THE SECOND VOYAGE.
On the morning of the 25th of September, 1493, all was in readiness for
the second voyage. The fleet, consisting of seventeen vessels, large
and small, was at anchor in the bay of Cadiz. The scene presented a
sharp contrast to that of the modest embarkation at Palos the year
before. Now there was no difficulty in recruiting men; on the contrary,
those who were permitted to accompany the expedition were regarded as
peculiarly fortunate. Stories of the untold wealth of the new regions
had been freely circulated and were very generally believed. It was the
wellnigh fatal misfortune of the expedition that the men who embarked
on this second voyage believed they were bound for golden regions,
where nothing but wealth and the indolent pleasures of the tropics
awaited them. This current but unfortunate belief determined, in large
measure, the personal character of the passengers and the crew. Many of
them were adventurers pure and simple; some were high-spirited hidalgos
seeking romantic experiences; some were hardy mariners looking for
new laurels in unknown seas; some were visionary explorers going out
simply for novelty and excitement; some were scheming speculators eager
for profit at the expense of innocent natives; some were priests more
or less devoutly solicitous for the conversion of the Indians and the
propagation of the Catholic faith. Unfortunately, among them all there
was nothing of that sturdy yeomanry which has ever been found so useful
in making colonization successful.
Before sunrise the whole fleet was in motion. Steering to the
southwest, in order to avoid the domains of Portugal, they arrived at
the Grand Canary on the 1st of October. Here they were detained a few
days in order to take in a quantity of swine, calves, goats, and sheep,
with which to stock the newly discovered lands. The Admiral took the
precaution of giving to each of the captains sealed orders, indicating
the route to be taken,--which, however, were not to be opened except in
case a vessel should lose sight of the fleet. Happily this precaution
proved not to have been necessary. Weighing anchor again, the fleet, on
the 7th of October, took a southwesterly course, with the purpose of
making the Caribbees. After a prosperous voyage, they came upon land on
the morning of the 3d of November.
The group of islands among which Columbus now found himself was the
beautiful cluster which, from the eastern end of Porto Rico, bends
around in the shape of a crescent toward the south, and forms a broken
barrier between the main ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The first island
they reached he called Dominica, in recognition of the fact that it
was discovered on Sunday; but the group as a whole, at a later period,
he somewhat humorously denominated St. Ursula and the Eleven Thousand
Virgins.
After cruising around several of the smaller islands, the Admiral
discovered a place for safe anchorage, and went ashore. As the
natives fled in confusion, the Spaniards had excellent opportunities
of inspecting their ways of living. A village was found, consisting
of twenty or thirty houses arranged about a hollow square. Each had
its portico for shelter from the sun. Within were found hammocks of
netting, utensils of earthenware, and a rude form of cotton cloth. In
one of the houses was discovered a cooking utensil, apparently of iron,
but probably of some kind of stone which, when burned, has a metallic
lustre. But what struck the Spaniards with special interest, and even
with horror, was the sight of human bones,--giving evidence, as the
discoverers supposed, that they were indeed in the land of cannibals.
On the following day the boats again made a landing,--this time on an
island which was named Guadaloupe,--and succeeded in capturing a boy
and several women. From these Columbus learned that the inhabitants
of the island were in league with the peoples of two other islands,
and that this rude confederacy made war on all the rest. Its habit
was to go on predatory excursions to neighbouring islands, to make
prisoners of the youngest and handsomest of the women as servants and
companions, and to capture men and children to be killed and eaten.
It was also learned that nearly all the warriors of the island were
absent. At the time of the arrival, the king, with three hundred men,
was on a cruise in quest of prisoners; the women meantime, being expert
archers, were left to defend their homes from invasion.
The fleet was detained for several days by the temporary loss of one of
the captains and eight of his men. The commander of one of the caravels
had gone on an exploring expedition, and penetrated into the forest
with a part of his crew. The night passed without their return, and the
greatest apprehensions were felt for their safety. Several parties were
sent out in various directions in quest of them; but no tidings could
be obtained. It was not until several days had elapsed, and the fleet
was about to sail, that, to the joy of all, they made a signal from the
shore. Their abject appearance immediately revealed how terribly they
had suffered. For days they had wandered about in a vast and trackless
forest, climbing mountains, fording streams, utterly bewildered, and
almost in despair lest the Admiral, thinking them dead, should set sail
and leave them to perish. Notwithstanding the universal joy over their
return, the Admiral, with very questionable judgment, put the captain
under arrest, and stopped a part of the rations of the other men. As
they had strayed away without permission, Columbus thought so gross a
breach of discipline should not go unpunished. It seems not to have
occurred to him that the penalty had already been inflicted, and that
he now had an opportunity to secure the loyalty instead of the enmity
of the offenders.
On the 10th of November the Admiral hoisted anchor, and with all on
board turned the ships to the northwest for La Navidad. After a few
days at one of the intermediate islands, he sent a boat on shore for
water and for information. The boat’s crew found a village occupied
exclusively by women and children. A few of these were seized and taken
on board the ships. In one of the affrays, however, it was learned that
the Carib women could ply their bows and arrows with amazing vigour and
skill. Though the Spaniards generally covered themselves successfully
with their bucklers, two of them were severely wounded. On their
return to the ships, a canoe containing Carib women was upset, when,
to the amazement of the Spaniards, it was found that the natives could
discharge their arrows while swimming, as skilfully as though they had
been upon land. One of the arrows thus discharged penetrated quite
through a Spanish buckler.
It is difficult to read the original accounts of this expedition
without receiving from it a very painful impression. Wherever the
Spaniards landed, they must have left a remembrance of bitter enmity.
Their inquiries everywhere were for gold, and their exploits were
little less or more than the capture of women and children. The natives
may have been cannibals indeed; but aside from all question of moral
obligation, one cannot overlook the fact that they were capable of
animosities, and that in consequence they were in position to help or
to hinder the success of the Spanish expedition. It is not easy to
understand how, as a matter of policy alone, any course could have been
more unwise than that which was pursued.
It was the 22d of November before the fleet arrived off the eastern
extremity of Hispaniola. Great excitement prevailed among the crew in
anticipation of meeting the colonists at La Navidad. Arriving at the
Gulf of Las Flechas, or, as it is now called, Semana Bay, Columbus
thought it wise to send ashore one of the Indians whom the year before
he had captured at this place and taken with him to Spain. The Indian
had been converted to Christianity, and had learned so much of the
Spanish language that the Admiral had confident hopes of his rendering
important service. The native was gorgeously dressed, and loaded with
trinkets with which to make a favourable impression on his countrymen.
It is a significant fact that, although he made fair promises of every
kind, he was never seen or heard of again. The loss was all the more
important as now there was remaining with the fleet only one of the
Indians that had been taken to Spain, and there was no certainty that
even this one would not escape at the first opportunity.
On the 25th the Admiral cast anchor in the harbour of Monte Christi,
desirous of taking further observations about the mouth of the stream
which, in the former voyage, he had called the Rio del Oro, or the
Golden River. But all the pleasant anticipations of the adventurers
now began to be overcast with gloomy forebodings. On the banks they
discovered two dead bodies, with arms extended and bound by the wrists
to a wooden stake in the form of a cross. Other evidences were not
wanting to warrant the fear that some misfortune had befallen Arana and
his companions. Two days later, anchors were dropped off the harbour of
Navidad. Cannon were fired; but there came back no welcoming response.
There was no sign of life,--nothing but a deathlike silence. It was now
evident that disaster had overtaken the colony. On the following day
the terrible fact was revealed that every member had perished.
The first shock occasioned by this information was, however, slightly
alleviated by the friendly bearing of the natives. At first it was
feared that there had been treachery on the part of the Indians in whom
the Admiral had reposed confidence and friendship; but the accounts
given by the natives tended to dispel this fear, and to convince the
Spaniards that the colonists had perished from other causes. Some of
them, it was said, had died of sickness; some had fallen in quarrels
among themselves; and some, having gone to other parts of the island,
had taken Indian wives and adopted the customs of the natives. These
accounts justified the hope that some of the garrison were yet alive,
and might return to the fleet and give an account, not only of the
disaster, but also of the interior of the island.
But on going ashore to reconnoitre, Columbus found very little reason
for comfort or hope. The fortress was a ruin, the palisades were beaten
down, the chests were broken open, the provisions were spoiled,--in
short, the whole settlement presented the appearance of having been
sacked and destroyed. Here and there were to be found broken utensils
and torn garments, but no traces of the garrison were to be seen.
Cannon were fired, but no response was awakened, and nothing but a
mournful silence reigned over the desolation.
Columbus had ordered Arana, in case of attack or danger, to secrete the
treasure in a well; but all their efforts to discover where anything
had been concealed were now in vain. It was not until the search
had been kept up for several days that even dead bodies were found.
Suspicions were revived that there had been treachery on the part of
the cacique; but a little exploration resulted in the discovery that
the tribal village of that official had also shared in the disaster
that had befallen the garrison.
Little by little the general facts of the calamity came to be known.
The colony, with the exception of the commander, was made up of men of
the lowest order. The list included a considerable number of mariners
that were given to every kind of excess and turbulence. Surrounded by
savage tribes, they were dependent on the good-will of the natives, as
well as on their own prudence and good conduct. Oviedo assures us that
they soon fell into every species of wanton abuse. Some were prompted
by unrestrained avarice, and some by gross sensuality. Not content
with the two or three wives apiece which the good-natured cacique
allowed them, they gave themselves up to the most unbridled license
with the wives and daughters of the Indians. The natural consequences
followed. Fierce brawls ensued over their ill-gotten spoils and the
favours of the Indian women. The injunctions of Columbus that they
should keep together in the fortress and maintain military order were
neglected and forgotten. Many deserted the garrison, and lived at
random among the natives. These were gradually formed into groups, to
protect themselves and despoil the rest. Violent affrays ensued. One
company, under the command of a subordinate officer, set out for the
mines of Cibao, of which, from the first, they had heard marvellous
accounts. The region to which they went was in the eastern part of the
island,--a territory governed by Caonabo, a Carib chieftain famous for
his fierce and warlike exploits. He was the hero of the island; and the
departure of Columbus gave him an opportunity to rid the country of
those who threatened to eclipse his authority. When now his territory
was actually invaded, he determined to exterminate the colony. The
campaign appears not to have been a long or difficult one. The cacique
of the region surrounding La Navidad was faithful to his promises, and
fought with the Spaniards against the Carib chieftain. But even their
united efforts were unsuccessful. The local cacique, Guacanagari,
and his subjects fought faithfully in defence of their guests, but
they were soon overpowered. Some of the Spaniards were killed in
the struggle, some were driven into the sea and drowned, some were
massacred on shore; not a single one was ever heard of again alive.
The cacique Guacanagari continued to manifest his friendly interest in
Columbus and his crew, though it was evident that his belief in the
heavenly origin and character of the Spaniards had been sadly shaken.
It is said that the gross licentiousness of the garrison had already
impaired his veneration for the heaven-born visitors. When, therefore,
Columbus proposed to establish a permanent settlement in the region,
Guacanagari expressed his satisfaction, but observed that the region
was unhealthy, and that perhaps the Spaniards could do better in some
other locality.
While these parleyings were going on, an event occurred of interesting
and even romantic significance. The cacique visited the ship of the
Admiral, and was greatly interested in all that he saw. Among other
objects of curiosity were the women whom the visitors had taken as
prisoners on the Caribbean Islands. One of these, who by reason of her
stately beauty had been named Catilina, particularly attracted the
interest and admiration of the chieftain. Several days later, a brother
of the cacique came on board under pretence of bargaining gold for
Spanish trinkets. In the course of his visit he succeeded in having an
interview with Catilina. At midnight, just before the fleet was about
to sail, the tropical beauty awakened her companions. Though the ship
was anchored three miles from land and the sea was rough, they let
themselves down by the sides of the vessel, and swam vigorously for the
shore. The watchmen, however, were awakened, and a boat was quickly
sent out in pursuit. But the skill and vigour of the women were such
that they reached the land in safety. Though four of them were retaken
on the beach, Catilina and the rest of her companions made good their
escape to the forest. On the following day, when Columbus sent to
demand of Guacanagari the return of the fugitives, it was found that
the cacique had removed his effects and his followers to the interior.
This sudden departure confirmed the suspicion in the mind of Columbus
that Guacanagari was a traitor to the Spaniards; he even thought that
the chief had been the perfidious betrayer of the garrison.
This suspicion made Columbus all the more willing to seek another spot
for a permanent settlement. After some days spent in explorations, it
was determined to establish a post at about ten leagues east of La
Navidad, where they found a spacious harbour, protected on one side by
a natural rampart of rocks, and on the other by an impervious forest,
as Bernaldez says, “so close that a rabbit could hardly make his way
through it.” A green and beautiful plain, extending back from the sea,
was watered by two rivers, which promised to furnish the needed power
for mills. The streams abounded in fish, the soil was covered with an
exuberant vegetation, and the climate appeared to be temperate and
genial. This site had the further advantage of proximity to the gold
mines in the mountains of Cibao.
Here the first American city was projected, to which Columbus, in
honour of the queen, gave the name of Isabella. Streets and squares
were promptly laid out; a church, a public storehouse, and a residence
for the Admiral were begun without delay. The public houses were built
of stone, while those intended for private occupation were constructed
of wood, plaster, and such other materials as the situation afforded.
It was not long, however, before there was abundant evidence that the
colony was made up of men very ill adapted to the peculiar hardships
of the situation. The labour of clearing lands, building houses, and
planting orchards and gardens can be successfully carried on only by
men accustomed to vigorous manual labour. The stagnant and malarious
atmosphere bore hard upon those who had been accustomed to old and
highly cultivated lands. Long after landing, moreover, the Spaniards
were obliged to subsist very largely upon salt food and mouldy
bread. It is not strange that the maladies peculiar to new countries
broke out with violence. Disaffections of mind also became wellnigh
universal. Many of the adventurers had embarked with the expectation
of finding the golden regions of Cipango and Cathay, where fortunes
were to be accumulated without effort. Instead of the realization of
these hopes, they now found that they were doomed to struggle with
the hard conditions of Nature, and to toil painfully for the merest
subsistence. What with the ravages of disease and the general gloom
of despondency, the situation soon became painful indeed. Even the
strength of Columbus himself was obliged finally to succumb to the
cares and anxieties of the situation. But though for several weeks he
was confined to his bed by illness, he still had the fortitude to give
directions about the building of the city and the superintending of the
general affairs of the colony.
The situation was indeed depressing. Columbus had hoped that soon
after reaching his destination he should be able to send back to
Spain glowing reports of what had been accomplished by the settlers
at La Navidad, as well as in regard to his own discoveries. But the
destruction of the colony had now rendered such a report impossible.
In order, however, to relieve the disappointment at home as much as
possible, he determined to send out two exploring expeditions, in the
hope that the cities and mines, of which he had heard and dreamed so
much, might be discovered. He was still ardent in the belief that the
island of Hispaniola was none other than Cipango, and that somewhere
not far away would be found the cities of boundless wealth of which
Marco Polo and Toscanelli had written.
To lead the two expeditions of discovery, Columbus selected two
cavaliers by the name of Ojeda and Gorvalan. The former had already,
before leaving Spain, made himself famous for his daring spirit and
great vigour and agility of body. The latter seems also to have
been well adapted to the task before him. The expeditions pressed
southward into the very heart of the island. That of Ojeda was the
more interesting and the more important. After climbing the adjacent
mountain range, the explorers found themselves on the edge of a vast
plain, or _vega_, that was studded with villages and hamlets. The
inhabitants were everywhere hospitable. Five or six days were needed
to cross the plain and reach the chain of mountains that were said to
enclose the golden region of Cibao. Caonabo, the redoubtable chief of
the region, nowhere appeared to dispute their passage. The natives
everywhere received the explorers with kindness, and pointed out
to them numerous evidences of natural wealth. Particles of shining
gold were seen in the mountain-streams, and if we may believe the
chroniclers of the time, Ojeda himself, in one of the brooks, picked
up a large mass of native metal. As the object of the expedition was
merely to explore the nature of the country, Ojeda was now satisfied
with the result, and accordingly he led back his band of explorers
to the fleet. He gave a glowing account of the golden resources of
the island, and his story was corroborated by the report of Gorvalan.
Columbus decided at once to send back a report to the Spanish monarchs.
Twelve of the ships were ordered to put themselves in readiness for the
return voyage.
The report sent by Columbus was one of great importance. He described
the exploring expeditions in glowing terms, and repeated his former
hopes of being able soon to make abundant shipments of gold and other
articles of value. Special stress was laid on the beauty and fertility
of the land, including its adaptation to the raising of the various
grains and vegetables produced in Europe. Time, however, would be
required, he said, to obtain the provisions necessary for subsistence
from the fields and gardens; and therefore the colonists must rely,
for a considerable time to come, upon shipments from home. He then
enumerated the articles that would be especially needed. He censured
the contractors that had furnished the wine, charging them with using
leaky casks, and then called for an additional number of workmen and
mechanics and men skilled in the working of ores.
This interesting report is still preserved, with the comments of the
Spanish sovereigns written on the margins. To the descriptions of
what had been done, as well as to the recommendations for the future,
commendation and assent were given in generous and complimentary terms.
One or two passages are of exceptional interest. In regard to the wine,
Columbus writes,--
“A large portion of the wine that we brought with us has run
away, in consequence, as most of the men say, of the bad
cooperage of the butts made at Seville; the article that we stand
most in need of now, and shall stand in need of, is wine.”
To this declaration, which would seem to be good evidence that
dishonest or negligent contractors are not the peculiarity of the
nineteenth century, the following was the royal response:--
“Their Highnesses will give instructions to Don Juan de Fonseca
to make inquiry respecting the imposition in the matter of the
casks, in order that those who supplied them shall, at their own
expense, make good the loss occasioned by the waste of the wine,
together with the costs.”
But the most interesting, as well as the most significant part of the
report is that which pertains to what was nothing less than a purpose
to open a slave-trade on a large scale between the islands and the
mother-country. In a former portion of the letter, Columbus had already
called attention to the advantages that would flow from a system of
sending slaves to Spain to be educated in the Spanish language, and
then brought back to the islands as interpreters. To this proposal the
royal assent was given in the following characteristic words:--
“He has done well, and let him do what he says; but let
him endeavour by all possible means to connect them to our
holy Catholic religion, and do the same with respect to the
inhabitants of all the islands to which he may go.”
But to the more elaborate and systematic proposal, a different answer
was returned. The paragraph of the memorial containing the proposition
is so curious a combination of sophistry and good motives that it
will bear quoting as a whole. The reader should perhaps be reminded
that although the paper was intended for the king and queen, it was
addressed to Antonio de Torres, as ambassador. The following is the
language of Columbus:--
“You will tell their Highnesses that the welfare of the souls
of the said cannibals, and the inhabitants of this island also,
has suggested the thought that the greater number that are sent
over to Spain the better, and thus good service may result to
their Highnesses in the following manner. Considering what great
need we have of cattle and beasts of burden, both for food and
to assist the settlers in this and all these islands, both for
peopling the land and cultivating the soil, their Highnesses
might authorize a suitable number of caravels to come here
every year to bring over said cattle and provisions and other
articles; these cattle, etc., might be sold at moderate prices
for account of the bearers, and the latter might be paid with
slaves taken from among the Caribbees, who are a wild people, fit
for any work, well proportioned and very intelligent, and who,
when they have got rid of the cruel habits to which they have
been accustomed, will be better than any other kind of slaves.
When they are out of their country, they will forget their cruel
customs; and it will be easy to obtain plenty of these savages
by means of row-boats that we propose to build. It is taken
for granted that each of the caravels sent by their Highnesses
will have on board a confidential man, who will take care that
the vessels do not stop anywhere else than here, where they are
to unload and reload their vessels. Their Highnesses might fix
duties on the slaves that may be taken over, upon their arrival
in Spain. You will ask for a reply upon this point, and bring
it to me, in order that I may be able to take the necessary
measures, should the proposition merit the approbation of their
Highnesses.”
To this elaborate scheme for reducing the natives to slavery the
sovereigns gave the diplomatic answer characteristic of those who
would say no in a manner that would give the least offence. The royal
language was the following:--
“The consideration of this subject has been suspended for a time
until further advices arrive from the other side; let the Admiral
write more fully what he thinks upon the matter.”
The authority asked for certainly was not granted; but, on the other
hand, there was no intimation that the proposition would, in the end,
meet with a refusal. Columbus seems to have thought it not imprudent to
take advantage of the doubt; for Bernaldez tells us that the Admiral
“made incursions into the interior, and captured vast numbers of the
natives; and the second time that he sent home, he sent five hundred
Indian men and women, all in the flower of their age, between twelve
years and thirty-five or thereabouts, all of whom were delivered at
Seville to Don Juan de Fonseca.” “They came,” continued Bernaldez, “as
they went about in their own country, naked as they were born; from
which they experienced no more embarrassment than the brutes.” “They
were sold,” the narrator adds, “but proved of very little service, for
the greater part of them died of the climate.”
Of interesting significance also are the passages and answers relating
to gold. In one of the paragraphs Columbus calls attention to the
fact that although the gold discovered has been found in the streams,
it must have come from the earth, and that the procuring of it will
involve the delay necessarily attending the establishment of mining
operations. He recommends that labourers in considerable numbers be
sent out from the quicksilver mines. To these suggestions the king
responds,--
“It is the most necessary thing possible that he should strive to
find the way to this gold.”
And to the suggestion in regard to the mines he responds,--
“This shall be completely provided for in the next voyage out;
meanwhile Don Juan de Fonseca has their Highnesses’ orders to
send as many miners as he can find. Their Highnesses write also
to Almaden with instructions to select the greatest number that
can be procured, and to send them up.”
After the departure of the vessels for Spain, the Admiral, having for
the most part recovered his health, determined to make an expedition in
person into the heart of the island. Accordingly, on the 12th of March,
1494, he set out with the requisite number of men, foot and horse, for
the province of Cibao. This region was distant about eighteen leagues.
To reach his destination it was necessary to cross the beautiful plain
which had already been described by Ojeda, and to which the Admiral now
gave the name of Royal Vega. On the border of Cibao he decided to build
a fortress, which should be at once a protection and a rallying-point.
The natives as yet continued to be friendly, and came in considerable
numbers to barter bits of gold for such trinkets as the Spaniards might
give in exchange. The gold mines, however, seemed to be as far away
as ever, although glowing accounts were given by the natives of the
nuggets that were to be discovered beyond the mountains. But instead
of completing his explorations in person, Columbus now determined to
return to the fleet and make a voyage to what he supposed to be the
continent. The fortress, to which he gave the name St. Thomas, was
intrusted to a garrison under the command of Margarite, an officer of
high rank and much experience.
It is of interest to note at this point that the early opinions of
the Spaniards in regard to the Indians had slowly undergone a very
considerable change. Further acquaintance had convinced Columbus that
they were not quite so guileless and docile as at first he had supposed
them to be. They were found to know something of war,--at least to
be acquainted with certain rude methods of attack and defence. The
proximity of the Caribs was giving them a constant schooling in the art
of self-protection.
It is at this point that Bernaldez, a companion and friend of Columbus,
gives an interesting account of the products of the islands and of
some of the peculiarities of the natives. The following passage is
perhaps the most graphic and circumstantial account left us by any
contemporaneous writer:--
“As the people of all these islands are destitute of iron, it
is wonderful to see their tools, which are of stone, very sharp
and admirably made, such as axes, adzes, and other instruments,
which they use in constructing their dwellings. Their food is
bread, made from roots, which God has given them instead of
wheat; for they have neither wheat nor rye, nor barley, nor oats,
nor spelt-wheat, nor panic-grass, nor anything resembling them.
No kind of food that the Castilians had as yet tasted was like
anything that we have here. There were no beans, nor chick-peas,
nor vetches, nor lentils, nor lupines, nor any quadruped or
animal, excepting some small dogs, and the others, which look
like large rats, or something between a large rat and a rabbit,
and are very good and savoury for eating, and have feet and paws
like rats, and climb trees. The dogs are of all colours,--white,
black, etc. There are lizards and snakes, but not many, for the
Indians eat them, and think them as great a dainty as partridges
are to the Castilians. The lizards are like ours in size, but
different in shape, though, in a little island near the harbour
called San Juan, where the squadron remained several days, a
lizard was several times seen, as large round as a young calf,
and as smooth as a lance; and several times they attempted to
kill it, but could not, on account of the thickness of the trees,
and it fled into the sea. Besides eating lizards and snakes,
these Indians devour all the spiders and worms that they find, so
that their beastliness appears to exceed that of any beast.”
Modern investigation has thrown much light on the physical
characteristics of the native inhabitants of the Lucayan or Bahama
islands. Some years ago Ecker and Wyman studied the subject, and more
recently Prof. W. K. Brooks has visited the islands and presented a
memoir to the National Academy of Sciences on the peculiarities of the
bones discovered in the course of his investigations. It is clearly
established that the natives belonged to a large and well-developed
race. Ecker found bones which he thought must have belonged to a race
of giants. But Professor Brooks is of the opinion that they “did not
depart essentially from the Spanish average.” His measurements showed
that “The skulls are large, and about equal in size to the average
modern civilized white skull.”
It is pathetic to reflect that this race was, in a few years, swept
completely out of existence by the methods of the Spaniards. The annals
of cruelty present no darker picture than that given us by Las Casas,
who at the time was a sad witness of what was taking place. The five
shiploads of slaves sent back by Columbus in the course of his second
expedition was but the beginning of a policy which did not end till the
six hundred islands of the Bahamas were completely depopulated. The
work begun by the Admiral was completed by bloodhounds in less than
a generation. The race perished, and may be said to have left only
a single word as a monument. The Spaniards took from them the word
“hammock,” and gave it to all the languages of western Europe.
After Columbus returned to Isabella from St. Thomas he devoted himself
for some days to putting the colony in order, preparatory to his own
departure on a further voyage of discovery. Second only to the desire
of Ferdinand and Isabella for gold, was their wish that Columbus
should devote himself, as far as possible, to further discoveries.
This disposition, so perfectly in accord with the enterprising spirit
of the Admiral, was fostered by a common jealousy of the Portuguese;
for while the ships of Columbus, after going westward, were exploring
what they supposed to be the islands of the East, the fleets of John
II. of Portugal were making their way toward India by going eastward.
The more rapidly, therefore, each nation could advance, the more
of the “much-coveted lands” each nation would hereafter be able to
claim. Acting in accordance with this impulse and policy, Columbus was
determined to leave the garrisons at Isabella and St. Thomas, and, with
a sufficient crew, proceed to explore and plant his standards on what
he confidently supposed to be the continent.
This purpose was in many respects unfortunate; for the garrisons were
in no condition to be intrusted with the independent working out of
their own destiny. There was wellnigh universal discontent. It is easy
to imagine the condition of affairs. Sickness everywhere prevailed.
The encampments--for they were little else--were, as we must not
forget, made up of men of all ranks and stations. Some were hidalgos,
some were men who had been attached to the court, some were common
labourers; but all men, high and low, were obliged to labour with their
hands, under regulations that were strictly enforced. Many had joined
the expedition in the belief that they would find gold in abundance;
but now they found sickness and hardships of the most exacting kind.
These discontents found expression at length in a mutinous spirit that
threatened to seize the ships and leave Columbus alone to his fate.
The chief mutineer, Bernald Diaz, was seized and sent for trial to
Spain. But the disappointments were so numerous and so intense that
many members of the expedition, especially those high in rank, thinking
that Columbus had deceived them, not only charged him with all their
discomforts, but even showed a relentless disposition to pursue him to
his ruin. It was with this state of affairs, impending or actually in
existence, that Columbus, on the 24th of April, 1494, hoisted sail for
Cuba and the other lands in the west. His brother Diego was left in
command at Isabella.
On approaching the easternmost point of Cuba the fleet turned to the
left, with the intention of exploring the southern coast, instead of
the northern, as the Admiral had done in the first voyage. Bernaldez,
who probably often talked the matter over with Columbus, distinctly
tells us that it was the object of the Admiral to find the province and
city of Cathay. The naïve and confident statement of this historian
is worthy of note, for it doubtless reflected the belief entertained
by Columbus till the day of his death. Bernaldez says: “This province
is in the dominion of the Grand Kahn, and, as described by John de
Mandeville and others who have seen it, is the richest province in the
world, and the most abundant in gold and silver and other metals, and
silks. The people are all idolaters, and are a very acute race, skilled
in necromancy, learned in all the arts and courtesies; and of this
place many marvels are written, which may be found in the narrative of
the noble English knight, John de Mandeville, who visited the country,
and lived for some time with the Grand Kahn.” And then, after stating
how it was that, in his opinion, Columbus missed his mark, he says:
“And so I told him, and made him know and understand, in the year 1496,
when he first returned to Castile after this expedition, and when he
was my guest, and left with me some of his papers in the presence of
Juan de Fonseca.... From these papers,” he continues, “I have drawn and
have compared them with others, which were written by that honourable
gentleman, the Doctor Chanca, and other noble gentlemen who came with
the Admiral in the voyages already described.”
Bernaldez also tells us that Columbus at first supposed the land, which
he called Juana, but which the natives called Cuba, to be an island,
and that it was not until he had made a voyage along the coast that he
inferred confidently that it was the mainland. To the questions of the
Admiral on this subject, the Indians were able to give no satisfactory
answer; “for,” says Bernaldez, “they are a stupid race, who think that
all the world is an island, and do not know what a continent is.”
The westward sail was continued, with some interruptions, from the
1st of May till the 12th of June, without any occurrence sufficiently
remarkable to require extended notice. One statement of exceptional
interest, however, is made by the writer already so frequently quoted.
Bernaldez says that “at this point it occurred to the Admiral that,
if he should be prospered, he might succeed in returning to Spain by
the East, going to the Ganges, thence to the Arabian Gulf, by land,
from Ethiopia to Jerusalem and to Joppa, whence he might embark on
the Mediterranean, and arrive at Cadiz.” Although, in the opinion of
the narrator, this passage would be possible, he says it would be
very perilous; “for from Ethiopia to Jerusalem, the inhabitants are
all Moors.” He rightly inferred that so near the close of the Moorish
wars, the Spaniards would do well not to intrust themselves to the
vicissitudes of a journey through Arabia.
On the 12th of June the mutinous spirit of the crew was so general that
the Admiral decided to turn back. It is easy to understand that he did
so with great reluctance. He had determined to reach the continent, and
if possible go to Cathay, the home of that luxury and wealth which had
so excited the readers of John de Mandeville. Would he now return and
confess to failure? In order to answer this question, he resorted to
a device that must ever remain as a conspicuous stigma, not only upon
his character, but also upon his good sense. He resolved to establish
a geographical fact by a certificate under oath. He drew up the eighty
men of his crew, and required them to swear before a notary that it
was possible to go from Cuba to Spain by land. Accordingly, it was
solemnly sworn that Cuba was a part of the mainland,--that is to say,
Cathay; and it was further ordered that if any sceptic should deny this
important fact, he should be fined ten thousand maravedis. If any lack
of faith in this great geographical fact should disclose itself on the
part of any common sailor, the culprit, as he would, of course, not
have the money, was to have a hundred lashes, and then be incapacitated
for further lying by having his tongue pulled out.
In the course of this voyage, Columbus made many discoveries, among
them the island of Jamaica and the group known as the Garden of the
Queen. Among these islands the ships often ran aground, and the
difficulties of navigation were such that for many days the Admiral
is said to have secured no sleep whatever. At length, however, an
unconquerable drowsiness and illness came on, which left him helpless
in the hands of the crew. Taking advantage of this situation, the
mariners turned the ships toward Isabella, where they arrived, after
an absence of more than five months, on the 29th of September. The
fruits of the voyage were several discoveries of important islands, and
a further and wider knowledge of the characteristics of the natives.
There was, however, no clew to any gold mines or other resources that
might be profitably taken back to Spain.
The illness of Columbus continued during five months after his return
to Isabella. It was fortunate that in the course of his voyage of
exploration the colony was visited by his brother Bartholomew.
But affairs were in a sad state of confusion. During the absence
of the Admiral, everything had seemed to contribute to a general
disorganization. This unfortunate state of the colony was partly owing
to a very injudicious order issued by Columbus, and partly to the
unwise methods of administration that had prevailed during his absence.
Columbus before going away had ordered the military commander,
Margarite, to put himself at the head of four hundred men and go
through the country for the twofold purpose of obtaining provisions and
of impressing upon the natives a further respect for Spanish power. Of
the instructions given there were only two provisions that seem to have
been important. In the first place, they were to obtain provisions,--by
purchase, if possible, if not, by any other means; and secondly, they
were to capture, either by force or artifice, Caonabo and his brothers.
Fernando Columbus tells us that Margarite, instead of striving to
overrun and reduce the island, took his soldiers into the great plain
known as the Royal Vega, and there gave them up to all forms of wanton
excesses. But he soon fell into disputes with the council instituted by
the Admiral. After sending its members insolent letters, and finding
that he could not reduce them to obedience, he went aboard one of
the first ships that came from Spain, and sailed for home. This he
appears to have done without giving any account of himself, or leaving
any direction in regard to his command. “Upon this,” says Fernando,
“every one went away among the Indians wherever he thought fit, taking
away their goods and their women, and committing such outrages that
the Indians resolved to be revenged on those they found alone or
straggling; so that the cacique had killed ten, and privately ordered
a house to be fired in which were eleven sick.” The same authority
further states that “Most of the Christians committed a thousand
insolences, for which they were mortally hated by the Indians, who
refused to submit to them.”
Such was the condition of affairs on the return of Columbus. All was
in such confusion that the very existence of the colony was threatened
with the fate that had overtaken La Navidad; and it was for essentially
the same cause. The weakness of Margarite and his subsequent desertion
of his command had thrown the garrison into anarchy, and given it up to
the unbridled indulgence of the most provoking and offensive excesses.
Fernando Columbus himself says of the Indians that in consequence of
the “thousand insolences” of the Christians, “it was no difficult
matter for them all to agree to cast off the Spanish yoke.” That the
provocation was chargeable to the Spaniards is admitted both by Don
Fernando and by Las Casas. But the fact that the invaders had brought
this threatening condition of affairs upon themselves can hardly be
thought to have lessened the obligations of Columbus. What he was now
confronted with was a condition, not a theory as to how that condition
had been brought about. In order to save the colony from immediate and
perhaps fatal disaster, he was obliged to act without hesitation.
While Caonabo was threatening the garrison at St. Thomas, another of
the caciques, Gustignana by name, approached with a large force to
within two days’ march of Isabella. It is even said that his army
consisted of a hundred thousand men. Columbus was able to muster
a hundred and sixty Spanish foot, twenty horsemen, and as many
bloodhounds. The force was divided into two battalions, one being
under the command of the Admiral himself, and the other under that of
his brother Bartholomew. The Spaniards were clad in armour, while the
natives had only their naked bodies to oppose to the ferocity of the
bloodhounds and the cross-bows and musketry of the invaders. At the
first onset the Indians were thrown into confusion, and a terrible
carnage ensued. Vast numbers were either killed outright or torn by the
dogs; while others, perhaps less fortunate, were taken prisoners, to be
sent to Spain as slaves. The force of the Indians was completely broken
up and dispersed; but Caonabo, who was besieging St. Thomas, was still
at large.
This Carib chieftain was very naturally a source of great anxiety to
the Admiral. He had been defeated by Ojeda; but he was still at the
head of a formidable force, and his own intrepidity and skill made
him a constant object of dread. Columbus determined to secure him
by treachery. Ojeda was selected to carry out this purpose; and the
instructions given by the Admiral were base and treacherous in the
extreme. The wily Spanish officer was to beguile the Indian chieftain
to a friendly interview; and thus, having thrown him off his guard, was
to put him in irons and escape with him to the Spanish garrison. The
Admiral’s plan was carried out.
The accounts of this ignoble transaction, as given by Las Casas and the
later historians of the time, do not differ in essential particulars,
though there are differences in unimportant details. The authorities,
moreover, are not agreed as to the time when this daring exploit
occurred. Herrera says that it took place before the great battle,
almost immediately after the return of Columbus from Cuba. Attributing
the design to the Admiral, this historian says, “He contrived to send
Alonzo de Ojeda with only nine Spaniards, under colour of carrying a
present.” According to the same authority, the capture took place about
sixty or seventy leagues from Isabella. Herrera’s account is graphic
and circumstantial. Other authorities tell us that it was the last
act required to reduce the island into subjection. But the precise
date is not important. Las Casas, who visited the island six years
after the event took place, and received his information on the spot,
has preserved the account which has generally been followed by the
subsequent annalists and historians.
It is not difficult to understand how the friendly relations which at
first prevailed between the Spaniards and the Indians were gradually
converted into distrust, and finally into deadly hostility. For this
change the Spaniards must ever be held responsible. All the original
accounts agree that the natives of Hispaniola were remarkable alike
for their gentleness, their friendliness, and their generosity, and
that they looked upon the Spaniards as superior beings that had
descended from heaven. The son of the Admiral himself tells us that as
time passed on, the Spaniards were guilty of “a thousand insolences,
especially to the Indian women.” We have already seen how Columbus sent
home five shiploads of inoffensive natives of Hispaniola to be sold in
the Spanish markets.
It was easy now for the invaders to go one step farther in this process
of subjugation. The capture of Caonabo had removed the last serious
obstacle to a complete control of the island. Fernando tells us that
the country now became so peaceable that “one single Christian went
safely wherever he pleased.” Supreme power was now in the hand of
the Admiral, and he determined to make use of it in the interest of
that great object of his expedition which as yet had been completely
unsuccessful.
In order that the call for gold might at length be gratified, he
determined to impose a tribute on all the population of the island. The
matter was thus provided for: Every Indian above fourteen years old who
was in the vicinity of the mines was required to pay every three months
a little bellful of gold, and to take for it a brass or tin token, and
to wear this about the neck, as a receipt or evidence that payment had
been made. All persons not living in the vicinity of the mines were
every three months to pay twenty-five pounds of cotton.
When this order was issued, the natives were thrown into something like
despair. They asserted that they knew not how to collect the gold, and
that the gathering of so large an amount would be impossible. The
cacique of the Royal Vega tried to persuade the Admiral to modify the
order. He offered to convert the whole of the Royal Vega, stretching
from Isabella to the sea on the opposite shore, into a huge farm, which
would supply the whole of Castile with bread, on condition that the
tribute in gold should be relaxed; but Columbus would not accept the
proposition, as he wished to collect such objects of value as he could
take back to Spain.
It was found impossible to enforce the requirements imposed. The gold
in requisite amounts could not be found. Columbus was therefore obliged
to modify his demands. In some instances the amounts called for were
lessened; in some the nature of the demand was modified; in others
service was accepted in place of tribute.
As time passed on, it was found that personal service was the only
form of tax that could readily be enforced; and, accordingly, more and
more the natives were driven into working the farms of the Spanish
settlements. As early as 1496 the fields of the Spaniards had come to
be very generally tilled and harvested in this manner. Out of this form
of taxation grew the system of _repartimientos_, or _encomiendas_, as
they were afterward called. In order to enforce the payment of such
tributes as were required, four forts in addition to those of Isabella
and St. Thomas were built and equipped, at such points as would give
most complete command and control of the island.
It requires no very vivid imagination to enable one to understand the
desperate situation into which the natives found they had been driven.
They had enjoyed a roving independence and that ample leisure which is
so dear to all the aboriginal inhabitants of the tropics. This pleasant
life was now at an end; the yoke of servitude was fastened upon them,
and there was no prospect save in the thraldom of perpetual slavery.
They were obliged to bend their bodies under the fervour of a tropical
sun, either to raise food for their taskmasters, or to sift the sands
of the streams for the shining grains of gold. Peter Martyr relates,
with an unspeakable pathos, how their sorrows and sufferings wove
themselves into doleful songs and ballads, and how with plaintive tunes
and mournful voices they bewailed the servitude into which they had
been thrown.
At last they determined to avail themselves of a most desperate remedy.
They observed how entirely dependent the Spaniards were upon such food
as was supplied by the natives. They now agreed, by a general concert
of action, not to cultivate the articles of food, and to destroy
those already growing, in order by famine to starve the strangers or
drive them from the island. This policy was carried into effect. They
abandoned their homes, laid waste the fields, and withdrew to the
mountains, where they hoped to subsist on roots and herbs.
Although this policy produced some distress among the Spaniards, still
they had the resources of home; and it is certain that the suffering
of the natives even from hunger was far greater than was the suffering
of the invaders. The Spaniards pursued the Indians from one retreat to
another, following them into caverns, pursuing them into thick forests,
and driving them up mountain heights, until, worn out with fatigue and
hunger, the wretched creatures gave themselves up without conditions
to the mercy of their pursuers. After thousands of them had perished
miserably through famine, fatigue, disease, and terror, the survivors
abandoned all opposition, and bent their necks despairingly to the yoke.
While this pitiful state of affairs was taking place on the island,
matters of equal significance and interest were occurring in Spain;
and it is now necessary that we turn our attention thither in order to
understand the meaning of that disfavour into which Columbus was now
rapidly drifting.
Even after the second voyage was undertaken, there were not a few who
ventured to declare that Columbus had been cruel and unjust to his
subordinates, and that the assurances and promises by means of which
the second fleet had been fitted out, were such as never could be
fulfilled. The malcontents included persons high in royal favour; and
even Fonseca, who, as we have seen, had been made a special minister
or secretary for the Indies, looked upon the Admiral with distrust,
if not with positive disfavour. There was also about the royal court
a nucleus of opposition consisting of members of the old nobility,
who saw their own hereditary significance completely eclipsed by this
untitled adventurer from abroad. Here, then, was a fertile soil ready
to receive any seed of accusation or complaint that might be brought
back from the newly discovered lands. Such accusations and complaints
were not long withheld.
The provisions taken out on the second voyage were not abundant in
amount, and many of them, as we have already seen, were spoiled
or injured in the course of the passage. On reaching Hispaniola,
and finding that the colony at La Navidad had perished, it became
immediately evident that new supplies must be obtained. The Admiral was
naturally reluctant to call upon the Government for further assistance.
Although such a course was found to be absolutely necessary, the demand
was made as small as possible, in the hope that a large portion of the
articles needed could be either raised or bought on the island. In
the interests of this policy the most rigorous methods were adopted
to increase the productive force of the colony. In the building of
Isabella, and in the tilling of the fields, many a delicate hand that
had never touched an implement of industry was now forced into manual
labour. It is not necessary to inquire whether Columbus enforced his
rule with impolitic or unnecessary rigour. It is certain, however, that
discontents became rife, that these soon grew to formidable proportions
and finally ripened into a mutinous determination to throw off the
Admiral’s authority. By good fortune, Columbus discovered the mutinous
intent before the final outbreak; but the purpose was so widespread,
and embraced within its plans so many of the officers high in command,
that he felt obliged, not only to put the leaders in irons, but also to
transfer all the guns, ammunition, and naval stores to his own ship.
Herrera tells us that “this was the first mutiny that occurred in the
Indies,” and that “it was the source of all the opposition the Admiral
and his successors met withal.”
But the suppression of the mutiny did not lessen the discontents. One
of the authorities says: “The better sort were obliged to work, which
was as bad as death to them, especially having little to eat.” The
Admiral had recourse to force, and this deepened the ill-will. One of
the priests, Father Boyle, took up the cause of the malcontents, and
was loud in his accusations of cruelty. Herrera tells us that so many
persons of distinction died of starvation and sickness that, long after
Isabella was abandoned, “so many dreadful cries were heard in that
place that people durst not go that way.”
Another cause of discontent was the fact that Columbus placed so great
authority in the hands of his brothers. Diego Columbus had attended the
Admiral on his second voyage, and on arriving at Hispaniola, was made
second in command. The other brother, Bartholomew, reached the colony
while the Admiral was exploring Cuba and Jamaica. Far abler and wiser
than Diego, Bartholomew was at once, on the return of the Admiral,
raised to the rank of Adelantado, or Lieutenant-Governor. Bartholomew
is described as “somewhat harsh in his temper, very brave and free, for
which some hated him.” The Spanish hidalgos always looked upon Columbus
as a foreigner, and the favour he showed his brothers only tended to
deepen their discontents and multiply their complaints.
Added to all other sources of dissatisfaction was the most potent fact
of all,--that the amount of gold sent home as compared with what had
been promised, was doubtful in quality and insignificant in amount.
Indeed, the first assayer who accompanied the expedition even declared
that the metal discovered was not gold, but only a base imitation.
Such were the grounds of ill-feeling in the colony, and from time to
time they were reported to friends in the mother-country. We have
already seen how Don Pedro Margarite, when reproached by the council
for not restraining the license of his soldiery, ignominiously threw
down his command and sailed for home. Scarcely less important was the
report carried home by Father Boyle, whose access to the spiritual
advisers of the king and queen gave him peculiar facilities for
poisoning the royal minds. Thus it was that complaints of every kind
found ears that welcomed them. Herrera assures us concerning Don
Margarite and Father Boyle that “being come to the court, they gave an
account that there was no gold in the Indies, and that all the Admiral
said was mere sham and banter.”
The complaints at length became so numerous and so circumstantial
that the monarchs felt obliged to institute a formal and responsible
inquiry. The officer chosen for this service was Don John Agnado,
a groom of the bedchamber, who had accompanied Columbus on his
first voyage, and had acquitted himself with so much credit that the
Admiral had especially recommended his promotion. The appointment was
apparently an excellent one, and one that would commend itself to the
favour of Columbus. Agnado, armed with credentials giving him ample
authority, took four ships laden with provisions and sailed for the
colonies, where he arrived in October, 1495.
When the commissioner reached Hispaniola, he found that the Admiral was
engaged in his campaign against the brothers of Caonabo. The garrison
at Isabella was in charge of the Adelantado. Don Agnado at once made
known his extraordinary power and authority by reproving some of the
ministers and seizing others. After showing that he had no respect
for the authority of Don Bartholomew, he put himself at the head of a
troop of horse and foot, and began an advance into the interior for the
purpose of going to the Admiral. This course had the natural effect
on the garrison and on the islanders. The supposition became general
that a new governor had been appointed, and that he was about to seize
his predecessor and perhaps even put him to death. The smothered
discontents now burst forth into flames. Those who fancied themselves
aggrieved by the rigour of the Admiral’s rule, those who had found the
life of adventure only a life of hardship, those who complained either
of the wars or of the tribute, all the malcontents of every race and
kind, now hastened to greet the new governor and to denounce the old.
It was immediately evident that the authority of Columbus was in peril.
On learning of the arrival of Don Agnado, he determined to return to
Isabella, and there welcome the commissioner with the formality that
was due to his royal errand. Accordingly, he received the letter of
their Royal Highnesses with the sound of trumpets and with the greatest
solemnity. But all this ceremony only seemed to add to the force of the
commission itself. The authority of Don Agnado was vouched for by the
following letter of the king and queen:--
“Cavaliers, esquires, and other persons who by our command are in
the Indies: We send you thither Juan Agnado, our Gentleman of the
Chamber, who will speak to you on our part. We command that you
give him faith and credence.”
The manner in which Agnado began to pursue his inquiries must have
convinced Columbus that the tide of his fortune was turning. It
became evident that the reports of Margarite and Boyle had poisoned
public opinion about the court. The inquiries, moreover, produced
a disquieting effect upon the natives. A number of caciques met at
the headquarters of one of them, and determined to formulate their
complaints of the Admiral and to pledge their loyalty to his successor.
Columbus knew well that these facts would be duly reported by the
commissioner. He determined, therefore, at once to return to Spain, in
order to represent his own cause at court.
There was another reason why Columbus desired to appear before the
sovereigns. By the royal charter given before the first voyage, he
was to be viceroy of all the lands he might discover, and was to have
control of all matters of trade and immigration. But now Fonseca had
violated this provision of the charter, by giving a number of licenses
to private adventurers to trade in the new countries, independently of
the Admiral. Columbus saw the evil that was impending, and desired to
protest against the issue of such licenses.
The Admiral’s departure, however, was delayed by one of those terrible
hurricanes which sometimes sweep across the West Indies. The four
vessels brought by Don Agnado sank in the harbour, and there were
remaining only the two caravels belonging to the Admiral. There was
some further delay, moreover, by the report that rich gold mines had
been discovered near the southern coast. Investigations seemed to
authenticate the report. The Admiral thought it best to establish a
strong post in the vicinity of the mine, and so a fort was built which
received the name of Saint Christopher.
In the course of the winter months the other forts were put in a
condition to make a strong resistance in case of revolt during the
Admiral’s absence. It was the 10th of March, 1496, before he was ready
to sail. The Adelantado was left in command at Isabella. The Admiral
sailed on board the “Nina,” while Agnado took passage on the other
caravel. More than two hundred of the colonists returned with the
Admiral,--some of them broken in health, some of them merely sick at
heart.
The voyage was one of numerous delays. A few days were spent in
coasting along the Caribbean islands; but even after they were well
at sea, contrary winds prevailed and very slow progress was made.
Provisions finally ran so low that they had to be doled out in
pittances, and it is said that all the Admiral’s authority was needed
to prevent the ship’s company from killing and eating the Carib
prisoners who were on board. It was only after a voyage of three
months’ duration that the ships put into the Bay of Cadiz on the 11th
of June, 1496.