lodgings at the sign of the Green Cross. After remaining there a day
or two, he requested De Luc, the landlord, to procure him a man
acquainted with Italian, to accompany him through the town and point
out those things which deserved to be examined. De Luc was
acquainted with M. Gros, at that time about twenty years of age, and
a student in Geneva, and knowing his proficiency in the Italian
language, requested him to accompany the stranger. To this
proposition he willingly acceded, and attended the Italian
everywhere for the space of a fortnight. The stranger now began to
complain of want of money, which alarmed M. Gros not a little, for
at that time he was very poor, and he became apprehensive, from the
tenor of the stranger's conversation, that he intended to ask the
loan of money from him. But instead of this, the Italian asked him
if he was acquainted with any goldsmith, whose bellows and other
utensils they might be permitted to use, and who would not refuse to
supply them with the different articles requisite for a particular
process which he wanted to perform. M. Gros named a M. Bureau, to
whom the Italian immediately repaired. He readily furnished
crucibles, pure tin, quicksilver, and the other things required by
the Italian. The goldsmith left his workshop, that the Italian might
be under the less restraint, leaving M. Gros, with one of his own
workmen as an attendant. The Italian put a quantity of tin into one
crucible, and a quantity of quicksilver into another. The tin was
melted in the fire and the mercury heated. It was then poured into
the melted tin, and at the same time a red powder enclosed in wax
was projected into the amalgam. An agitation took place and a great
deal of smoke was exhaled from the crucible; but this speedily
subsided, and the whole being poured out, formed six heavy ingots,
having the color of gold. The goldsmith was called in by the Italian
and requested to make a rigid examination of the smallest of these
ingots. The goldsmith not content with the touch-stone and the
application of aquafortis, exposed the metal on the cupel with lead
and fused it with antimony, but it sustained no loss. He found it
possessed of the ductility and specific gravity of gold; and full of
admiration, he exclaimed that he had never worked before upon gold
so perfectly pure. The Italian made him a present of the smallest
ingot as a recompense and then, accompanied by M. Gros, he repaired
to the mint, where he received from M. Bacuet, the mint-master, a
quantity of Spanish gold coin, equal in weight to the ingots which
he had brought. To M. Gros he made a present of twenty pieces on
account of the attention that he had paid to him and after paying
his bill at the inn, he added fifteen pieces more, to serve to
entertain M. Gros and M. Bureau for some days, and in the meantime
he ordered a supper, that he might, on his return, have the pleasure
of supping with these two gentlemen. He went out, but never
returned, leaving behind him the greatest regret and admiration. It
is needless to add that M. Gros and M. Bureau continued to enjoy
themselves at the inn till the fifteen pieces which the stranger had
left, were exhausted."
Narratives such as these led even Bergman, a very able chemist of the
period, to take the ground that "although most of these relations are
deceptive and many uncertain, some bear such character and testimony
that, unless we reject all historical evidence, we must allow them
entitled to confidence."
A much more probable explanation is that the relators were either
dreaming or deceived by clever legerdemain.
Of the possibility or impossibility of converting the more common metals
into gold or silver, it would be rash to give a positive opinion. To say
that gold, silver, lead, copper, etc., are elements and cannot be
changed, is merely to say that we have not been able to decompose them.
Water, potash, soda, and other substances, were at one time considered
elements, and resisted all the efforts of the older chemists to resolve
them into their components, but with the advent of more powerful means
of analysis they were shown to be compounds, and it is not impossible
that the so-called elements into which they were resolved may themselves
be found to be compounds. This has happened in regard to some substances
which were at one time announced as elements, and it is not impossible
that it may happen in regard to others. The ablest chemists of the
present day recognize this fully and are prepared for radical changes in
our knowledge of the nature and constitution of matter. Amongst the new
views is the hypothesis of Rutherford and Soddy, which, as given by Sir
William Ramsay, in a recent article contributed by him to "Harper's
Magazine," is that,
"atoms of elements of high atomic weight, such as radium, uranium,
thorium, and the suspected elements polonium and actinium, are
unstable; that they undergo spontaneous change into other forms of
matter, themselves radioactive and themselves unstable; and that
finally elements are produced, which, on account of their
non-radioactivity, are as a rule, impossible to recognize, for their
minute amount precludes the application of any ordinary test with
success. The recognition of helium however, which is comparatively
easy of detection, lends great support to this hypothesis."
At the same time we must not lose sight of the fact that the substances
which we now recognize as elements have not only resisted the most
powerful analytical agencies and dissociating forces, but have
maintained their elemental character in spectrum analysis, and shown
their presence as distinct elements in the sun and other heavenly bodies
where they must have been subjected to the action of the most energetic
decomposing forces. So that in the present state of our knowledge the
near prospect of successful transmutation does not seem to be very
bright, although we cannot regard it as impossible. In the article from
which we have already quoted, Sir William Ramsay, after discussing the
bearing of certain experiments in regard to the parting with and
absorbing of energy by certain elements, says: "If these hypotheses are
just, then the transmutation of the elements no longer appears an idle
dream. The philosopher's stone will have been discovered, and it is not
beyond the bounds of possibility that it may lead to that other goal of
the philosophers of the dark ages--the _elixir vitae_. For the action of
living cells is also dependent on the nature and direction of the energy
which they contain; and who can say that it will be impossible to
control their action, when the means of imparting and controlling energy
shall have been investigated!"
In the event of the discovery of a cheap method of producing gold, the
change which would certainly occur in our financial or currency system
would be important, if not revolutionary. It has become the fashion at
present with certain writers to scout the so-called "quantitative
theory" of money as if it were an exposed fallacy. Now the quantitative
theory of money rests on one of the most well-grounded and firmly
established principles in political economy: the trouble is that the
writers in question do not understand it or even know what it is. At
present, the production of gold barely keeps pace with the increasing
demand for the metal as currency and in the arts, but if that
production were increased ten-fold, the value of gold would decline and
prices would go up astonishingly.
One of the objects which the better class of alchemists had in view was
the making of gold to such an extent that it might become quite common
and cease to be sought after by mankind. One alchemical writer says:
"Would to God that all men might become adepts in our art, for then
gold, the common idol of mankind, would lose its value and we should
prize it only for its scientific teaching."
FOOTNOTES:
[2] Genesis vi, 2.
VI
THE FIXATION OF MERCURY
This is really one of the processes supposed to be involved in the
transmutation of the metals and might, therefore, perhaps, with
propriety, be included under that head. But as it has received special
attention in the apocryphal works of Hermes Trismegistus, who is
generally regarded as the Father of Alchemy, it is frequently mentioned
as one of the old scientific problems. Readers of Scott's novel,
"Kenilworth," may remember that Wayland Smith, in his account of his
former master, Demetrius Doboobius, describes him as a profound chemist
who had "made several efforts to fix mercury, and judged himself to have
made a fair hit at the philosopher's stone." Hermes, or, rather, those
who wrote over his name, speaks in the jargon of the adepts, about
"catching the flying bird," by which is meant mercury, and "drowning it
so that it may fly no more." The usual means for effecting this was
amalgamation with gold, or some other metal or solution in some acid.
To the ancient chemists mercury must have been one of the most
interesting of objects. Its great heaviness, its metallic brilliancy,
and its wonderful mobility, must all have combined to render it a
subject for deep thought and an attractive object for experiment and
investigation.
Living in a warm climate, as they did, there was no means at their
command by which its fluidity could be impaired. This subtle substance
seemed to defy the usual attempts to grasp it; it rolled about like a
solid sphere, but offered no resistance to the touch, and when pressed
it split up into innumerable smaller globules so that the problem of
"fixing" it must have had a strange fascination for the thoughtful
alchemist, especially when he found that, on subjection to a
comparatively moderate degree of heat, this heavy metal disappeared in
vapor and left not a trace behind.
I have often wondered what the old alchemists would have said if they
had seen fluid mercury immersed in a clear liquid and brought out in the
form of a lump of solid, bright metal. For, although this is not in any
sense a solution of the problem, yet it is a most curious sight and one
which was rarely seen before the discovery of the liquefaction of the
gases. To Geber, Basil Valentine, Van Helmont, Helvetius, and men of
their day, living in their climate, this startling phenomenon would have
seemed nothing short of a miracle.
In modern times the solidification of mercury had been frequently
witnessed by these who dwelt in northern climates and by the skilful use
of certain freezing mixtures made up of ordinary salts, it is not
difficult to exhibit this metal in the solid state at any time. But it
was not until the discovery of the liquefaction of carbonic acid,
nitrous oxide, and other gases by Faraday, about 1823, that the freezing
of mercury became a common lecture-room experiment.
In the year 1862 the writer delivered a course of lectures on chemistry,
in the city of Rochester, N. Y., and during the progress of these
lectures he reduced carbonic acid first to the liquid, and then to the
solid state, in the form of a white snow. The temperature of this snow
was about -80 deg. Cent. (-176 deg. Fahr.) and when it was mixed with ether and
laid on a quantity of mercury, the latter was quickly frozen. In this
way it was easy to make a hammer-head of frozen mercury and drive a nail
with it.
Another very interesting experiment was the freezing of a slender
triangular bar of mercury which might be twisted, bent, and tied in a
knot. This was done by folding a long strip of very stiff paper so as to
make an angular trough into which the mercury was poured. This trough
was then carefully leveled and a mixture of solid carbonic acid and
ether was placed over the metal in the usual way. In a few seconds the
mercury was frozen quite solid so that it could be lifted out by means
of two pairs of wooden forceps and bent and knotted at will. But the
most striking part of the experiment was the melting of this bar of
mercury by means of a piece of ice. The moment the ice touched the
mercury, the latter melted and fell down in drops in the same way that a
bar of lead or solder melts when it is touched with a red-hot iron.
The melted mercury was allowed to fall into a tall ale-glass of water,
the temperature of which had been reduced as nearly as possible to the
freezing point. When the mercury came in contact with the cold water,
the latter began to freeze and by careful manipulation it was possible
to freeze a tube of ice through the center of the column of water. The
effect of this under proper illumination was very striking.
Owing to the fact that the specific heat or thermal capacity of mercury
is only about one-thirtieth of that of water, it requires a considerable
amount of melted mercury to produce the desired result.
But these processes do not enable us to fix mercury in the alchemical
sense; the accomplishment of that still remains an unsolved problem, and
it is more than likely that it will remain so.
VII
THE UNIVERSAL MEDICINE AND THE ELIXIR OF LIFE
Love of life is a characteristic of all animals, man included, and
notwithstanding the fact that an occasional individual becomes so
dissatisfied with his environment that he commits suicide, and also in
the face of the poet's assertion that
"protracted life is but protracted woe"
most men and women are of the same way of thinking as Charmian, the
attendant on Cleopatra, and "love long life better than figs." And the
force of this general feeling is appealed to in the only one of the
Mosaic commandments to which a promise is attached, the inducement for
honoring father and mother being "that thy days may be long in the land
that the Lord thy God giveth thee."
No wonder then that the old alchemists dreamed of a universal medicine
that would not only prevent or cure sickness but that would renew the
youth of the aged and the feeble, for in this, as in most other attempts
at discovery, the wish was father to the thought. That the renewal of
youth in the aged was supposed to be within the ability of the magicians
and gods of old, we gather from the stories of Medea and Aeson and the
ivory shoulder of Pelops, as referred to in Shakespeare, and explained
in the "Shakespeare Cyclopedia."
Of the form of this supposed elixir we know very little for the
language of the alchemists was so vague and mystical that it is often
very difficult to ascertain their meaning with any approach to
certainty. The following, which is a fair sample of their metaphorical
modes of expressing themselves, is found in the works of Geber. In one
of his writings, he exclaims: "Bring me the six lepers that I may
cleanse them." Modern commentators explain this as being his mode of
telling his readers that he would convert into gold the six inferior or,
as they were called by the alchemists, the six imperfect metals. No
wonder that Dr. Johnson adopted the idea that the word _gibberish_
(anciently written _geberish_) owed its origin to an epithet applied to
the language of Geber and his tribe.
Some have claimed that the elixir and the philosopher's stone were one
and the same thing, and some of the writings of the old alchemists would
seem to confirm this view. Thus, at the close of a formula for preparing
the philosopher's stone, Carolus Musitanus gives the following
admonition:
"Thus friend, you have a description of the universal medicine, not
only for curing diseases and prolonging life, but also for
transmuting all metals into gold. Give therefore thanks to Almighty
God, who, taking pity on human calamities, has at last revealed this
inestimable treasure, and made it known for the benefit of all."
And Brande tells us that "nearly all the alchemists attributed the power
of prolonging life either to the philosopher's stone or to certain
preparations of gold, imagining possibly that the permanence of that
metal might be transferred to the human system. The celebrated Descartes
is said to have supported such opinions; he told Sir Kenelm Digby that
although he would not venture to promise immortality, he was certain
that life might be lengthened to the period of that of the Patriarchs.
His plan, however, seems to have been the very rational one of limiting
all excess of diet and enjoining punctual and frugal meals."
It is an old saying that history repeats itself. About forty years ago
certain medical practitioners strongly urged the use of salts of gold in
the treatment of disease, and great hopes were entertained in regard to
their efficacy. And the Keeley gold cure for drunkards is strongly in
evidence, even at the present day.
On the other hand, some have held that the elixir was quite distinct
from the stone by which metals might be transmuted into gold. In the
second part of "King Henry IV," Falstaff (Act III, Scene 2, line 355),
says of Shallow: "it shall go hard but I will make him a philosopher's
two stones to me," and this saying of his has given considerable trouble
to the commentators.
Warburton's explanation of this expression is, that "there was two
stones, one of which was a universal medicine and the other a transmuter
of base metals into gold." And in Churchyard's "Discourse and
Commendation of those that can make Gold," we read of Remundus, who
Wrate sundry workes, as well doth yet appeare
Of stone for gold, and shewed plaine and cleare
A stone for health.
Johnson and some others have objected to this explanation, but it seems
to be evident that Falstaff meant that he would get health and wealth
from Shallow. He got the wealth to the extent of a thousand pounds.
The intense desire which exists in the human bosom for an elixir that
will cure all diseases, and prolong life has made itself evident, even
in recent times, and has called forth serious efforts on the part of
men occupying prominent positions in the scientific world. Both in
Europe and in this country suggestions have been made of fluids which,
when injected into the veins of the old and the feeble, would renew
youth and impart fresh strength. But alas! the results thus far attained
have been anything but gratifying, and the probabilities against success
in this direction are very strong.
The latest gleam of light comes from discoveries in connection with the
radioactive elements, as the reader will find, on referring to Sir
William Ramsay's utterance, which is given at the close of the article
on the "Transmutation of the Metals," on a preceding page.
ADDITIONAL "FOLLIES"
In addition to the seven "Follies," of which an account has been given
in the preceding pages, there are a few which deserve to be classed with
them, although they do not find a place in the usual lists. These are
known as
PERPETUAL LAMPS.
THE ALKAHEST OR UNIVERSAL SOLVENT.
PALINGENESY.
THE POWDER OF SYMPATHY.
PERPETUAL OR EVER-BURNING LAMPS
Part of the sepulchral rites of the ancients consisted in placing
lighted lamps in the tombs or vaults in which the dead were laid, and,
in many cases, these lamps were carefully tended and kept continually
burning. Some authors have claimed, however, that these men of old were
able to construct lamps which burned perpetually and required no
attention. In number 379 of the "Spectator" there is an anecdote of some
one having opened the sepulcher of the famous Rosicrucius. There he
discovered a lamp burning which a statue of clock-work struck into
pieces. Hence, says the writer, the disciples of this visionary claimed
that he had made use of this method to show that he had re-invented the
ever-burning lamps of the ancients. And Fortunio Liceti wrote a book in
which he collected a large number of stories about lamps, said to have
been found burning in tombs or vaults. Ozanam fills eight closely
printed pages with a discussion of the subject.
Attempts have been made to explain many of the facts upon which is based
the claim that the ancients were able to construct perpetual lamps by
the suggestion that the light sometimes seen on the opening of ancient
tombs may have been due to the phosphorescence which is well known to
arise during the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter. Decaying
wood and dead fish are familiar objects which give out a light that is
sufficient to render dimly visible the outlines of surrounding objects,
and such a light, seen in the vicinity of an old lamp, might give rise
to the impression that the lamp had been actually burning and that it
had been blown out by sudden exposure to a draft of air.
Another supposition was that the flame, which was supposed to have been
seen, may have been caused by the ignition of gases arising from the
decomposition of dead bodies, and set on fire by the flambeaux or
candles of the investigators, and it is quite possible that the
occurrence of each of these phenomena may have given a certain degree of
confirmation to preconceived ideas.
After the discovery of phosphorus in 1669, by Brandt and Kunckel, it was
employed in the construction of luminous phials which could be carried
in the pocket, and which gave out sufficient light to enable the user to
see the hands of a watch on a dark night. Directions for making these
luminous phials are very simple, and may be found in most of the books
of experiments published prior to the introduction of the modern lucifer
match. They were also used for obtaining a light by means of the old
matches, which were tipped merely with a little sulphur, and which could
not be ignited by friction. Such a match, after being dipped into one of
these phosphorus bottles, would readily take fire by slight friction,
and some persons preferred this contrivance to the old flint and steel,
partly, no doubt, because it was a novelty. But these bottles were not
in any sense perpetual, the light being due to the slow oxidation of the
phosphorus so that, in a comparatively short time, the luminosity of the
materials ceased. Nevertheless, it has been suggested that some form of
these old luminous phials may have been the original perpetual lamp.
After the discovery of the phosphorescent qualities of barium sulphate
or Bolognian phosphorus, as it was called, it was thought that this
might be a re-discovery of the long-lost art of making perpetual lamps.
But it is well known that this substance loses its phosphorescent power
after being kept in the dark for some time, and that occasional exposure
to bright sun-light is one of the conditions absolutely essential to its
giving out any light at all. This condition does not exist in a dark
tomb.
A few years ago phosphorescent salts of barium and calcium were employed
in the manufacture of what was known as luminous paint. These materials
shine in the dark with brilliancy sufficient to enable the observer to
read words and numbers traced with them, but regular exposure to the
rays of the sun or some other bright light is absolutely necessary to
enable them to maintain their efficiency.
More recently it has been suggested that the ancients may have been
acquainted with some form of radioactive matter like radium, and that
this was the secret of the lamps in question. It is far more likely,
however, that the reports of their perpetual lamps were based upon mere
errors of observation.
The perpetual lamp is, in chemistry, the counterpart of perpetual motion
in mechanics--both violate the fundamental principle of the conservation
of energy. And just as suggestions of impossible movements have been
numerous in the case of perpetual motion, so impossible devices and
constructions have been suggested in regard to perpetual lamps. Prior to
the development, or even the suggestion of the law of the conservation
of energy, it was believed that it might be possible to find a liquid
which would burn without being consumed, and a wick which would feed
the liquid to the flame without being itself destroyed. Dr. Plott
suggested naphtha for the fluid and asbestos for the wick, but since
kerosene oil, naphtha, gasolene, and other liquids of the kind have
become common, every housewife knows that as her lamp burns, the oil, of
whatever kind it may be, disappears.
Under present conditions the construction of a perpetual lamp is not a
severely felt want; for constancy and brilliancy our present means of
illumination are sufficient for almost all our requirements. Whether or
not it would be possible to gather up those natural currents of
electricity, which are suspected to flow through and over the earth, and
utilize them for purposes of illumination, however feeble, it might be
difficult to decide. But such means of perpetual electric lighting would
be similar to a perpetual motion derived from a mountain stream. Such
natural means of illumination already exist, and have existed for ages
in the fire-giving wells of naphtha which are found on the shores of the
Caspian sea, and in other parts of the east, and which have long been
objects of adoration to the fire-worshippers.
As for the outcome of present researches into the properties of radium,
polonium, and similar substances, and their possible applications, it is
too early to form even a surmise.
THE ALKAHEST OR UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
The production of a universal solvent or alkahest was one of the special
problems of the alchemists in their general search for the philosopher's
stone and the means of transmuting the so-called inferior metals into
gold and silver. Their idea of the way in which it would aid them to
attain these ends does not seem to be very clearly stated in any work
that I have consulted; probably they thought that a universal solvent
would wash away all impurities from common materials and leave in
absolute purity the higher substance, which constituted the gold of the
adepts. But whatever their particular object may have been, it is well
known that much time and labor were expended in the fruitless search.
The futility of such attempts was very well exposed by the cynical
sceptic, who asked them what kind of vessel could they provide for
holding such a liquid? If its solvent powers are such that it dissolves
everything, it is very evident that it would dissolve the very material
of the vessel in which it must be placed.
When hydrofluoric acid became a subject of investigation it was thought
that its characteristics approached, more nearly than those of any other
substance known, to those of the universal solvent, and the very
difficulty above suggested, presented itself strongly to the chemists
who experimented with it. Not only common metals but glass and porcelain
were acted upon by this wonderfully energetic liquid and when attempts
were made to isolate the fluorine, even the platinum electrodes were
corroded and destroyed. Vessels of pure silver and of lead served
tolerably well, but Davy suggested that the most scientific method of
constructing a containing vessel would be to use a compound in which
fluorine was already present to the point of saturation. As there is a
limit to the amount of fluorine with which any base can combine, such a
vessel would be proof against its solvent action. I am not aware,
however, that the suggestion was ever carried into actual practice with
success.
PALINGENESY