covered with a thin coat of paste, the boards are laid on, and the edges
of the cloth are turned over the edges of the boards and pressed down as
at a, Figs. 18 and 19, care being taken to get the cloth firmly against
the edges of the boards.
With less mature pupils, it is sometimes advisable to put on only one
board at a time, in which case the head and foot of the back strip are
treated as at g, Fig. 17. The cover is now ready for the press. It is
closed in book fashion with a pressing tin or board between the covers.
A piece of clean waste paper is put between each board and the pressing
tin or board. A waste paper and a board are placed on each side of the
cover and all put into the press. The cover should be left in the press
over night. The waste paper is very important. Without it, the tins are
likely to stick to the book and the moisture of the paste to cause rust
which mars the book. This caution is never out of place and can never be
repeated too often, i. e., do not use too thin paste; do not use too
much paste; put on the paste rapidly.
Laid On.
Now the cover is ready to be laid on. A strip of tough paper just as
wide and as long as the back of the book, is now pasted along the back
cloth between the boards f, Fig. 17, and inserted under the cloth which
is turned over at the two ends.
If the cover were to be left hollow, the paste would be applied to the
slips only; but in this case, where the back cloth is to be attached,
both the slips and the back, as well as the strip between the boards of
the cover, are thoroughly covered with paste, and the book set into the
cover in its proper position. While the workman supports the book with
one hand, he brings up one side of the cover firmly against the book.
The slip on this side becomes attached to the board. Then the book is
laid down on the side just pasted, while the other cover is pulled
firmly to bring the back cloth against the book, and is then pressed
down upon the paste-covered slip or super b, Fig. 18. Examination is
then made to see if the book is straight in the cover, if the squares
are correct, etc. If it is not straight, it is removed and the process
repeated.
When the cover is on straight, the cloth is rubbed firmly along the back
and into the joints. When it is thoroughly attached at the back, the
book is put lightly into the press, after a tin, inserted between two
papers, has been put between the cover and the book on each side.
Paste-downs—Bone Folder.
The next step is the pasting down of the endpapers. The cover is lifted
on one side and a piece of waste paper is placed beneath the endpaper
which is then covered with paste.
This done, the endpaper is drawn back upon the board and rubbed down
with the hands. Then with a bone folder, 3, Plate I, the endpaper and
slip are rubbed under the back edge of the board at the joint.
The cover is now closed upon the book and immediately opened. If it is
found that in closing, the endpaper wrinkles or proves in anyway wrong,
the wrinkles are smoothed out and other defects corrected. If necessary,
the endpaper may be lifted carefully from the board and then put down
again. Then the cover is closed again, and again inspected. If it is all
right, the other endpaper is treated in like manner, and the book is put
lightly into press, not neglecting waste paper and tins, and left until
thoroughly dry.
Paste.
The best paste is made as follows:—Add one-half a teaspoonsful of
powdered alum and a few drops of wintergreen to one pint of flour. Mix
with water to the consistency of cream. Cook until it becomes stiff and
waxlike, stirring constantly. Then pour in some hot water, stir and cook
again until it becomes the desired consistency. Ordinary library paste
or photo mount is not satisfactory.
III.
LIBRARY BINDING.
The name Library Binding may be somewhat misleading if one has in mind
the bindings commonly seen in libraries. This binding is practically
what was recommended for the libraries of England by a committee from
the English Society of Arts, appointed to investigate the causes of the
lack of durability in bindings and to suggest remedies for defects
found.
The following specifications indicate the distinguishing features of
this binding:—
1. Half leather, paper sides.
2. Sewed on four or more tapes.
3. Double boards.
4. French joint.
5. Zigzag colored endpapers.
6. Head cut, out of boards, and colored.
7. Backed and slightly rounded.
8. Cord inserted under leather instead of headband.
9. Leather attached to back.
Zigzag Endpaper.
After the sheets are folded and pressed as described in the previous
binding, the zigzag endpapers are prepared. In cutting these endpapers,
four sheets of white paper to match the book are cut and folded, two of
the folios being considerably wider than the book so as to allow for the
fold e, Fig. 20. Each leaf of the large folios is folded back about
one-fourth of an inch from the original fold. Then another folio, c, the
same size as the book, is pasted under zigzag e, and the endpapers made
in this way become the first and last sections. Folio b is the colored
endpaper which is not inserted until book is sewed.
[Illustration:
_Fig. 20. Zigzag end. a, b, c, separate folios._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 21. Sewing Frame and sewing on tapes. a, finished catch or
crowsfoot stitch. b, the beginning of the catchstitch._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 22. Ready for backing. a, Joint. b, Backing boards. c, Lying, or
finishing press._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 23. putting on double boards. a, The slip._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 24. Putting on the leather back. a, cord._
]
[Illustration: Book]
The book is now marked up as in the Case Binding except that there are
only two punctures, one about three-quarters of an inch from the head,
and the other about one and one-quarter inches from the foot, in an
ordinary size of book.
Sewing on Tapes.
Sewing on tapes requires a sewing frame, Fig. 21, which is prepared for
sewing by tying five tapes to the horizontal bar. The book is then laid
on the floor of the frame with the head toward the right and the back to
the tapes. The head tape is placed one-fourth of an inch to the left of
the head puncture, while the foot tape is placed one-fourth of an inch
to the right of the foot puncture. The other tapes are distributed
equally along the distance between those at the head and foot. All the
tapes are fastened to the edge of the frame floor with thumb tacks. Of
course, that is only one simple frame out of a great variety which may
be made. There are numerous ways of improvising sewing frames. Temporary
frames are often made by tacking small strips to the ends of drawing
boards, and fastening a cross bar to them. In large classes, merely a
board is sometimes used as in olden times, when stiff thongs or strips
of vellum were used. This is not very satisfactory.
The book is laid to the left as in the previous binding, and the
sections are turned in the same way, and laid upon the frame. The end
section is laid with a, Fig. 20, on the floor of the frame and the
needle inserted at the head puncture of the fold between e and d through
folio c, Fig. 20. Then with the left hand, the needle is drawn in and
run back out just to the right of the head tape. Then the needle is run
into the section immediately to the left of the head tape, making a
stitch across the tape. This is repeated at each tape and finally the
needle comes out at the foot puncture. Now the second section is put on,
the needle inserted at the foot puncture and the sewing continued as in
the first section, until the head puncture is reached, when the thread
is tied with a double knot to the original end. The third section is now
put on and treated exactly like the first section until the needle comes
out at the right of the head tape, when a crow’s foot or catch stitch is
made in the following way:—
Crow’s Foot or Catch Stitch.
As the needle comes out at the side of the tape, instead of sewing the
thread straight across the tape as before, the needle is run from the
bottom up behind the two previous threads in such a way as to make a
loop knot around them, a and b, Fig 21. Then the needle is run into the
section on the opposite side of the tape exactly as in previous
stitches. This is repeated at every tape until the foot puncture is
reached, where a kettlestitch is made. After the third section, a
kettlestitch is made every time the needle comes out at an end puncture,
and a crow’s foot or catch stitch every third or fourth section.
The remainder of the book is sewed by exact repetitions of the processes
thus far described.
When the sewing is completed, the tapes are cut, leaving them about one
and one-half inches long at each side and a colored folio, b, Fig. 20,
is tipped to the top of each zigzag as at e, and the book is then ready
for gluing, rounding and backing.
Rounding.
Rounding, as the name implies, is the process of giving a convex shape
to the back of a book to prevent its becoming sunken or concave. The
book is laid upon the table, and the first few sections are pulled
firmly forward, while with a hammer, the upper edge of the back is
struck lightly, driving the upper sections forward. Then the book is
turned over and the process is repeated on the other side.
A folded sheet of waste paper is tipped (pasted by a very narrow strip
of paste) along the sides of the book at the back.
Marks are placed about one-eighth of an inch from the back, showing the
places for the edges of the backing boards between which the book is put
and all clamped into the lying press, Fig. 22. This done, the back is
thoroughly covered with thin glue which is rubbed in with a stiff brush
and wiped as in the previous book. Within fifteen or twenty minutes,
when the glue has dried sufficiently to be rubbery, the back is pounded
with a hammer, striking first along the center, then gradually toward
the end sections, always with a gliding blow, until the edges have been
forced over the tops of the backing boards, as a, Fig. 22. If this has
been properly done, the back will be smooth and rounding, and the edges
will project over about the thickness of the boards.
The tapes are now pasted down against the outside leaves of the
endpapers, and the super glued on, reaching from puncture to puncture,
and to the ends of the tapes on each side. When dry, the endpapers, to
which the tapes were pasted, are cut off around the edges of the super,
a, Fig. 23. Material is now gotten ready for the cover. Since this book
is to have a French joint, the boards are cut as much narrower than the
book as will make the proper width of joint; and since it is to have
double boards, four boards are cut, two thin and two medium. A thin
board and a thicker one are glued together, all except about two inches
along the back edge, to form one board. The boards, thus glued, are put
into the press, and the leather cut, which is to be one and one-half
inches longer than the board and wide enough to reach around the back
and as far down the sides as desired—the general rule being “more than a
fourth and less than a third.” This, however, is a statement of the most
general kind, and proper widths for the leather are determined to meet
specific conditions.
Skiving—Head Cut—Coloring.
With a sharp skiving or head knife, 5, Plate I, the edges of the leather
are pared thin, and also a strip through the middle where the back of
the book goes, is pared, if the leather is quite thick. For this
operation, the leather should be laid on a stone or slate.
The book is now marked with pencil and trysquare where the head is to be
cut, and is placed between two pressing boards with a heavy piece of
cardboard, called the cut-against, between the back pressing board and
the book. In this condition, the book is now put into the cutting press,
Plate II, the front pressing board being pushed down on a level with the
mark on the book and with the top of the press. The plow is run forward
and backward, the blade meanwhile being gradually screwed toward the
book, cutting only a very few leaves at a stroke. With this easy stroke
and slow advance of the blade, if the blade is sharp, the head is left
smooth and ready for coloring. The head is colored with India ink and
when dry, is rubbed with beeswax and burnished with a burnisher made for
that purpose.
[Illustration:
PLATE II
]
French Joint.
Now the book is marked for the French joint, that is, for the location
of the back edges of the boards, and a strip of tough paper large enough
to cover the back is glued on.
Glue is put into the open places left between the layers of the double
boards; then the slips—super, tapes, and pieces of endpapers which were
previously pasted together—are inserted into these openings, Fig. 23,
and the book put into press, where it remains until thoroughly dry.
In putting on the boards, great care is necessary to insure a straight
cover and perfect squares.
Half Leather.
It is now time to put on the leather, which is laid, flesh side up, on
waste paper and thoroughly covered with paste. The waste paper is
removed and the book is then placed in its proper position on the
leather and the boards opened down against it with sufficient pressure
to attach the leather to them. Then the ends of the leather are turned
under the back of the book and over the boards, enclosing a cord at the
head as shown at a, Fig. 24. This cord makes a roll instead of a
headband. This done, the leather is thoroughly rubbed with the hands and
forced closely down into the joints. Joint sticks, 10, Plate I, may be
used for this purpose, but care must be used not to mar the leather with
them. Now the book is placed with the foredge in the lying press, and a
cord tied around it lengthwise through the joint to make sure than the
leather holds its position at the joint. When dry, the leather is
trimmed, since the work of getting it onto the book has probably
stretched it, or the paring may have left the edges uneven.
Measurement is made from the foredge back to the points where it is
desired to have the leather extend. With a sharp knife, the surplus
leather is cut off. The book is now ready for the cover papers. Marks
are made on the leather for the one-eighth inch lap of the paper.
Cover Paper.
The cover papers for the sides are cut one and one-half inches longer
than the boards and seven-eighths of an inch wider than the distance
from the leather to the foredge of the board. This allows three-fourths
of an inch for turn-in and one-eighth of an inch for the lap over of the
leather.
Then the book is placed on the paper, b, Fig. 24, in such manner as to
have a straight edge of the paper come just to the marks on the leather
and as nearly the same projection at the ends and foredge as possible.
With a lead pencil, a line is drawn on the paper around the board.
Corners for the mitres are cut, always cutting not closer to the pencil
mark than the thickness of the board, as explained in the previous
binding. This done, the paper is covered with paste, the book again laid
on in position indicated by marks, and the turn-ins pasted.
The other board is now treated in the same manner. Great care is
necessary to make sure that the paper fits firmly against the edge of
the board. The bone folder is used here to force the paper against the
edge of the board before the turn-in is pasted down on top.
The paper at the corners usually does not make a perfect mitre, but
laps. This is remedied by taking a sharp knife and cutting through the
lapping papers and removing the pieces cut off.
The book is now put under light pressure until dry. Nothing remains now
but to paste the colored endpapers to the boards, the same as in the
previous binding. It will be seen on opening the book how much
flexibility the zigzag has lent to the cover.
IV.
EXTRA BINDING.
1. Three-quarters Morocco.
2. Sewed on cords; cords laced into boards.
3. Flexible back.
4. Edges cut in boards, head colored.
5. Rounded and backed.
6. Zigzag endpapers, colored pastedown.
7. Head and foot bands, silk thread over heavy cords.
8. Blind or gold tooled and lettered.
Cords.
The sewing frame is prepared exactly in the same way as in the Library
Binding except that cords are here used instead of tapes, Fig. 25.
Endpapers are cut and prepared zigzag, book marked up and punctures
sawed the same as in the Library Binding.
These are the distinct differences between sewing on cords and on tapes.
With cords, the needle goes in at the head puncture and out on the left
of the cord and then doubles back and from the _right_ of the cord, the
needle is inserted at the same hole through which it came out,
completely encircling the cord with the thread, a, Fig. 25. This is the
whole story of sewing on cords. In the use of tapes, the thread simply
goes back of the tapes, not around them. The kettlestitches are made
just as in sewing on tapes, but there are no catch or crowfoot stitches
as with tapes. When the book is taken from the sewing frame, the back is
rounded. In this process, judgment must be used not to get the back too
convex.
[Illustration:
_Fig. 25. Sewing on cords. a, stitch around the cord._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 26. Lacing cords into boards._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 27. Detail of holes and trough for cords._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 28. Board pulled down ready for the head to be cut._
]
The book is now put into the backing boards in the press and glued and
backed as described in dealing with the Library Binding.
Lacing Holes.
Two boards, as wide as the book and one-fourth of an inch longer, are
cut from heavy tar or mill board. The boards are placed in proper
position closely up against the joint projection of the back, and marks
perpendicular to the back edges of the boards, are made, indicating the
positions of the cords. At each mark and about one-half of an inch from
the edge, a hole almost as large as the cords, is made with an awl from
the outside, and the projections caused by the awl are trimmed off. Then
about one-half inch from these holes, another row of somewhat smaller
holes is made. These holes are not in the lines drawn from the edges of
the boards, as is shown in Figs. 26 and 27, and are punched from the
inside, leaving the projections caused by the awl.
Then a kind of V or trough is cut from each of the first series of holes
to the edge of the board, making a place for the cord to lie, Fig. 27.
Lacing.
Now the cords are frayed out and trimmed thin at the ends, and with
paste, the frayed portions are twisted to points and inserted down
through the first holes and up through the others, a, Fig. 26. When the
cords have been drawn tightly and a small amount of paste put around the
holes, the ends are again frayed out and spread about the holes, and
with a hammer, the board resting firmly on a block, the protruding parts
of the board are pounded down about the cords. After this has been done
to all the cords on both sides, the book is left to dry.
The cutting of the edges in boards, is a process requiring the greatest
care. A mark is drawn on the white endpaper indicating where the head is
to be cut. A tin and a piece of heavy cardboard are placed between the
book and the back board. These make a cut-against to protect the cover
from the knife. The front board is now drawn down even with the head
mark, Fig. 28, and prepared in this way, the book is put into the
cutting press.
It is essential to good work that the book be absolutely true in the
press, and that the head mark and the top of the board which has been
pulled down, be on a level with the top surface of the jaw of the press.
The cutting is the same as described under Library Binding, page 27.
The book is now removed, the covers are thrown back, and with a try
square against the head, a mark is drawn on the endpaper, showing where
the foredge is to be cut. With the covers hanging down and a pressing
board and one or two thicknesses of cardboard for a cut-against, the
book is put into the press and the foredge cut. The foot is cut exactly
as was the head.
[Illustration:
_Fig. 29. Putting on the headband._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 30. Cutting the leather corners._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 31._
_Pasting on leather corners and cover papers._
_a, Turn-in of leather._
_b, Turn-in mitre of leather._
_c, and d, Turn-ins of paper._
_e, Taper tied around book._
_f, End pasted down._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 32. Deep punctures for sunken cords._
]
[Illustration:
_Fig. 33. Folded paper for hollow back cover._
]
[Illustration: Book]
Head and Foot Bands.
It is now time to make the head and foot bands. The book is fastened in
a lying press as shown in Fig. 29, with the head leaning toward the
workman. A needle, into which is tied one end of a long, colored silk
thread is run through the middle of the first section down to the head
puncture and out through the back, the thread being drawn half its
length through. Then a strong piece of cord, considerably longer than
the width of the back, is laid on the head of the book just back of the
boards. The needle end of the thread is brought directly forward over
the cord, while the other end is crossed over the needle end of the
thread, under the cord, and forward over the cord the same as the first
thread. Then changing hands again, this operation is repeated twice when
the needle is run down into the head of the book and out at the back
one-half inch or more below the head but as it comes back over the cord,
it is crossed by the other thread exactly as at first. About every
fourth crossing, the thread should be sewed into the book.
When the cord is covered to the other side of the book, the two threads
are knotted firmly beneath the cord. A small bit of paste is put at the
end of the silk on each side, and the cord cut off. Then a tough piece
of paper reaching from the top cord to the top of the headband is glued
on to hold the band in place.
The foot band is made in exactly the same manner.
Then a strip of paper as wide as the back is glued on and carefully
fitted about the cords.
Rubbing Sticks—Band Nippers.
The leather back is put on as in the Library Binding, but much greater
care and patience are required in rubbing down the leather about the
cords and making it adhere strongly to the book at all points. Rubbing
sticks, 7, Plate I, come in good place in this operation. Band nippers
are often used to force the leather against the cords. The leather is
moistened slightly at the head and foot and made to lie down snugly
against the head and foot bands. After this, the leather pieces for the
corners are cut and marked up, leaving a three-quarter inch margin on
the two equal sides of the triangle, Fig. 30. A general rule for the
size of corners is that the altitude of the finished corner triangle
should be about the same as the extension of the back leather over the
side of the book.
Leather Corners.
The corners of the leather pieces are cut out just as the corners of the
paper in the previous book. Then the edges are pared thin. The leather
corners are covered with paste, one at a time, a corner of the cover
board is placed in proper position on the leather and the turn-ins
pasted, a and b, Fig. 31. This done, the book is put under light
pressure for a time. The leather is now all trimmed to proper size and
the cover paper marked and cut for the sides. The one-eighth inch lap is
marked on the leather back, and the book laid on the paper as in
previous book. Then with a sharp pencil, points are made on the paper
showing where it must be cut to allow not more than one-eighth inch lap
on the leather of the corners, Fig. 31.
The corners of the paper are cut out, the paper covered with paste, the
book placed in proper position and the turn-ins pasted as at c and d.
Care must again be exercised that the paper comes squarely against the
edges of the boards and fits closely around the edges of the leather.
For such processes, the bone folder is almost indispensable.
The next step is the lining of the boards. A rectangular piece of heavy
paper is pasted on the inside of each cover and fitted snugly against
the edges of the leather and paper turn-ins. After these linings are
dry, the end papers are trimmed and pasted down. In this case, great
care and patience are necessary to make the endpapers attach themselves
to the back edges of the boards. Of course, the outside white leaves are
torn off and the colored pastedowns are drawn back upon the boards as in
the Library Binding, and with a bone folder, the papers are forced
against the back edges of the boards. Then the book is closed and
immediately opened. If in closing, the endpaper is pulled loose or
wrinkled, it is again put into proper order and the book again closed.