4_, stipes. D, Lower lip: _d_1_, submentum; _d_2_, mentum;

_d_3_, labial palp; _d_4_, glossa; _d_5_, paraglossa.]

ENTOMOL'OGY, the branch of zoology which treats of insects, the name being

from Gr. _ent[)o]ma_, animals 'cut in', the transverse division or

segmentation of the body being their most conspicuous feature. The true

insects are those animals of the phylum Arthropoda distinguished from the

other classes of the phylum by the fact that the three divisions of the

body--the head, thorax, and abdomen--are always distinct from one another.

There are never more than three pairs of legs in the perfect insect, and

these are all borne upon the thorax. Each leg consists of from six to nine

joints. The first of these is called the 'coxa', and is succeeded by a

short joint called the 'trochanter'. This is followed by a joint, often of

large size, called the 'femur', succeeded by the 'tibia', and this has

articulated to it the 'tarsus', which may be composed of from one to five

joints. Normally two pairs of wings are present, but one or other, or both,

may be wanting. The wings are expansions of the sides of the second and

third sections of the thorax, and are strengthened by narrow thickenings

called 'nervures'. In the beetles the anterior pair of wings becomes

hardened so as to form protective cases for the posterior membranous wings,

and are called in this condition 'elytra' or 'wing-cases'. The fore-wings

are similarly transformed in the Orthoptera, while in many of the Hemiptera

they are horny except at the tip. Respiration is effected by means of

air-tubes or tracheae, which open on the surface of the body by lateral

apertures called 'stigmata' or 'spiracles', and ramify through every part

of the body. The head is composed of several segments amalgamated together,

and carries a pair of feelers or 'antennae', a pair of eyes, usually

compound (and often simple eyes in addition), and the appendages of the

mouth. [Illustration: A, Sucking mouth of a Butterfly: _p_, proboscis; _l_,

labium; _l_1_, labial palps; _m_, mandibles. B, Piercing mouth of a

Mosquito: _a_, labial palps; _b_, labium epi-pharynx; _c_, labium; _d_ and

_e_, maxillae; _f_, labrum; _g_, antennae; _h_ and _i_, ocelli: _hy_,

hypopharynx; _j_, labial palp.] These last include an upper lip (labrum),

and three pairs of jaws (mandibles, first maxillae, second maxillae), the

third pair being more or less fused into a lower lip (labium). The thorax

is composed of three segments, also amalgamated but generally pretty easily

recognized. The abdominal segments are usually more or less freely movable

upon one another, and never carry locomotive limbs; but the extremity is

frequently furnished with appendages connected with generation, which in

some cases serve as offensive and defensive weapons (stings). The organs of

the mouth take collectively two typical forms, the masticatory and the

suctorial, the former exemplified by the beetles, the latter by the

butterflies, in which the mouth is purely for suction. The alimentary canal

consists of the oesophagus or gullet, a crop, a gizzard, a stomach, and an

intestine, terminating in a cloaca. There is no regular system of

blood-vessels; the most important organ of the circulation is a contractile

vessel situated dorsally and called the 'dorsal vessel'. The nervous system

consists of a pair of cerebral ganglia (brain) in the head, these being the

thickened upper part of a nerve-ring which encircles the gullet and passes

below into a double ventral nerve-cord dilated into ganglia at intervals.

The sexes are in different individuals, and most insects are oviparous.

Reproduction is generally sexual, but non-sexual reproduction also occurs.

(See _Parthenogenesis_.) Generally the young are very different from the

full-grown insect, and pass through a 'metamorphosis' before attaining the

mature stage. When this metamorphosis is complete, it exhibits three

stages--that of the larva, caterpillar, or grub, that of the pupa or

chrysalis, and that of the imago or perfect winged insect. Insects have

been divided into three sections--Ametab[)o]la, Hemimetab[)o]la, and

Holometab[)o]la, according as they undergo no metamorphosis, an incomplete

one, or a complete one. The young of the Ametab[)o]la differ from the adult

only in size. They are all destitute of wings; the eyes are simple and

sometimes wanting. The Hemimetab[)o]la undergo an incomplete metamorphosis,

the larva differing from the imago chiefly in the absence of wings and in

size. The pupa, here termed a nymph, is usually active, or, if quiescent,

capable of movement. In the Holometab[)o]la the metamorphosis is complete,

the larva, pupa, and imago differing greatly from one another in external

appearance and habits. The larva is worm-like and the pupa quiescent. The

section Ametab[)o]la includes the order Apt[)e]ra (tassel-tails and

spring-tails). The section Hemimetab[)o]la comprises the orders

Hemipt[)e]ra (cicadas, bugs, plant-lice, &c.), Orthopt[)e]ra (cockroaches,

crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, &c.), and Neuropt[)e]ra

(dragon-flies, may-flies, white-ants, &c.). The Holometab[)o]la comprises

the orders Dipt[)e]ra (gnats, bot-flies, gad-flies, mosquitoes,

house-flies, fleas, &c.), Lepidopt[)e]ra (butterflies and moths),

Hymenopt[)e]ra (bees, wasps, and ants), and Coleopt[)e]ra (lady-birds,

glow-worms, cockchafers, weevils, and all of the beetle tribe). A division

is sometimes made into Mandibulate and Haustellate groups, the oral

apparatus of the former being adapted for mastication, the latter for

imbibition of liquid food. Both types are, however, sometimes modified, and

occasionally combined.

[Illustration: Structure of a Hexapod

A, Head: _a_, antennae; _b_, compound eyes; _c_, occiput; _d_, ocelli; _e_,

palpi. B, Thorax: _f_, pronotum; _f_1_, prothoracic legs; _g_, mesonotum;

_g_1_, mesonotal leg; _h_, metathorax; _h_1_, metathoracic leg; _i_,

mesothoracic, and _j_, metathoracic, wings; _k_, coxa of leg; _l_,

trochanter; _m_, femur; _n_, tibia; _o_, tarsus; _p_, ungues. C, Abdomen:

_q_, body segments; _r_, genitalia.]

[Illustration]

ENTOMOPH'AGA ('insect eaters'), a term applied to (1) a group of

hymenopterous insects whose larvae feed upon living insects; (2) a tribe of

marsupials, as the opossums, bandicoots, &c., which are insectivorous,

though not exclusively so; (3) a section of the edentates, as the ant-eater

and pangolin.

ENTOMOPHTHORINEAE, a curious family of Fungi, group Zygomycetes, all

parasites on insects. The best known is _Empusa Muscae_, which attacks the

common house-fly. After thoroughly permeating and finally killing the

infected fly, the fungus sends numerous hyphae to the surface, from the

ends of which conidia are shot forth by an 'explosive' process, to spread

the infection if they alight on living flies. In autumn, flies killed by

this parasite may often be found adhering to window-panes, surrounded by a

halo of ejected conidia. It has been proposed to utilize this fungus in

combating the fly nuisance.

[Illustration: Entomostraca

Spiny-tailed water-flea (Daphnia) on left; Cyclops on right. Both

enlarged.]

ENTOMOS'TRACA, a sub-class of crustacea, including forms which are mostly

small, and comprising four orders: (1) Branchiopoda, brine-shrimps and

water-fleas; (2) Copepoda, including the freshwater Cyclops, and numerous

marine species contributing to the floating surface population (plankton);

(3) Cirripedia, barnacles; (4) Ostracoda, types such as Cypris enclosed in

a bivalve shell.

[Illustration: Entozoa magnified

1, _Coen[=u]rus cerebr[=a]lis_ (producing the staggers in sheep). _a_,

Heads (shown on the surface) separately.