_Mercury Vapour Lamps._--In these lamps the light is obtained from

incandescent mercury vapour in a tube from which the air has been

exhausted. The positive terminal is connected to a small iron electrode at

one end of the tube. At the other end there is a small bulb, which contains

a little pool of mercury, which is connected to the negative terminal. To

start the lamp, the tube has to be tilted, so that a stream of mercury

flows along it and makes contact with the iron electrode. The current which

then flows vaporizes some of the mercury, and when the tube is tilted back

to its original position, the discharge is maintained through the mercury

vapour. A small series resistance is required in order to make the

operation of the lamp stable. For small lamps a glass tube is used, but

owing to the higher temperature reached in lamps consuming considerable

power, it is necessary to use a quartz tube for large lamps. Quartz is

transparent to ultra-violet light, and to avoid harmful effects the tube is

usually enclosed in a larger one of flint glass, which stops the

ultra-violet rays.

_Incandescent Lamps._--This is the name commonly given to the type of lamp

in which the light is produced by an incandescent filament. The filament is

enclosed in a glass bulb, which is either exhausted to a high vacuum, or

else contains an inert gas under pressure. The filament is heated to

incandescence by the current passing through it.

[Illustration: Stages in the Manufacture of an Incandescent Lamp

1, Bulb as received from furnace. 2, Stem attached for exhausting. 3,

Filament sealed in. 4, Lamp exhausted of air. 5, Finished lamp.]

The first lamp of this type to come into general use was the carbon

filament lamp. This has now been ousted by the much more efficient tungsten

filament lamp. The earlier tungsten lamps were very fragile, owing to the

brittleness of the filament. Later, a process was discovered whereby

tungsten could be made malleable. The manufacture of drawn-wire filaments

thus became possible, and the tungsten filament lamps which are now

produced will stand a considerable amount of rough handling. This type of

lamp is now in universal use for house lighting.

The limit of temperature at which the filament can be worked is set by the

disintegration of the filament, which blackens the bulb and weakens the

filament till it breaks. Recent research has revealed that this is due to a

double chemical action between traces of water vapour and the incandescent

metal. No method of entirely removing water vapour from the bulb has been

found, but further research has brought to light the important fact that if

the bulb is filled with an inert gas under pressure, the action is reduced

to a minimum. This allows the filament to be worked at a much higher

temperature, and since the light emitted increases with temperature much

more rapidly than the power consumption does, the efficiency of the lamp

can be greatly increased. These discoveries have led to the development of

the modern _gas-filled lamp_. Owing to the high intrinsic brilliancy of the

filament, high candle-power lamps of this type can be made which are not

unduly bulky. For this reason, and because of their high efficiency and the

absence of the need for any adjustment or attention, gas-filled lamps are

coming into extensive use for street lighting and for factory and workshop

lighting. Smaller lamps of this type are also being widely adopted for the

illumination of shop windows.

ELECTRIC MOTORS, the name given to that division of dynamo-electric

machinery in which electrical power is converted into mechanical power.

Electric motors are classified as _direct-current motors_ or

_alternating-current motors_, according as the electric power taken by the

motor is in the form of a direct current or an alternating current. Further

subdivisions of each class are made on the basis of differences in the

operating characteristics of the various types.

_Direct-current Motors._--The motor consists of a fixed magnetic field

system with a rotating armature, which carries the conductors through which

the supply current is passed. The magnetic field, produced in the air-gap

between the poles and the armature, reacts with the current-carrying

conductors of the armature and produces the _mechanical turning-moment_ or

_torque_.

At the same time the motion of the conductors through the magnetic field

generates an E.M.F. in the conductors. This E.M.F. is in the opposite

direction to the applied E.M.F., and is, therefore, called the _back

E.M.F._ of the motor. The current taken by the motor is equal to the

difference between the applied and back E.M.F.'s divided by the resistance

of the armature winding. Since the armature resistance is always low, and

the back E.M.F. is zero at starting, some form of starter is necessary in

order to limit the current to a safe value. Essentially the starter

consists of a suitable resistance connected in series with the armature. As

the motor gains speed this resistance is gradually reduced to zero.

The speed at which a D.C. motor runs varies inversely as the air-gap flux

per pole, and very approximately, directly as the applied E.M.F. (directly

as the back E.M.F. actually).

The torque produced is proportional to the product of the air-gap flux per

pole and the armature current. The torque and speed characteristics of a

D.C. motor, therefore, depend on the manner in which the air-gap flux per

pole varies with the load current.

_Series Motor._--In this type the field magnet windings are connected in

series with the armature winding, i.e. the same current flows in both

windings. The air-gap flux per pole, therefore, depends on the current

taken by the motor. Consequently, at light loads the speed of the motor is

very high, and there is a very large fall in speed as the load increases.

The torque increases rapidly with load for the same reason. At starting, a

large torque is obtained at a low speed. These characteristics are

specially suitable for traction purposes, for crane motors, and for the

motors for certain machine tools.

[Illustration: Diagram of a Simple Motor

C, Conductor on surface of iron core A, which is free to rotate between the

poles N S of an electro-magnet.]

_Shunt Motor._--In this case the field magnet windings are connected as a

shunt to the armature windings, i.e. the current in the field coils depends

upon the applied voltage, and is, therefore, constant in normal operation.

Apart from the slight effect of the armature magneto-motive force, the

air-gap flux per pole, therefore, remains almost constant at all loads.

This means that the speed is practically constant at all loads (a very

slight fall in speed with load occurs), and the torque, therefore, is

almost directly proportional to the load current. The shunt motor is,

therefore, suitable for all cases where an approximately constant speed at

all loads is required.

_Alternating-current Motors._--There are wide differences between the

various types, both in construction and operation. The type most commonly

used is the polyphase _induction motor_. In this motor both the field

system and the armature consist of a slotted core built up of iron

laminations. The field system is called the _stator_, and the armature the

_rotor_. Both carry conductors in their slots, and these conductors in each

case form a polyphase winding. Current is supplied to the stator winding

only. The currents in the rotor winding are _induced_ by the action of the

rotating magnetic field set up by the stator currents. Hence the name

induction motor. For starting, a polyphase resistance completes the

circuits of the rotor winding. This resistance is gradually reduced to zero

as the motor attains its full speed.

The rotor circuits are, therefore, closed upon themselves in normal

operation. In many motors (especially small ones which are started

unloaded) the rotor winding consists of a series of copper bars brazed to

solid end-rings at each end of the core, thus forming a permanently

short-circuited winding. Such a rotor is known as a _squirrel-cage rotor_.

The speed characteristic of the induction motor closely resembles that of

the shunt D.C. motor, and induction motors are suitable for similar

purposes. The induction motor gives its maximum torque at a speed only

slightly below the synchronous speed (corresponding to the number of poles

in the stator winding and the frequency of the supply); and the torque

decreases very rapidly as the speed rises towards synchronism. The maximum

torque has a definite value for a given motor, and if the load demands a

greater torque than this, the motor slows down and stops.

_Synchronous motors_ are seldom used except for special purposes. They are

exactly similar to the ordinary synchronous generator or alternator in

construction, and the field system is almost invariably the rotating part.

As their name implies, these motors have the characteristic of running at

synchronous speed at all loads. If through overloading, or for any other

reason, the motor is unable to maintain its synchronous speed, it

immediately falls out of step and stops.

_Alternating-current Commutator Motors._--These motors are in general

appearance similar to the induction motor, but the rotor is fitted with a

commutator. According to the electrical connections, these motors may be

given characteristics similar to direct-current series or shunt motors.

Single-phase commutator motors with series characteristics are used on the

L.B. & S.C.R. electric trains.

[Illustration]

ELECTRIC POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION. In the public supply of

electric power in this country, the usual practice is to use

alternating-current generators in the power stations, and to transmit the

power at a high voltage to substations. The substation plant reduces the

pressure to a value suitable to the consumer, and in many instances also

converts the alternating current into direct current. From the substations

the power is distributed to the consumers.

For a given amount of power transmitted the cross-section of the cables

required varies inversely as the square of the voltage. In order to reduce

the outlay on cables, it is important that the transmission voltage should

be as high as the circumstances permit. Naturally this becomes more and

more important as the distance over which the power has to be transmitted

increases. In America, where large amounts of power are transmitted over

very great distances, the pressure used is in some cases 150,000 volts, and

the tendency is to raise this till further, as switch gear, insulators, and

other apparatus capable of withstanding this high pressure are becoming

available. For high-tension underground cables, the pressure now coming

into common use is 20,000 volts.

The nature of the low-voltage distribution from the substations, whether

alternating current or direct current, depends largely on the requirements

of the consumers.

There are certain advantages in the use of direct current, and in this

country it is more commonly employed than alternating current, but the

substation plant is more costly and requires skilled attendance. If the

circumstances are such that these advantages are not important, the lower

initial cost and running expenses of an alternating-current distribution

would lead to its adoption.

In the Thury system of power transmission high-voltage direct current is

used throughout. Only one supply in this country is of this kind, but

several are in operation on the Continent. Pressures up to 100,000 volts

are used.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. See _Telegraph_.

ELECTRIC TRACTION and ELECTRIC TRAMWAY. In electric traction the mechanical

power required for the propulsion of the vehicle is obtained from electric

motors. These motors are usually _series direct-current motors_, but for

railway work single-phase and three-phase A.C. motors have also been

successfully employed (see _Electric Motors_). Up to the present, electric

traction on railways has only been employed for suburban traffic in this

country. In one instance (L.B. & S.C.R. electrification) single-phase

alternating current is used. In all the others the power supply is direct

current (see _Railways, Electrification of_).

In electric tramways, except in some few instances where there are

objections to the use of an overhead construction, the current is conveyed

to the motors through a trolley pole carrying a wheel running on an

overhead bare copper wire. A hand-operated drum controller, directly

controlling the driving and electric braking of the motors, is used. A

hand-brake, and commonly a separate electro-magnetic brake, are provided.

Except in very small tramway systems, the power is generated as

high-tension alternating current, and transformed and converted at

substations suitably placed in the area covered by the tramway (see

_Electric Power Transmission and Distribution_). The low-tension D.C. power

is distributed from the substations to the trolley wire. The car rails are

earthed, and provide a return path for the current. In order to minimize

the flow of current to other conductors in the vicinity of the car rails,

copper cables returning directly to the substation are connected to the

rails at suitable intervals. These earth-return cables are connected in

series with special low-voltage dynamos (called _negative boosters_) at the

substation. This arrangement automatically keeps the P.D. between the most

distant point of the car rails and the substation within a prescribed

maximum, and effectively prevents the corrosion of pipes laid near the car

rails.

ELEC'TRODE (Gr. _hodos_, a way), a term introduced by Faraday to denote the

wires or other terminals by which electricity either enters or leaves a

body which is undergoing electrolytic decomposition. He called the

electrode at which the current enters the _anode_ (_ana_, upwards), and the

electrode at which the current leaves the electrolyte the _cathode_

(_kata_, downwards). (See _Electrolysis_; _Electro-metallurgy_.) The word

is now commonly used in a wider sense to denote the conductor by which

contact is made with a medium. In this way electrodes are spoken of in

connection with electric furnaces, electric welding appliances, vacuum

tubes, and mercury vapour lamps, although the actions are not electrolytic.

ELECTROL'YSIS (Gr. _lysis_, loosening) is the name give to the

decomposition of fused salts or solutions of salts, &c., by means of the

electric current, and is thus a branch of electro-chemistry. The substance

through which the current is passed is termed the _electrolyte_, and must

be either an acid, base, or salt in a fused state or in solution. The

current enters the electrolyte by an electrode called the _anode_, or the

positive terminal. The electrode by means of which the the current leaves

the electrolyte is termed the _cathode_, or negative terminal.

During the passage of the current the electrolyte is decomposed, and the

products of decomposition are released at the electrodes or terminals.

According to the modern theory of electrolysis, all electrolytes contain a

greater or smaller number of free _ions_. These ions are chemical radicles

carrying a definite electric charge. The kind of charge, positive or

negative, depends on the nature of the radicle. The ions exhibit none of

the chemical properties of the uncharged radicle.

Thus, for example, in an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, free ions of

hydrogen H_2 carrying a positive charge, and free ions of SO_4 carrying a

negative charge, exist. An _uncharged_ SO_4 radicle would react with the

water present, and sulphuric acid would be formed and oxygen liberated. The

_ion_ SO_4, however, is incapable of doing this. Owing to the nature of

their charges, the hydrogen ions will move towards the negative electrode,

and the SO_4 ions towards the positive electrode. On reaching the

electrodes the ions give up their charges, and immediately exhibit their

ordinary chemical properties. Hydrogen is given off at the negative

electrode, while at the positive electrode the uncharged SO_4 radicle

reacts with the water present, and oxygen is released.

This is an example of a secondary chemical reaction. This occurs in many

cases, and where it occurs the final product is different from that first

produced by the electrolytic action. Fresh ions are formed or _dissociated_

in the electrolyte as fast as the original ions give up their charges at

the electrodes. If this were not so, the electrolytic action would soon

cease, since there would be no ions left to move towards the electrodes.

The stream of ions carrying their positive and negative charges constitutes

the current flowing through the electrolyte. Since the ions carry definite

charges, it follows that the amounts of the initial products of an

electrolytic action are in the ratio of their chemical equivalents. Thus,

if fused silver chloride be electrolysed, for every 108 grammes of silver

deposited at one side of the vessel 35.5 grammes of chlorine are given off

at the other side (see _Electrode_; _Electro-metallurgy_).

_The electrolytic action of the current is the same at all parts of the

circuit._ If the current is made to traverse several vessels, each

containing the same substance, all _in series_ (that is, the current that

leaves the first entering the second, and so on), it will be found that in

each of the cells precisely the same amount of decomposition goes on. There

will be the same weight of silver deposited at one side, and a

corresponding weight of chlorine set free at the other.

_The same quantity of electricity decomposes chemically equivalent

quantities of different electrolytes._ If we pass the current through a

series of cells containing different electrolytes, for example, dilute

sulphuric acid, chloride of silver, sulphate of copper, and collect the

products of decomposition, we find that the quantities of hydrogen, silver,

and copper set free are strictly proportional to the chemical equivalents

of these bodies.

_The quantity of the electrolyte decomposed in a given time is proportional

to the strength of the current._ This fact is made use of in measuring

electric currents for standardization purposes, and the practical unit of

current (the ampere) is defined, "with sufficient accuracy for all

practical purposes", as being "that steady and unvarying current which

deposits silver from a specified solution of silver nitrate at the rate of

0.001118 grammes per second".

The practical applications of electrolysis include the refining of copper,

the electro-deposition of metals, electroplating, electrotyping, and the

production of metallic sodium and potassium (see _Electro-metallurgy_).

Electrolytic action is also made use of in the storage of electric energy

in secondary batteries (see _Secondary Cell_).

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, that branch of science which deals with the mutual

relations between electric and magnetic fields (see _Electricity_;

_Magnetism_).

It may readily be shown that when an electric current flows in a conductor,

a magnetic field is produced around that conductor, i.e. that a magnetic

field is produced by the motion of an electric field. Similarly, if a

magnetic field is moved at right angles to a conductor, a potential

difference is established between the ends of the conductor, i.e. an

electric field is produced by the motion of a magnetic field.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field so that its length is at right

angles to the lines of magnetic force (see fig. 1), and a current is passed

through the conductor, a mechanical force will act on the conductor, and

this force will be at right angles both to the conductor and to the

original magnetic field.

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

From the point of view of lines of magnetic force, the magnetic field

produced by the current in the conductor (shown by the concentric circles

in fig. 1) will react with the original magnetic field (shown by the

horizontal straight lines in fig. 1), and the actual resultant magnetic

field will have the form shown in fig. 2. The tendency of lines of force to

shorten themselves and repel one another laterally results in a force

tending to force the conductor vertically downwards. This force is, of

course, mutual, and tends to move the original magnetic field in the

opposite direction.

All the phenomena of electro-magnetic action have their basis in these

three effects, viz. (1) the production of a magnetic field by an electric

current; (2) the production of an E.M.F. or P.D. by the relative motion of

a magnetic field and a conductor; and (3) the mutual mechanical action

between a current-carrying conductor and a magnetic field system.

The strength of the magnetic field produced by the current may be increased

by winding the conductor in the form of a helix or solenoid consisting of a

number of turns. The effect can be very greatly increased by providing the

solenoid with a soft-iron core. The iron is strongly magnetized as long as

the current flows. Such an arrangement is called an _electromagnet_.

Electromagnets specially designed to produce a very intense magnetic field

are used commercially in handling scrap-iron, pig-iron, &c. The

electromagnet takes the place of the crane-hook in an ordinary crane. When

the current is switched on, the pieces of iron are attracted and held

firmly until the current is switched off again.

Electromagnets are also used for extracting fragments of iron or steel from

the eye, and for many laboratory purposes. The most important practical use

is the production of the magnetic field required in dynamo-electric

machinery (see _Generator_; _Electric Motors_). The magnetic field produced

within a coil in which a current flows is made use of to give the

deflecting couple in certain types of galvanometers and measuring

instruments (see _Galvanometer_; _Electrical Measuring Instruments_).

The absolute C.G.S. unit of current is defined in terms of the magnetic

field strength produced by it, viz. "when one absolute C.G.S. unit of

current flows in a circular loop of one centimetre radius, the magnetic

force produced at the centre of the loop is 2[pi] dynes".

The principle of the electromagnetic generation of an E.M.F. is dealt with

under the article _Electro-motive Force_. The mechanical force produced

when a current flows in a conductor placed in a magnetic field forms the

basis of the action of electric motors, and certain types of galvanometers

and measuring instruments. The mechanical force is a mutual one, and tends

to move the conductor and the field system in opposite directions. The

magnitude of the force varies as the magnetic field strength, the length of

the conductor, and the intensity of the current, and also as the sine of

the angle between the field and the conductor. Thus when the direction of

the lines of magnetic force is parallel to the conductor, the force is

zero; and when their direction is at right angles to the conductor, the

force is a maximum. The direction of the force is always at right angles

both to the conductor and the direction of the lines of magnetic force. In

an electric motor the forces acting on the conductors produce the

mechanical output of the machine. In a generator these mechanical forces

come into existence as soon as current is taken from the machine. In this

case they produce a torque which is opposite in direction to the mechanical

torque which is applied to the shaft of the generator in order to drive it.

ELECTRO-MEDICAL APPARATUS. Electrical apparatus is now widely used in the

treatment and diagnosis of disease. The action of the heart may be very

accurately observed by means of the electric cardiograph. The cardiograph

itself consists of a very sensitive 'string' galvanometer (see

_Galvanometer_) and an arrangement whereby the spot of light is focused on

a moving photographic plate. In this way a photographic record of the

movements of the galvanometer mirror is obtained. The galvanometer

terminals are connected to two different parts of the body of the patient

(say to a hand and a foot placed in separate brine baths), and the

variations of potential differences which occur during a heart-beat cause a

movement of the galvanometer mirror.

The X-ray apparatus has recently been adapted for taking instantaneous

photographs of the heart. A single powerful discharge from a static

transformer takes place through the tube, and a photograph of the position

of the heart at that instant is obtained. The X-ray apparatus is very well

known from its use in locating fractures, foreign bodies, diseases of the

bone, &c.

The X-ray discharge is used as a treatment for certain skin diseases

(especially ring-worm), rodent ulcer, and cancer. Very high-frequency

alternating currents may be passed through the body without producing the

muscular contractions which are a feature of the passage of low-frequency

currents through the tissues. Currents of considerable magnitude of very

high frequency may thus be passed through the body without inconvenience to

the patient. In this way general or local heating of the body may be

obtained. This process is known as diathermy. The heating locally may be

made sufficiently great to cause coagulation of the tissues, or even actual

burning. This method is used in the treatment of tumours and other growths.

Another important electro-medical treatment consists of the local

introduction of a drug, into the affected part, by electrolytic action.

Thus in the treatment of rodent ulcer, a pad of lint saturated with a 5 per

cent solution of zinc sulphate is placed over the ulcer. A zinc electrode

is placed on the pad and connected to the positive pole of the supply. The

negative pole is connected to a basin of brine in which the patient's hand

is placed. The current is made as large as can conveniently be borne (say

30 to 60 milliamperes), and is maintained for about thirty minutes and then

gradually reduced to zero. By this means zinc ions are carried into the

ulcer. A number of diseases may be treated in this way, the ion used

depending on the nature of the case.

Low-frequency intermittent currents from induction coils are frequently

used where nerve stimulation or muscular contractions are required. Static

electricity is also used for similar purposes. Large Wimshurst machines are

used for the treatment of sciatica, and also for neurasthenia. In the

latter case a brush discharge is used, and the patient experiences very

little physical sensation. The high-frequency apparatus already referred to

in connection with diathermy is valuable for the treatment of rheumatism in

its earlier stages, and for the stimulation of the scalp in hair treatment.

Suitable electrodes are passed backwards and forwards over the affected

parts, a bluish brush discharge taking place between the patient and the

electrode.

ELECTRO-METALLURGY is that branch of metallurgy which uses electrical

energy, wholly or in part, for the extraction or treatment of metals. The

energy may be converted into heat and used for processes in which high

temperatures are necessary, or it may be used for the decomposition of a

compound by electrolysis, which may proceed in a fused bath at a

comparatively high temperature, or in a solution bath containing a compound

of the metal dissolved in a suitable solvent.

The former method of utilizing the energy embraces electrothermal

processes, and the latter method, electrolytic processes.

In electrothermal processes, the heat developed by the electric current has

been used in a number of industries, including welding, annealing, heat

treatment, smelting, refining, &c. Laboratory apparatus, such as tubes,

muffles, and crucibles, are also frequently heated by means of an electric

current.

For the electric welding of metals there are two systems in use: resistance

welding, in which the portions to be welded are pressed together and heated

by the resistance they offer to the passage of a current; and arc welding,

in which portions of metal of the same composition as that to be welded are

fused on by striking an arc from a suitable electrode. In the electrical

annealing of metals, case-hardened steel plates are locally softened where

rivet-holes, &c., are required by passing an electric current through

copper poles placed 1 or 2 inches apart on the smooth surface. Metallic

wire is frequently heated to the annealing temperature between drawing

operations, and various types of annealing furnaces are also electrically

heated.

In electric smelting, the high temperature of the arc (3600deg C.) may be

used for the reduction of certain metallic oxides, which at the lower

temperature of furnaces heated by coal, coke, gas, &c. (2000deg C.), will

not give up their oxygen to carbon; other ores are also sometimes smelted

by electrical means, especially in localities where current is cheap and

fuels are dear. The production of refined steel, special alloy steels, and

certain non-ferrous alloys is also carried out in electric furnaces of

various types.

The electric arc was first applied to fusion by Siemens in 1879; he fitted,

into the bottom of a crucible to receive the charge, a water-cooled copper

casing to form the positive pole, and suspended a carbon rod centrally in

the crucible to form the negative pole. The current crosses the air-gap

between the metal and the negative pole, forms an arc, and rapidly fuses

the metal. In 1885 the Cowles Brothers, of Cleveland, Ohio, began to

produce aluminium-copper and aluminium-iron alloys by arc smelting, and

later produced other metals, difficult to reduce, by the same means. More

recently, the development of electric smelting has made rapid strides.

Electric furnaces not only yield higher temperature, but have other

advantages over furnaces heated by carbon. They develop the heat in a small

space, just where it is required for the operation, so that the furnace can

be smaller, and less heat is lost by radiation; the charge can be kept free

from gaseous products of combustion; the temperature and the whole

operation is under better control; and the expense of running the furnace

is limited to the time the current is used for doing useful work.

Electric furnaces are now used in the production of pig-iron, steel,

ferro-alloys, brass, zinc, &c., and in the heat treatment of various

metals. Classifying them according to the manner in which the electrical

energy is converted into heat, we have:--

1. Direct resistance furnaces, in which the heat effect is produced within

the metal itself by the resistance offered to the passage of the current

through it. This type is used in the refining of steel.

2. Indirect resistance furnaces, to which class belong the various tube and

crucible furnaces used in laboratories. The vessels to be heated are wound

with wire or ribbon of high resistance, such as platinum, nickel-chrome

alloys, &c., and a suitable current passed. Heat-treatment furnaces on a

fairly large scale also use this method, a nickel-chrome alloy ribbon being

wound on a suitable framework; the heating element in these furnaces,

however, generally consists of granular carbon confined in carborundum

fire-sand troughs.

3. Induction furnaces, in which a primary coil of copper wire is used, the

secondary being formed by the metal charge itself, contained in a suitable

annular groove. In this furnace the current passes through the primary and

induces a current in the charge, thus melting it. This type of furnace has

been largely used in the refining of steel, and to some extent in the

melting of non-ferrous metals and alloys.

4. Direct arc-heating furnaces, as exemplified in the Siemens crucible

furnace mentioned above.

5. Indirect arc-heating is used in the Stassano furnace, in which the heat

is obtained by radiation from the arc, and by reflection from the roof and

sides of the furnace. This furnace has been used in the production of steel

from scrap, and also direct from ore. There are three electrodes, which

nearly meet in the centre of the furnace.

6. Combined resistance and arc furnaces are very largely used for the

production of ferrous alloys, such as ferro-silicon, ferro-chrome, and

ferro-manganese; for the production of steel from scrap, and for the final

refining of steel produced by other processes. In these furnaces the heat

is generated largely by the arc, and to a smaller extent by the resistance

offered by the whole or a portion of the furnace charge to a powerful

electric current. There are several well-known commercial furnaces working

on this principle, the best known probably being the H['e]roult. This

furnace is designed for tilting, and is lined with basic material, and

large electrodes pass through the roof. An alternating current of 4000

amperes at 110 volts is used for a 3-ton furnace, and the intensity of the

current passing through the bath is regulated by raising or lowering the

electrodes.

The effect of the European War has been enormous on the development of the

electric furnace in this country, for prior to the war in 1914, although

the use of the electric furnace for steel-making was increasing, there were

only 5 furnaces in operation in Sheffield, and two or three more in other

parts of the country, producing in all about 15,000 tons per annum. Soon

after the commencement of the war, it became necessary to deal with the

rapidly accumulating quantity of shell turnings, to make substitutes for

Swedish iron and steel, which could not be imported, and to make large

quantities of special alloy steel for various war purposes. As a result of

these demands, within four years the number of electric furnaces increased

to over 100, the steel produced being over 200,000 tons per annum. Since

1918 the number of furnaces has further increased, and probably reached 150

of various sizes and makes in 1920. In America a similar development has

taken place, the number of furnaces increasing from 7 in 1907 to 363 in

1920, the output of electric steel in 1918 amounting to over 500,000 tons.

In France, also, great strides have been made, and owing to the shortage of

pig-iron, synthetic processes for its production from iron and steel scrap

and ore were developed in open-pit arc-resistance furnaces, yielding

220,000 tons in 1916-8.

_Electrolytic Processes._--The application of electrolysis for the

production of metals from a fused electrolyte is most important in the case

of aluminium. This metal cannot be produced by direct electrolysis in

aqueous solution, but is deposited electrolytically from a fused bath of

cryolite, containing alumina in solution. As the metallic aluminium is

extracted from the molten bath, further quantities of purified oxide are

added. The anodes consist of carbon blocks suspended in the molten bath,

and the cathode consists of the carbon lining of the furnace. Calcium,

cerium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and strontium are obtained

by the electrolysis of fused chlorides, sodium being also obtained from

fused hydroxide and fused nitrate.

Metallic magnesium was obtained by the electrolysis of the fused chloride

by Bunsen in 1852, but the application of electrolysis as a means of

recovering metals from ores by means of aqueous solutions dates back to

1836, in which year Becquerel obtained copper from sulphide ores by first

extracting the copper as sulphate or chloride, and then recovering the

copper by the electrolysis of the solutions, using insoluble anodes. The

method has since chiefly been applied to the treatment of copper ores and

products, but has also been used for the recovery of nickel, gold, zinc,

&c. The production of electrolytic zinc from solutions has been encouraged

as a result of the shortage of pure zinc for war purposes, and several

processes have been developed. In these processes the solution used

consists either of zinc sulphate or of zinc chloride, the anodes consisting

of metallic lead or of carbon, and the cathodes of pure zinc sheets.

It is in connection with the refining of metals that electrolytic processes

become of prime importance. Elkington, in 1865, was the first to refine

impure metallic copper electrolytically and recover the silver contained in

it. Pure copper is now commonly obtained from impure copper anodes in an

electrolyte of copper sulphate containing free sulphuric acid, a current

density of 12 to 15 amperes per square foot being used at 0.34 to 0.44

volt. Gold is also refined by a similar process, the electrolyte used

consisting of gold chloride solution containing free hydrochloric acid. In

this case a current density of 100 amperes at 1 volt is used. Silver is

likewise refined in a silver nitrate bath, iron by the electrolysis of

sulphate or chloride solution, and lead in a solution of lead fluosilicate

containing free hydrofluoric acid.

In all the above-mentioned processes the anode is cast from the impure

metal to be refined, and the cathode consists of a sheet or plate on which

the pure metal is deposited.

It will be seen that these refining processes are very similar to

electroplating methods.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, the name given to the force tending to produce a flow

of electricity in an electric circuit. The electromotive force, or E.M.F.,

is measured in terms of the work done in carrying unit quantity of

electricity once round the circuit.

Thus unit electromotive force (absolute) is said to exist in a circuit if 1

erg of work is done in carrying 1 coulomb of electricity once round the

circuit. The potential difference, or P.D. (in electromagnetic units),

between two points in an electric circuit is similarly defined in terms of

the work done in carrying 1 coulomb of electricity from the one point to

the other.

_Production of an Electromotive Force._--There are several sources of

E.M.F., e.g. (_a_) chemical action, as in primary and secondary cells;

(_b_) thermo-electric action, as in the thermopile; (_c_) electro-magnetic

action, as in generators, motors, transformers, and induction coils.

The electromotive force due to chemical action depends on the material of

the electrodes and the nature of the electrolyte, and also to a slight

extent on the temperature. Thus, for any given pair of materials (say zinc

and copper) immersed in a certain electrolyte of given strength (say dilute

sulphuric acid), the E.M.F. produced at a given temperature has a definite

value. For a discussion of the electromotive force produced by

thermo-electric action, see _Thermo-electricity_.

The principle of the electromagnetic generation of an E.M.F. may be stated

in its most general form as follows: If lines of magnetic force are

interlinked with an electric circuit, and if by any means the number of

interlinkages of the lines of magnetic force with the circuit is made to

change, then an E.M.F. will be generated in the circuit, the magnitude of

this E.M.F. being proportional to the time rate of change of the

interlinkages. Thus, if the interlinkages are changing at the rate of one

per second, one absolute unit of E.M.F. will be generated; or if the

interlinkages are changing at the rate of a hundred million per second, an

E.M.F. of 1 volt will be generated. It is immaterial in what manner the

change of interlinkages is brought about.

A permanent magnet may be moved so as to vary the lines of magnetic force

linked with an electric circuit, as in magneto-generators; or the circuit

may be moved through a magnetic field (see _Generator_; _Electric Motors_);

or the magnetic field produced by a current in one coil linked with a

second coil may be varied by varying the current in the first coil, as in

static transformers and induction coils.

The electromagnetic generation of an E.M.F. is the fundamental principle

which has made possible the generation and utilization of electrical energy

on a large scale.

ELECTRON, the atom of electricity, more especially of negative electricity.

The first light on the question of the structure of electricity came from

the laws of electrolysis (q.v.), established by Faraday. These laws are

explained very naturally if we make the assumption that electricity, like

matter, is atomic, the atom being the charge carried by the hydrogen ion.

Clerk Maxwell even proposed to call this charge 'one molecule' of

electricity, but added the remark that "it is extremely improbable that

when we come to understand the true nature of electrolysis we shall retain

in any form the theory of molecular charges, for then we shall have

obtained a secure basis on which to form a true theory of electric

currents, and so become independent of these provisional hypotheses".

To-day, however, so far are we from discarding the hypothesis of the atomic

nature of electricity that we find ourselves compelled by the pressure of

experimental facts to interpret all electrical phenomena, in metals as well

as in electrolytes, in terms of this very hypothesis. Any statical charge

is supposed to be made up of a very great number of electrons, just as a

material body is composed of atoms of matter. A metallic conductor is

supposed to contain many free electrons, which normally bear much the same

relation to the material molecules as a saturated vapour bears to the

liquid in equilibrium with it. When an electromotive force is applied, it

causes a drift of the electrons in the opposite direction to the force, the

charge on the electrons being negative. It is this drift of electrons which

constitutes an electric current.

The striking advances that have been made in our knowledge of the nature of

electricity since the last years of the nineteenth century have been due

chiefly to the study of the electric discharge in gases. Hittorf in 1869

and Crookes in 1879 examined the rays, now called the cathode rays, which

stream from cathode to anode in a tube containing gas of very low pressure.

The phenomena suggested to Crookes that the rays consist of material

particles carrying a negative charge and moving at a high speed; but many

physicists rejected this explanation, holding that the rays were due to

some form of wave motion in the ether. About 1897 it was conclusively shown

by Perrin, Wiechert, and Sir J. J. Thomson that Crookes's view was the

correct one. Sir J. J. Thomson measured the velocity of the particles, and

also the ratio of the charge e, to the mass m of each. His method was to

subject a fine beam to the action of two fields of force, one magnetic, the

other electric, and both perpendicular to the line of motion and also to

each other. The electric field being X, and the magnetic field H, the

forces on a particle were in the same direction, and equal to eX, evH.

Either field by itself deflected a fine beam, as was shown by the motion of

a spot of light where the beam struck a fluorescent screen. The value of X

was adjusted till there was no deflection in the combined fields. Hence X =

vH, and v was found from the measured values of X and H. The deflections

under the two fields acting separately were also observed. Either of these

deflections, when v is known, gives the value of the ratio e/m. The values

of the velocity v were found to depend on the E.M.F. between the terminals

of the discharge-tube. They varied from 1/30 to 1/3 of the velocity of

light. The fraction e/m, however, had always the same negative value, no

matter how the material of the cathode and the nature and pressure of the

gas were varied.

Many other ways of obtaining these negatively charged particles, or

electrons, are now known. The [beta]-rays from radio-active substances (see

_Radio-activity_) are simply electrons moving with great speeds,

approaching sometimes within 2 or 3 per cent of the velocity of light. Hot

metals give off electrons copiously: this property is used in the

construction of the Coolidge X-ray tube and of the thermionic valve (q.v.).

A metal plate illuminated by ultra-violet light, from an electric arc or

spark, for instance, gives off electrons moving at all velocities below a

certain maximum (see _Photo-electric Effect_). From whatever source the

electrons are derived, their properties are found to be the same.

The determination of e and m separately is a much more difficult matter

than the determination of their ratio. The first attempt to measure e

directly was made by Townsend, and published in 1897. Townsend obtained his

ions in the hydrogen and oxygen given off when caustic potash is

electrolyzed. The charged gases when bubbled through water formed a cloud.

This cloud could be completely removed by bubbling through concentrated

sulphuric acid, but reappeared when the gas came out again into the

atmosphere, owing to the condensation of water-vapour on the ions. Townsend

determined the weight of the cloud and its total charge. He also found the

average weight of the minute spherical drops forming the cloud by observing

their rate of fall under gravity, and calculating their radius from a

theoretical formula known as Stokes's law, viz. v = 2/9ga^2[rho]/[eta],

where a is the radius, [rho] the density, v the velocity of the drop, and

[eta] is the viscosity of air. The weight of the cloud divided by the

weight of a drop gave the number of drops, which was presumably the same as

the number of ions. Finally, dividing the total charge by the number of

ions, Townsend found e, the average charge carried by an ion. His value

came out about three-fifths of the value accepted now.

This pioneer method of Townsend's has been improved and modified in various

ways by C. T. R. Wilson, Sir J. J. Thomson, H. A. Wilson, and notably by

Millikan, of Chicago. Millikan's charge carriers were minute oil drops,

which were given elementary charges by means of ionizing rays from radium.

Observations were made of the equilibrium and motion of these charges under

the combined influence of gravity and a strong vertical electric field, the

intensity of which could be varied at will. A single drop could be kept in

view for several minutes at a time, and note was taken of the effect of

each new charge as it was picked up by the drop. On calculation, the charge

was found in all cases to have very approximately the same value. It so

happened, as a consequence of the method of producing the drops, that they

carried a small frictional charge, and incidentally Millikan was able to

verify that this was always an integral multiple of the electronic charge

e. Millikan's result, which is most probably the best yet found, is that e

= 4.774 x 10^{-10} absolute electrostatic units, or 1.591 x 10^{-20}

absolute electromagnetic units.

An indirect but very interesting method of determining e was devised

independently by Regener and by Rutherford and Geiger. The special feature

of this method is the actual counting of the number of [alpha]-particles

(see _Radio-activity_) shot out per second through a given solid angle by a

small speck of radium. Each [alpha]-particle produces a scintillation on a

sensitive screen placed in its path, and these scintillations are counted

one by one by the observer. The total quantity of electricity carried by

the [alpha]-particles emitted in one second is measured independently. The

charge on each particle is then found by simple division. This charge is

found to be almost exactly twice Millikan's value for e, as it ought to be,

as it is practically certain that the [alpha]-particle is an atom of helium

which has lost two electrons.

The value of e/m, as determined by Thomson's method described above, is

1.76 x 10^7 e.m.u. per gramme, or 5.29 x 10^{17} e.s.u. per gramme. Taking

this with Millikan's value for _e_, we find n = 0.902 x 10^{-27} grammes.

The exact determination of e has made it possible to assign precise values

to several other important physical constants, which formerly were only

known roughly from data depending on the Kinetic Theory of Gases. Thus

Avogadro's constant N, or the number of molecules in one gramme-molecule

(molecular weight in grammes) of any gas can be connected with e by the

exact measurements of electrolysis, which give Ne = 9650 e.m.u. It follows

that N = 6.06 x 10^{23}, and that the number of gas molecules per cubic

centimetre at 0deg C and 76 centimetres pressure is 2.70 x 10^{19}. We find

at once also the mass of the hydrogen atom as 1.66 x 10^{-24} grammes, the

density of hydrogen being known to be .0899 grammes per litre. The mass of

the electron is therefore about 1/1840 of the mass of the hydrogen atom,

which till the isolation of the electron was the smallest mass known.

It is necessary, however, to scrutinize with some care the meaning of the

word mass as applied to an electron. The determination of the mass of the

hydrogen atom ultimately depends on weighing, that is, on finding its

gravitational inertia. We cannot weigh an electron, but must determine its

mass by experiments involving its motion, the word mass here meaning the

ratio of the force acting on the electron to the acceleration produced, and

the force being calculated from the charge and velocity of the electron on

the principles of electrodynamics. An electron being entirely different in

its physical nature from ordinary matter, the question arises whether its

mass, as calculated in this way, is actually a definite constant, as it is

for a material particle, according to the accepted principles of Newtonian

dynamics. It can even be shown, as was first done by Sir J. J. Thomson,

that a moving charged body possesses inertia in virtue of the mere fact

that it carries a charge. The value of this inertia, or electromagnetic

mass, when the velocity is small compared with that of light is, in a

vacuum, for a small sphere of radius a, 2/3e^2/a, where e is the charge. If

the velocity is greater than, say, 1/10 the velocity of light, the formula

for the electromagnetic mass is more complicated, and, indeed, cannot be

calculated without some assumption as to the internal distribution of

charge in the electron itself. Two formulae for the mass have been given,

one by Abraham, the other by H. A. Lorentz. Abraham started from the

supposition that the electron is a rigid sphere carrying a uniform surface

charge. Lorentz showed that a simpler theory could be obtained by the

hypothesis that the electron contracts, in the direction of its motion, by

a certain definite amount depending on its velocity. On both theories the

value found for the mass depends on the relation between the direction of

the force and the direction of the motion. On Lorentz's theory the

longitudinal mass, or mass when the force is in the direction of the

motion, is m_0/(1-[beta]^2)^{3/2}; and the transverse mass, or mass when

the force is perpendicular to the velocity, is m_0/(1-[beta]^2)^{1/2};

where m_0 is the mass for very small speeds, and [beta] is v/c, the ratio

of the velocity of the electron to the velocity of light. The two theories

have been tested by various experimenters, with somewhat conflicting

results. On the evidence of experiments by Bucherer, however, Lorentz's

theory of the contractile electron is now generally accepted, and it is

regarded as highly probable that electrons are devoid of all mass except

the electromagnetic mass due to their charge of negative electricity.

No fundamental positive electron has been isolated which at all corresponds

to the negative electron, or corpuscle, as it is called by Sir J. J.

Thomson. The nearest approach to a positive electron is the nucleus of the

hydrogen atom, which carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as the

charge on an electron. Practically the whole mass of the atom resides in

this nucleus. According to the modern theory of the structure of matter,

the neutral atom of any element is built up of a comparatively small number

of electrons and an equal number of these positive nuclei. Electrons being

present everywhere, and their action influencing all natural phenomena,

their properties will naturally come up for consideration from various

points of view in other articles. See _Ionization_; _Isotopes_; _Matter_;

_Radio-activity_; _Rays_, _Electric._--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Crowther, _Ions,

Electrons, and Ionizing Radiations_; R. A. Millikan, _The Electron_; N. R.

Campbell, _Modern Electrical Theory_; O. W. Richardson, _The Electron

Theory of Matter_; H. A. Lorentz, _Theory of Electrons_.

ELECTRO-PLATING, the process of depositing a coating of some selected metal

on a given surface by means of electrolysis (q.v.). The most important

classes of electro-plating commonly carried out are nickel-plating, used

very largely for a variety of articles made of iron, steel, &c.;

copper-plating, used for facing printing-blocks and as a first coating to

non-metallic substances prior to silver- or gold-plating; silver-plating,

for imitation silverware and for cutlery, &c.; gold-plating, for ornamental

ware, jewellery, &c. Previous to plating it is necessary to remove all

grease, dirt, oxide, &c., from the surface, this cleansing of the articles

being the first step in the operations necessary. The exact procedure for

cleansing varies with the nature of the articles to be plated, but for the

removal of grease a strong caustic alkali bath is generally used. To remove

oxide and dirt, scratch-brushing is used, also scouring with pumice-stone.

Acid-dipping baths are also employed, muriatic acid or sulphuric acid for

iron or steel articles, dipping-acid, which is a mixture of sulphuric acid

and nitric acid, for brass. For the actual deposition an electrolytic cell

is prepared, containing a solution of a suitable salt of the metal to be

deposited, with an anode, generally consisting of a plate of the same

metal, attached to the positive pole of the battery used, the article to be

treated being connected with the negative pole and thus forming the

cathode. When a current of electricity is passed through the solution, a

thin coating of metal is deposited on the article forming the cathode, and

an equivalent portion is carried into solution from the anode. In the case

of nickel-plating, the solution used is made from the double chloride or

sulphate of nickel and ammonium, to which salt, sal-ammoniac, &c., may be

added. The bath is used at a temperature of 100deg F., and cast-nickel

plates are used as anodes. For copper-plating the bath used generally

consists of an acid solution of sulphate or acetate of copper, cyanide of

potash also being added; in case the article is made of zinc, an alkaline

bath is used. The bath may be used cold, but is sometimes kept at about

120deg F. For iron simple dipping is sometimes used, as copper is readily

deposited on iron without the use of an electric current. For

electroplating of copper, anodes of metallic copper, having a surface equal

to that of the articles to be coated, are used. For silver-plating the

solution consists of the double cyanide of silver and potash, and may be

used either hot or cold. An article to be silver-plated is often prepared

by a preliminary dip in a solution of nitrate of mercury, which causes a

slight amalgamation with mercury. After this preliminary treatment it is

placed in the bath and a slight deposit of silver obtained, after which it

is removed, well brushed, washed, and replaced in the bath. A silver plate

is used as an anode. A density of 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 ounces of silver to the

square foot gives an excellent plate about the thickness of common

writing-paper. In gold-plating baths, a hot solution of the double cyanide

of gold and potash is used at 170deg F., and for the anode platinum foil is

frequently used, the strength of the bath being maintained by the addition

of fresh quantities of chloride of gold. After all kinds of plating as

described above, the goods are thoroughly washed in water, and dried by

means of saw-dust or in a drying-chamber. In ordinary circumstances the

deposited metal presents a dead or matted appearance, and if a bright

polished effect is desired, it is burnished and buff-polished. Certain

chemicals added to the solution will cause the original deposit to have a

metallic lustre.

ELECTROTYPE. The production of copper facsimiles by the electric current is

called _electrotype_, and is the oldest branch of electro-metallurgy. One

of its most important applications is the copying of type set up for

printing, and of wood blocks for wood-cuts. A mould is first obtained in

gutta-percha or some similar material. This, being a non-conductor, is

brushed over with plumbago in its interior, so as to give it a conducting

surface to receive the deposit. After several hours the deposit is detached

from the mould and backed by pouring in melted solder, the surface being

first moistened with chloride of zinc to make the solder adhere. In the

copying of steel engravings the mould is obtained by electro-deposition of

copper on the steel, the surface of which must first be specially prepared

to prevent adhesion; and a second electro-deposition of copper, on the

mould thus obtained, gives the required copy, from which impressions can be

printed.

ELEC'TRUM (Gr. _[=e]lektron_), in antiquity, a term applied to native gold,

which frequently contains notable quantities of silver, copper, and other

metals. According to Pliny, the term electron was applied to native gold

containing at least 20 per cent of silver. The term was afterwards

transferred from this native alloy to the artificial alloy of gold and

silver on account of its colour and inferior lustre. The word originally

meant 'amber', and was given to impure gold on account of a supposed

resemblance. Electrum was used since the eighth or seventh century B.C.

ELEC'TUARY, or CONFECTION, is a pharmacopoeial preparation. It is solid,

but of soft consistence, and contains sugar or honey, impregnated with some

more active body. The best known is the confection of senna.

ELE'GIT, in English law, a writ by which a creditor who has obtained a

judgment against a debtor, and is hence called the _judgment-creditor_, may

be put in possession of the lands and tenements of the person against whom

the judgment is obtained, called the _judgment-debtor_, until the debt is

fully paid. The writ is addressed to the sheriff, who enforces it. The writ

of elegit was first authorized by the Statute of Westminster the Second,

which gave the _judgment-creditor_ the right to choose between a writ

against the debtor's land, and until 1883 his goods also, and an execution

by writ against the latter's person or chattels. The new writ, representing

the choice of the creditor, was therefore called an elegit, Lat., he has

chosen. See _Fieri Facias_.

EL'EGY (Gr. _elegos_, mourning, song), a mournful and plaintive poem or

funeral song, or any serious poem of a melancholy contemplative kind. In

classic poetry what is known as _elegiac verse_ is composed of couplets

consisting of alternate hexameter and pentameter lines. In English we

generally understand by elegies lyric poems which are laments over the

dead, such as Milton's _Lycidas_, or Shelley's _Adonais_.

ELEMEN'TAL SPIRITS, according to a belief common in the Middle Ages,

spirits proper to and partaking of the four so-called elements, viz.

salamanders or fire spirits, sylphs or aerial spirits, gnomes or earth

spirits, and undines or water spirits.

EL'EMENTS, the simplest constituent principles or parts of anything; in a

special sense, the ultimate indecomposable constituents of any kind of

matter. In ancient philosophies the term was applied to fire, air, earth,

and water. The mediaeval chemists, however, absorbed in the study of metals

and mineral substances, supposed that the metals consisted of an elemental

sulphur and an elemental mercury mixed together more or less perfectly and

in different proportions. To these were subsequently added salt and some

others, so that about the middle of the seventeenth century the first

principles amounted to five, divided into two classes; the active,

consisting of mercury or spirit, sulphur or oil, and salt; and the passive,

consisting of water or phlegm, and earth or the terrestrial part. The names

remained, not so much as denoting substances or ultimate principles as

gradually coming to denote functions; the first great modification being

the expansion of the idea of elemental sulphur into phlogiston by Stahl, as

the result of which the adherents of the phlogistic theory applied the term

phlogiston to the gases then discovered, the mineral, vegetable, and animal

acids, the alkalies, earths, and metallic calces, oil, alcohol, and water.

The substances considered as simple naturally changed with the change of

theory introduced by Lavoisier, who considered as elements, oxygen,

nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon, the metals and the

earths, and, as Boyle had already suggested, practically defined an element

as a body not yet decomposed, the definition now commonly adopted. For list

of known elements see _Chemistry_.

EL'EMI, the fragrant resinous exudation from various trees, such as the

_Canarium commune_, from which the Eastern or Manila elemi is obtained; the

_Ic[=i]ca Ic[=i]car[=i]ba_, the source of the American or Brazilian elemi;

and the _Elaphrium elemif[)e]rum_, from which the Mexican elemi comes. It

is a regular constituent of spirit varnishes, and is used in medicine,

mixed with simple ointment, as a plaster.

[Illustration: Head of African Elephant (_Elephas afric[=a]nus_)]

[Illustration: Head of Indian Elephant (_Elephas indicus_)]

EL'EPHANT, the popular name of a genus, family, or sub-order of five-toed

proboscidian mammals, usually regarded as comprehending two species, the

Asiatic (_Elephas indicus_) and the African (_E. afric[=a]nus_). From a

difference in the teeth, however, the two species are sometimes referred to

distinct genera (Euelephas and Loxodon). The so-called white elephants are

merely albinos. The African elephant is distinguished from the Asiatic

species by its greater height, its larger ears, its less elevated head and

bulging or convex forehead, the closer approximation of the roots of the

tusks, and the greater density of the bone. It has also only three external

hoofs on the hind-feet, while the Asiatic has four. All elephants are

remarkable for their large, heavy, short bodies supported on columnar

limbs, a very short neck, a skull with lofty crown and short face-bones,

with the exception of the premaxillaries, which are enlarged to form

tusk-sockets. To compensate for the short neck, they have the long

proboscis, often 4 or 5 feet in length, produced by the union and

development of the nose and upper lip. It is made up of muscular and

fibrous tissue. The trunk is of great strength and sensibility, and serves

alike for respiration, smell, taste, suction, touch, and prehension. The

tusks, which are enormously developed upper incisor teeth, are not visible

in young animals, but in a state of maturity they project in some instances

7 or 8 feet. The largest on record (undoubtedly that of an extinct species)

weighed 350 lb. Elephants sometimes attain the height of 12 feet or more,

but their general height is about 9 or 10 feet. Their weight ranges from

4000 to 9000 lb. The period of gestation is twenty months, and the female

seldom produces more than one calf at a birth: this, when first born, is

about 3 feet high, and continues to grow till it is sixteen or eighteen

years of age. It is said that they live to the age of 150 years. They feed

on vegetables, the young shoots of trees, grain, and fruit. They are

polygamous, associating in herds of a considerable size under the guidance

of a single leader. An elephant leaving or driven from a herd is not

allowed to join another, but leads a lonely, morose, and destructive life.

Such solitary elephants are known as 'rogues'. Elephants are caught either

singly or in herds. In the former case it is necessary to catch adroitly

one of the elephant's legs in the noose of a strong rope, which is then

quickly attached to a tree; another leg is then caught, until all are

securely fastened. His captors then encamp beside him, until under their

treatment he becomes tractable. When a herd is to be caught a strong

enclosure is constructed, and into this the elephants are gradually driven

by fires, noise, &c. With the aid of tame elephants the wild ones are tied

to trees and subjected to the taming process. The domesticated elephant

requires much care, and a plentiful supply of food, being liable to many

ailments. The daily consumption of a working elephant is, according to Sir

J. E. Tennent, 2 cwt. of green food, about half a bushel of grain, and

about 40 gallons of water. Their enormous strength, docility, and sagacity

make them of great value in the East for road-making, building, and

transport. They are used by the great on occasions of pomp and show, being

often richly caparisoned, and bearing on their back a howdah containing one

or more riders, besides the mahout or driver sitting on the animal's neck.

Tiger-shooting is often practised from an elephant's back. Several extinct

species are known, the most notable being the mammoth (_E. primigenius_), a

contemporary of prehistoric man. The allied genus Mastodon was of very wide

distribution, and the Tertiary deposits of the Fayum (Egypt) have yielded

the remains of types that bridge over the gap between elephants and more

typical quadrupeds. See _Mammoth_; _Mastodon_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andersson,

_The Lion and the Elephant_; Sir. J. E. Tennent, _The Wild Elephant in

Ceylon_; Sanderson, _Wild Beasts of India_; R. Lydekker, _The Game Animals

of Africa_.

ELEPHAN'TA ISLE, or GHARAPURI, a small island in the Bay of Bombay, between

Bombay and the mainland, 6 miles north-east of the former; circumference

about 5 miles. It consists of two long hills chiefly overgrown with wood. A

city is supposed to have flourished on the island between the third and

tenth centuries, but now it has only a few inhabitants, who rear sheep and

poultry for the Bombay market. It is celebrated for its rock temples or

caves, the chief of which is a cave-temple supposed by Fergusson to belong

to the tenth century, 130 feet long, 123 broad, and 18 high. It is

supported by pillars cut out of the rock, and containing a colossal figure

of the trimurti or Hindu Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. The temple is

still used by the Bania caste for the Sawa at certain festivals.

ELEPHANT-FISH (_Callorhynchus antarcticus_), a fish of the sub-class

Elasmobranchii (rays and sharks), so named from a proboscis-like structure

on the nose: called also Southern Chimaera. It inhabits the Antarctic seas,

and is palatable eating.

ELEPHANTIASIS is a disease characterized by progressive enlargement of a

limb, or portion of the body, and occurs most frequently in the legs. The

enlargement begins below the knee and gradually involves the entire limb.

The onset may be slow and painless, or sudden with fever and rapid

swelling. The disease is common in all countries in which the Filariae

prevail. No drug destroys the embryos in the blood, and in infected

districts the drinking-water should be boiled or filtered. In rapid cases

rest, liquid diet, purgation, and firm bandaging of the legs are indicated.

Surgical treatment for removal of adult Filariae in enlarged glands has met

with some success.

ELEPHANTI'NE, the Greek name of a small island of Egypt, in the Nile, just

below the First Cataract and opposite Assouan (Syene). It is partly covered

with ruins of various origins--Egyptian, Roman, Saracen, and Arabic, the

most important being a gateway of the time of Alexander, a small temple

dedicated to Khnum and founded by Amenophis III, and the ancient Nilometer

mentioned by Strabo. The latter was restored in 1870 by the Khedive Ismail

Pasha. The northern part is low, the southern elevated and rocky.

ELEPHANT LORE. The cult of the elephant is found among many nations in Asia

and Africa. It exists in Indo-China, Cambodia, Abyssinia, Siam, and

Sumatra. The Aryo-Indian god Indra rides on an elephant. Buddha had a white

elephant form. One of the Sanskrit names for the elephant is _Naga_, which

connects the animal with the sacred snake, possibly on account of its

trunk; another name is _Hastin_, 'having a hand'. The Wambuwegs believe the

elephant to be the abode of the souls of their ancestors. It is a bad omen,

according to the _Talmud_, to dream of an elephant.

ELEPHANT RIVER, a river of Cape Colony, running into the Atlantic after a

course of 140 miles,

[Illustration: Elephant-seal]

ELEPHANT-SEAL, the Proboscis Seal, or Sea-elephant, the largest of the seal

family (Phocidae). There are probably two species, one (_Macrorhinus

angustirostris_) found only on the coast of California and Western Mexico,

the other (_Macrorhinus leoninus_) found in Patagonia, Kerguelen Island,

Heard's Island, and other parts of the Southern Seas. They vary in length

from 12 to 30 feet, and in girth at the chest from 8 to 18 feet. The

proboscis of the male is about a foot long when the creature is at rest,

but elongates under excitement. The females have no proboscis and are

considerably smaller than the male. Both species are becoming rare owing to

the wholesale slaughter of them which takes place.

ELEPHANT'S-FOOT, the popular name of _Testudinaria elephantipes_, a plant

of the nat. ord. Dioscoreaceae (yams, &c.), distinguished by the shape of

its rootstock, which forms a nearly hemispherical mass rising a little

above the ground, covered with a thick corky bark. It has a slender

climbing stem growing to a length of 30 or 40 feet, with small heart-shaped

leaves and greenish-yellow flowers. It is known in the Cape Province as

Hottentots' Bread.

ELEUSI'NE, a genus of grasses, several of which, e.g. _E. coracana_, are

cultivated as grain plants in India, Japan, and Tibet.

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, the sacred rites anciently observed in Greece at the

annual festival of D[=e]m[=e]t[=e]r or Ceres, so named from their original

seat Eleusis. According to the Homeric hymn to D[=e]m[=e]t[=e]r, the

goddess, while wandering in search of Persephone, came to Eleusis, where

she was hospitably received by King Celeus. He directed the establishment

of a temple in her honour, and showed the use of grain to Triptolemus and

other princes. As a preparation for the greater mysteries celebrated at

Athens and Eleusis, lesser Eleusinia were celebrated at Agrae on the

Ilissus. The greater Eleusinia were celebrated in the month Boedromion

(September-October), beginning on the 15th of the month and lasting nine

days. The celebrations, which were varied each day, consisted of

processions between Athens and Eleusis, torch-bearing and mystic ceremonies

attended with oaths of secrecy. They appear to have symbolized the old

conceptions of death and reproduction, and to have been allied to the

orgiastic worship of Dionysus (Bacchus). They are supposed to have

continued down to the time of Theodosius I.

ELEU'SIS, in ancient geography, a small city of Attica, about 14 miles from

Athens, near the shore opposite the Island of Salamis. Its temple of

D[=e]m[=e]t[=e]r was one of the most beautiful buildings of Greece. The

sacred buildings were destroyed by Alaric in A.D. 396. In 1882 the Greek

Archaeological Society undertook excavations, and numerous remains have

been unearthed. There is now a large straggling village here.

ELEU'THERA, one of the largest of the Bahama Islands. It is of very

irregular shape, its length being about 70 miles, and its breadth in

general from 2 to 4 miles, though in one part 10. Pop. 6533.

ELEVATION. In astronomy, the elevation of an object above the horizon is

measured by the arc intercepted between the horizon and the object on the

circle which passes through the object and the zenith. In geometry, solids

can be represented by means of two projections; one on a horizontal plane,

and the other on a plane perpendicular to the horizontal. The former is

called the plan, and the latter the elevation.

ELEVATION OF THE HOST (Lat. _hostia_, a victim), in the ritual of the Mass,

is the lifting up of the elements immediately after consecration, to be

worshipped by the people. It was introduced into the Latin Church in the

eleventh century, in consequence of the denial by Berengarius of the real

presence in the sacrament. The Council of Trent ordered that the host

should be worshipped with the highest adoration, that of _latria_, which is

offered to God only.

EL'EVATOR, (1) a mechanical contrivance consisting of a series of boxes or

buckets attached to a belt travelling round two drums, one above and one

below, for hoisting grain, meal, coal, coke, &c. In America large buildings

which contain such contrivances, and in which grain is stored, receive the

same name. (2) An apparatus for raising or lowering persons or goods to or

from different levels in warehouses, hotels, &c., consisting usually of a

cage or movable platform worked by hydraulic power: also called a _lift_ or

_hoist_.

ELF-ARROWS, ELF-BOLTS, or ELF-SHOT, popular names in Europe for stone

arrow-heads and axes. They were worn as charms against lightning; cattle

and men are said to have been struck and wounded by them. In the Far East

they are 'thunder-stones'.

ELGAR, Sir Edward, English composer, was born at Broadheath,

Worcestershire, 2nd June, 1857. For some time he acted as conductor of the

Worcester Instrumental Society, and as organist at St. George's, Worcester,

but when later he turned to composition he resigned both these positions.

In 1892 he produced _The Black Knight_, and this was followed by several

oratorios, cantatas, and other works, including _The Light of Life_, a

short oratorio (Worcester Festival, 1896); _King Olaf_, a cantata (North

Staffordshire Festival, 1896); _Imperial March_ (1897); _Te Deum_ (Hereford

Festival, 1897); _Caractacus_ (Leeds Festival, 1898); and _Orchestral

Variations_ (1899). In 1900 his famous sacred cantata, _The Dream of

Gerontius_, was produced at the Birmingham Festival (repeated at

D[:u]sseldorf in 1901 and at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest in 1902), and

added immensely to his already considerable reputation. In 1902 the

_Coronation Ode_ proved extremely popular, and in 1903 the Birmingham

Festival introduced _The Apostles_, a fine oratorio, which, like the

_Gerontius_, was honoured at the Niederrheinische Musik Fest the following

year. In March, 1904, an 'Elgar Festival', lasting three days, was held at

Covent Garden, London, at which, in addition to _The Dream of Gerontius_,

_The Apostles_, and other compositions by Dr. Elgar, was produced

_Alassio_, a new concert overture, the outcome of a visit to Italy. In 1904

Dr. Elgar was knighted. From 1905 to 1908 he was professor of music at

Birmingham University. He has received musical and other degrees from

Oxford, Cambridge, and Yale.

ELGIN, James Bruce, eighth Earl of, and twelfth Earl of Kincardine,

Governor-General of India, born in 1811, died in 1863. Educated at Eton and

Christ Church, he entered Parliament in 1841 as member for Southampton, and

in the same year succeeded to the earldom. He was appointed

Governor-General of Jamaica in 1842, and in 1846 Governor-General of

Canada. In 1849 he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Elgin of

Elgin. In 1857 he went as special ambassador to China, and concluded the

Treaty of Tientsin (1858). In 1859 he became Postmaster-General in

Palmerston's Cabinet, in 1860 was sent on a special mission to Pekin, and

in 1861 became Governor-General of India.--Victor Alexander Bruce, ninth

Earl of Elgin, son of the preceding, born 1849, died 1917, was also

Governor-General of India (1894-9), and Colonial Secretary in the

Campbell-Bannerman Ministry from Dec., 1905, to April, 1908.

ELGIN (el'gin), a royal and parliamentary burgh of Scotland, capital of

Elgin County, situated on the Lossie, about 5 miles from its influx into

the Moray Firth, 70 miles N.W. of Aberdeen. The town largely consists of

mansions and villas. The most interesting edifice is the cathedral, now in

ruins, which was once the most magnificent in Scotland. It was founded by

Bishop Andrew Moray in 1224; plundered and burned in 1390 by the 'Wolf of

Badenoch', and again in 1402 by Alexander, third son of the Lord of the

Isles; restored 1390 to 1424; and again plundered in 1568. Until 1918 the

Elgin Burghs sent one member to the House of Commons. Pop. 8656.--_Elgin_,

county of, also called Morayshire, is a maritime county, bounded by the

Moray Firth, Banffshire, Inverness-shire, and Nairnshire; area, 340,000

acres. Along the sea-coast, which extends for more than 30 miles, the

surface is flat, but inland it rises into hills of moderate elevation,

intersected by fine and fertile valleys. The chief rivers are the Spey,

Lossie, and Findhorn, the Spey and Findhorn having excellent salmon

fishing. Inexhaustible quarries of freestone (rich in fossils) are worked.

The climate is noted for its general mildness, dryness, and salubrity. The

lower tracts of land are fertile and highly cultivated, the principal crops

being wheat, oats, potatoes, and turnips. The great majority of farms are

small. A portion of the surface is still covered with native forests. The

county unites with Nairnshire in returning one member to the House of

Commons, Pop. 43,427.

ELGIN, a town of the United States, in Illinois, on Fox River, 36 miles

N.W. of Chicago. It has a watch-factory and various flourishing industries.

Pop. 25,976.

ELGIN MARBLES, the splendid collection of antique sculptures brought

chiefly from the Parthenon of Athens to England by the seventh Earl of

Elgin (1766-1841) in 1814, and afterwards purchased by Parliament for the

British Museum at the cost of L35,000. They consist of figures in low and

high relief and in the round, representing gods, goddesses, and heroes; the

combats of the Centaurs and Lapithae; the Panathenaic procession, &c. They

exhibit Greek sculpture at its highest stage, and were partly the work of

Phidias. The historical and artistic value of the Elgin marbles was at

first doubted, and Lord Elgin himself was not spared. His act in removing

the marbles was denounced as vandalism.

EL HASA, a fertile district of Eastern Arabia, on the Persian Gulf. It

produces dates, wheat, millet, and rice. Pop. estimated at 175,000.

ELI, one of the Hebrew judges, the predecessor of Samuel. He was

high-priest and judge for forty years, but was less successful as head of

his own household. His two sons having been slain, and the ark taken in

battle by the Philistines, the news proved so severe a shock that he fell

and broke his neck, at the age of ninety-eight. Little is really known of

the history of Eli, since he is only shown to us in the weakness of old

age, unable to control his sons Hophni and Phinehas, whose wickedness

disgusted and alienated the people.

ELI'JAH, the most distinguished of the prophets of Israel, flourished in

the ninth century B.C., during the reigns of Ahab and Ahaziah, and until

the beginning of the reign of Jehoram, his special function being to

denounce vengeance on the kings of Israel for their apostasy. He incurred

the anger of Jezebel, wife of Ahab, for slaying the prophets of Baal, but

escaped to Horeb, afterwards returning to Samaria to denounce Ahab for the

murder of Naboth. Elijah at length ascended to heaven in a chariot of fire,

Elisha, his successor, being witness. See _1 Kings_, xvii to xxi, and _2

Kings_, i and ii.

ELIMINATION, in mathematics, the process of treating a given set of

equations so as to deduce from them an equation free from a selected

letter, or from several selected letters. For instance, if the system of

equations

a_1x + b_1y + c_1z = 0,

a_2x + b_2y + c_2z = 0,

a_3x + b_3y + c_3z = 0,

has a solution in which one at least of x, y, z is different from zero,

then

| a_1, b_1, c_1 |

| a_2, b_2, c_2 | = 0.

| a_3, b_3, c_3 |

(See _Determinant_.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Burnside and Panton, _Theory of

Equations_; Salmon, _Higher Algebra_.

EL'IOT, George, the assumed literary name of Mary Ann, or, as she preferred

to write the name in later years, Marian Evans, English novelist. She was

the daughter of a Warwickshire land-agent and surveyor, was born at Griff,

near Nuneaton, on 22nd Nov., 1820, and died on 22nd Dec., 1880. She

received at Coventry an excellent education, comprising the classical and

modern languages, and shortly after her twenty-first year became a convert

to Rationalism. Her first literary undertaking was the completion of Mrs.

Hennell's translation of Strauss's _Life of Jesus_ (1846). Towards the end

of her task she seems, however, to have wearied of it, and when the work

appeared she declared herself 'Strauss-sick'. After spending two years

abroad, she boarded at the house of John Chapman, editor of the

_Westminster Review_, of which she became sub-editor. It was not, however,

until January, 1857, that she came prominently into public notice, when the

first of a series of tales entitled _Scenes from Clerical Life_ appeared in

_Blackwood's Magazine_. The series came to an end in Nov., 1857, and in the

following year the publication of _Adam Bede_ placed her in the first rank

of writers of fiction. It was succeeded by _The Mill on the Floss_ (1860),

_Silas Marner_ (1861), _Romola_ (1863), _Felix Holt_ (1866), _Middlemarch_

(1872), and _Daniel Deronda_ (1876). In addition to those prose works she

published three volumes of poems, _The Spanish Gypsy_ (1868), _Agatha_

(1869), and _The Legend of Jubal_ (1874). Her last work published during

her life was the series of essays entitled _The Impressions of Theophrastus

Such_ (1879), but a volume of mixed essays was issued posthumously. For

many years she was happily associated both in life and work with George

Henry Lewes, though a legal union was impossible during the lifetime of

Mrs. Lewes. In May, 1880, after Lewes's death, she married Mr. John Cross,

but did not survive the marriage many months, dying rather suddenly at

Chelsea.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Haton, _George Eliot in Derbyshire_; J. W. Cross

(editor), _George Eliot's Life as Related in Her Letters and Journals_ (3

vols.); O. Browning, _Life of George Eliot_; Deakin, _The Early Life of

George Eliot_; Sir Leslie Stephen, _George Eliot_ (in English Men of

Letters Series).

ELIOT, Sir John, one of the ablest of the popular leaders of Charles I's

reign, of an old Cornwall family, born in 1592, died in 1632. He entered

Parliament in 1614 as member for St. Germans, winning immediate reputation

as an orator. As vice-admiral of Devon he was energetic in suppressing

piracy. In the three Parliaments of 1623, 1625, 1626, he made his way to

the front of the constitutional party, joined Hampden and the rest in

refusing contributions to the forced loan, and took a prominent share in

drawing up the Remonstrance and Petition of Right. He was imprisoned in the

Tower in 1629, and died in confinement. During his imprisonment he wrote a

work on constitutional monarchy entitled _The Monarchie of Man_. Among his

other works are: _An Apology for Socrates_, and _Negotium Posterorum_ (an

account of the Parliament of 1625).

E'LIS, a maritime state of ancient Greece in the west of the Peloponnesus,

bordering on Achaia, Arcadia, and Messenia, and watered by the Rivers

Alph[=e]us and Pen[=e]us. Of its capital Elis (now Kaloskopi) there are few

traces. Olympia, where the famous games were held, was near the Alpheus.

Since 1899 Elis forms a nomarchy of Greece.

ELI'SHA, a Hebrew prophet, the disciple and successor of Elijah. Many

miracles of prediction and cure, and even of raising the dead, are ascribed

to him, but his figure is less original and heroic than that of his master.

He held the office of prophet for fully sixty-five years, from the reign of

Ahab to that of Joash (latter half of ninth century B.C.).

ELIX'IR, a word of Arabic origin (_al iksir_, the philosopher's stone),

applied by the alchemists to a number of solutions employed in attempting

the transmutation of metals into gold, and also to a potion, the _elixir

vitae_, or elixir of life, supposed to confer immortality. It is still used

for various popular remedies, for the most part composed of various

aromatic and stimulative substances held in solution by alcohol.

ELIZABETH (_Carmen Sylva_), Dowager Queen of Roumania, born at Neuwied,

principality of Wied, in 1843, died at Bucharest, 2nd March, 1916. In 1869

she was married to Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, who became King of

Roumania in 1881. Queen Elizabeth, or, as she was generally known, Carmen

Sylva (her pen-name), was not only a patron of Roumanian writers and

artists, but herself a distinguished author. Among her works, which were

all, with the exception of one, written in German, are: _The Bard of the

Dimbovitza_, _Pilgrim Sorrow_, _A Real Queen's Fairy Tales_, and _From

Memory's Shrine_. In 1914 she was made an honorary fellow of the Royal

Society of Literature of Great Britain.

ELIZABETH, Queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII and of Anne Boleyn, was

born at Greenwich, 7th Sept., 1533, and almost immediately declared heiress

to the crown. After her mother had been beheaded (1536) both she and her

sister Mary were declared bastards, and she was finally placed after Prince

Edward and the Lady Mary in the order of succession. On the accession of

Edward VI Elizabeth was committed to the care of the Queen-Dowager

Catherine; and after the death of Catherine and execution of her consort

Thomas Seymour she was closely watched at Hatfield, where she received a

classical education under William Grindal and Roger Ascham. At the death of

Edward Elizabeth vigorously supported the title of Mary against the

pretensions of Lady Jane Grey, but continued throughout the whole reign an

object of suspicion and surveillance. In self-defence she made every

demonstration of zealous adherence to the Roman Catholic faith, but her

inclinations were well known. On 17th Nov., 1558, Mary died, and Elizabeth

was immediately recognized queen by Parliament. The accuracy of her

judgment showed itself in her choice of advisers, Parker, a moderate divine

(Archbishop of Canterbury 1559), aiding her in ecclesiastical policy; while

William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, assisted her in foreign affairs.

The first great object of her reign was the settlement of religion, to

effect which a Parliament was called on 25th Jan., and dissolved on the 8th

May, its object having been accomplished. The nation was prepared for a

return to the Reformed faith, and the Parliament was at the bidding of the

Court. The ecclesiastical system devised in her father's reign was

re-established, the royal supremacy asserted, and the revised Prayer Book

enforced by the Act of Uniformity. While, however, the formal establishment

of the reformed religion was easily completed, the security and defence of

the settlement was the main object of the policy and the chief source of

all the struggles and contentions of her reign. Freed from the tyranny of

Mary's reign, the Puritans began to claim predominance for their own

dogmas, while the supporters of the Established Church were unwilling to

grant them even liberty of worship. The Puritans, therefore, like the

Catholics, became irreconcilable enemies of the existing order, and

increasingly stringent measures were adopted against them. But the struggle

against the Catholics was the more severe, chiefly because they were

supported by foreign powers; so that while their religion was wholly

prohibited, even exile was forbidden them, in order to prevent their

intrigues abroad. Many Catholics, particularly priests, suffered death

during this reign; but simple nonconformity, from whatever cause, was

pursued with the severest penalties, and many more clergymen were driven

out of the Church, by differences about the position of altars, the wearing

of caps, and such like matters, than were forced to resign by the change

from Rome to Reformation.

Elizabeth's first Parliament approached her on a subject which, next to

religion, was the chief trouble of her reign, the succession to the Crown.

They requested her to marry, but she declared her intention to live and die

a virgin; and she consistently declined in the course of her life such

suitors as the Duc d'Alencon, Prince Erik of Sweden, the Archduke Charles

of Austria, and Philip of Spain. While, however, she felt that she could

best maintain her power by remaining unmarried, she knew how to temporize

with suitors for political ends, and showed the greatest jealousy of all

pretenders to the English succession. With the unfortunate Mary, Queen of

Scots, were connected many of the political events of Elizabeth's reign. On

her accession the country was at war with France. Peace was easily

concluded (1559); but the assumption by Francis and Mary of the royal arms

and titles of England led to an immediate interference on the part of

Elizabeth in the affairs of Scotland. She entered into a league with the

Lords of the Congregation, or leaders of the Reformed party; and throughout

her reign this party was frequently serviceable in furthering her policy.

She also gave early support to the Huguenot party in France, and to the

Protestants in the Netherlands, so that throughout Europe she was looked on

as the head of the Protestant party. This policy roused the implacable

resentment of Philip, who strove in turn to excite the Catholics against

her both in her own dominions and in Scotland. The detention of Mary in

England (1568-87), whither she fled to the protection of Elizabeth, led to

a series of conspiracies, beginning with that under the Earls of

Northumberland and Westmorland, and ending with the plot of Babington,

which finally determined Elizabeth to make away with her captive. The

execution of Queen Mary (1587), though it has stained her name to

posterity, tended to confirm her power among her contemporaries. The state

of France consequent on the accession of Henry IV, who was assisted by

Elizabeth, obviated any danger from the indignation which the deed had

caused in that country; and the awe in which King James stood of Elizabeth

and his dread of interfering with his own right of succession to England

made him powerless. But Philip of Spain was not to be so appeased, the

execution of Mary lending edge to other grievances. The fleets of Elizabeth

had galled him in the West Indies, her arms and subsidies had helped to

deprive him of the Netherlands; the Armada was already in preparation.

Accordingly he called the Queen of England a murderess, and refused to be

satisfied even with the sacrifice she seemed prepared to make of her Dutch

allies. The Armada sailed on 29th May, 1588. The war with Spain dragged on

till the close of Elizabeth's long reign.

During her reign the splendour of her government at home and abroad was

sustained by such men as Burleigh, Bacon, Walsingham, and Throgmorton; but

she had personal favourites of less merit who were often more brilliantly

rewarded. Chief of these were Dudley, whom she created Earl of Leicester,

and whom she was disposed to marry, and Essex, whose violent passions

brought about his ruin. He was beheaded in 1601, but Elizabeth never

forgave herself his death. Her own health soon after gave way, and she died

on 24th March, 1603, naming James VI of Scotland as her

successor.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. A. S. Hume (editor), _Calendar of State

Papers_ (Spanish Series); J. Bruce (editor), _Letters of Elizabeth and

James VI_; W. Camden, _History of Queen Elizabeth_; J. A. Froude, _History

of England_; M. Creighton, _Queen Elizabeth_; E. S. Beesley, _Queen

Elizabeth_.

ELIZABETH, a city of New Jersey, United States, 14 miles S.W. of New York,

with which it has ample communication by railway and steamer. It is a

favourite residence of New York business men. The Singer Sewing-machine

Company has a large factory here, and there are also foundries and

oil-cloth factories. Pop. 73,409.

ELIZABETH, ST., of Thuringia, daughter of Andreas II, King of Hungary, was

born at Pressburg 1207, and in 1221 married to Louis IV, land-grave of

Thuringia. She erected hospitals, fed a multitude of poor from her own

table, and wandered about in a humble dress, relieving the wretched. Louis

died on a crusade, and her own life terminated 19th Nov., 1231, in a

hospital which she had herself established. The church over her tomb at

Marburg is one of the most splendid Gothic edifices in Germany.

[Illustration: Elizabethan Architecture. Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire]

[Illustration: Elizabethan Architecture: an Interior