EXTRACTS FROM EARLY REPORTS.
Wide range of subjects on which Mr. Stevenson gave advice--Reports
on ruins of Aberbrothock Abbey--St. Magnus Cathedral, and
Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall--St. Andrews Cathedral--Montrose
Church Spire--Melville Monument, Edinburgh--Lipping
of joints of masonry with cement--Provision for flood
waters in bridges--Hydraulic mortar--Protection of
foreshores--Cycloidal sea wall--Checking drift sand--Night
signal lamps--Cause of heavy seas in Irish Channel--Sea routes
across Irish Channel--Build of ships--Prospective increase
of population--Tidal scour--Unscrewing of bolts by the
waves--Cement Rubble cofferdams--Buoyage system--Observations
on fog signals--Regulations for steam vessels--Notes on
shipwrecks.
Judging from Smeaton’s well known “Reports,” to which all have
access, we may conclude that the “professional advice” given by early
Engineers was very generally accompanied by a fuller and less reserved
discussion of opinion than is to be met with in the brief and technical
Engineering reports of the present day. In early times, Engineers did
not hesitate to express themselves freely on physics, æsthetics, or
commerce, provided their views had a collateral bearing on the subject
under discussion, and this often added to the interest of their reports.
These early Engineers were also consulted on a much wider range of
subjects than the Engineers of modern times. We know that the larger
requirements of modern Engineering demand that its practice should be
classified under distinct branches, such as harbours, navigations,
water works, gas works, lighthouses, or railways, not to mention
electrical and sanitary engineering, and other branches of modern
growth, all of which cannot possibly be advantageously practised by any
one member of the profession; for no one mind can grasp the theoretical
knowledge, and no one life can compass the practical experience, to
enable a man to attain eminence in all these departments of modern
Engineering.
A biographical sketch of Mr. Stevenson’s professional life would,
it seems to me, be incomplete if it did not convey to the reader
some notion, however general, of the wide range of subjects brought
under his notice, in these early times, and of his comprehensive and
suggestive mode of treating every case on which he was professionally
consulted. This object would be only imperfectly attained were I
to restrict my reference to his reports to the examples given in
the preceding chapters; for I have found in his numerous writings
casual notices of a miscellaneous and fragmentary character, many of
which seem to me to be interesting to the profession, and worthy of
preservation, and I propose, in this chapter, to give a few of these
extracts, without order of subject or date; and I think they will
justify my remark as to the great variety and fulness of treatment to
be found in the reports of early Engineers.
* * * * *
It appears, for example, that Mr. Stevenson was often called to advise
on matters which were more related to architecture than engineering.
Of this nature was his tour of inspection to the jails of England,
in company with Sir William Rae, the Sheriff of Edinburgh, in 1813,
referred to in a former chapter.
ABERBROTHOCK RUINS.
In like manner he inspected Aberbrothock Abbey, with Sir Walter Scott
and the Sheriff of Forfar, in 1809, to advise as to preserving the
ruins, some of the turrets being in imminent danger of falling; and
after procuring a survey of the whole building he prepared a report,
with plans and specification, which were submitted to the Barons of
Exchequer, and the work was thereafter carried out under his direction.
ST. MAGNUS CATHEDRAL AND EARL’S PALACE.
He also reported in a similar way to the Sheriff of Orkney with
reference to the repairs of the Earl’s Palace at Kirkwall, estimated at
£500, and on certain alterations at the Cathedral of St. Magnus.
ST. ANDREWS CATHEDRAL AND MONTROSE SPIRE.
With a similar object in view he inspected and reported on the
Cathedral of St. Andrews, and the steeple of the Church of Montrose,
which was thought to be in danger, and the result of that inquiry was
the present beautiful spire, built from the designs of James Gillespie
Graham.
MELVILLE MONUMENT.
He was also associated with Mr. Burn in the Melville Monument of
Edinburgh,--the preparation of the foundation, the rubble work for the
tower, and the scaffolding and tackling for raising the statue were
carried out under Mr. Stevenson’s direction; the whole architectural
design being due to Mr. Burn alone.
LIPPING OF JOINTS OF MASONRY WITH CEMENT.
The well known practice of what is termed “lipping” with cement the
mortar joints of masonry exposed to the wash of water is described by
him as new in his report to the Trustees of Marykirk Bridge, of 16th
July 1812, where he says:--
“Upon carefully examining the face joints of the masonry of the south
pier under water line, some of these were found not to be so full of
mortar as could have been wished, and although Mr. Logan (the inspector
of works) had taken the precaution to cause the joints to be covered
with clay to preserve them from the effects of the water, yet this had
not altogether answered the purpose, and hence the reporter recommended
to the meeting of the 8th current _to provide a few casks of Parker’s
Roman Cement, to be laid to the breadth of three or four inches upon
the bed and end joints under the low water mark of the remaining
piers_.”
PROVISION FOR FLOOD WATER IN BRIDGES.
In determining the waterway of his bridges, Mr. Stevenson invariably
provided for prospective increase of flooding due to agricultural
improvements, as stated in the following extract from a report made in
1811:--
“To preserve an ample waterway the north abutment is placed about
twelve feet from the edge of the river, leaving a sufficient passage
for the water in floods. A less waterway might perhaps have answered
the purpose, but as the valleys through which the North Esk passes may
come to be meliorated by drainage, and especially those districts of
country on each side of the feeders which join the river, the facility
with which the surface water may then escape must greatly increase the
floods, and although their duration will be shorter, yet their rise
must be proportionally higher.”
HYDRAULIC MORTAR.
The following remarks on hydraulic mortar, made in 1811 to the
Commissioners of Montrose Bridge, are interesting as showing the detail
which he brought to bear on all his works:--
“The best mortar for water work is a mixture of Pozzolano earth with
lime and sand, but the late interrupted state of commercial intercourse
with the Mediterranean has for years past rendered Pozzolano so scarce
an article as hardly to be procured on any terms. Your reporter has
therefore been induced to make various experiments with preparations
of lime and Roman cement, and finds that a mixture may be made which
will set under water and answer every purpose. For this mortar the
lime ought to be well burned, and put into casks when drawn from the
kiln. It should be brought to the work as recently after being burnt as
possible. This will be most readily attained by taking the lime from
Boddam kilns. English lime is in general stronger and cleaner, but
some of it brought for the purpose of agriculture is not so suitable
for buildings as Lord Elgin’s lime. These limes, however, cannot be
had very newly burnt, and it will be preferable to take lime from some
of the kilns in the neighbourhood which are of good character. When
brought to the bridge the lime should be kept under cover, opening only
one barrel at a time; the shells must be pounded to a state of powder,
and immediately before mixing it with the other ingredients it will
be proper to sprinkle a little water upon it to dissolve any gritty
particles that may remain amongst it.
“The sand for this work, though fine, must nevertheless be sharp; it
must also be passed through a sieve, and cleaned of all impurities by
washing, if found necessary. For ramming the joints and pointing under
water, let equal parts of lime in its powdered state and of Roman
cement be used, with one fourth part of prepared sand, but for the
upper works the quantity of Roman cement in the mortar may be reduced
to one third part.
“The mortar must be mixed in small quantities and quickly beaten up
into a consistency suitable for the work. All white specks, which are
apt to swell and spoil the joints, must be carefully rejected from the
mortar.”
PROTECTION OF FORESHORES.
Some suggestive remarks on the protection of foreshores, made in 1812,
in a report to Lord Rosebery, on his Lordship’s property at Barnbougle
Castle on the Firth of Forth, are given in the following terms:--
“If the operation of the waters of the ocean be attended to in the
formation of the shores, some useful hints may be gained. These shores
will be found to be so many inclined planes, varying in declivity
according to the tenacity of the matter of which they, are composed.
Hence it is that the minute grains of sand and the light sea shell
become a lasting barrier against the rapid river current and the
tumultuous ocean, while the erect sea wall is levelled with the
ground. For the truth of this it were needless to refer to the works
of nature in different quarters of the world, or in distant parts of
this country; it is only necessary to examine the shores on each side
of Barnbougle Castle, where the beautiful beach, consisting of sand and
shells, between the Cockle Burn and the sea, forms a complete defence
to the low grounds behind it, while to the northward of the castle the
massive wall is in danger of being completely thrown down. Without
waiting to inquire into the causes which regulate these appearances, it
will be more consonant to the business of this report to point out how
their simple forms may be imitated and turned to advantage.”
CYCLOIDAL SEAWALL.
In reporting on the defence of the lands of Trinity, on the Firth of
Forth, Mr. Stevenson recommended the adoption of a cycloidal talus
wall, which was executed under his direction in 1821:--
“In giving an opinion relative to the best mode of defending and
preserving this property, the reporter observes that it fortunately
happens that the beach is pretty closely covered with large boulder
stones, which now form a kind of _chevaux de frise_ in breaking the
force of the sea, and making it fall more gently towards high water
mark. Were it not that these stones are proposed to be employed in the
erection of a more effectual barrier against the waves, the reporter
would not fail to disapprove of their removal for any other purpose.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
“The reporter proposes that a _Talus wall_ or bulwark should be
built of these boulder stones, roughly dressed and laid so as to
form a cycloidal curve in the central part, as nearly as may be, as
represented in the section with its tangents (Fig. 20). The properties
of the cycloid as applicable to a sea wall in an exposed situation are
very important. In particular, if compared with any other curve, in the
same vertical line and down through the same points, it will be found
of swiftest descent under similar circumstances, therefore the water
in its rise must be proportionally retarded. The lower tangent to the
curve alluded to also forms a wall towards low water, best adapted
for admitting the sea to flow gently over it, while that connected
with the upper extremity of the cycloidal part, tending towards the
perpendicular, brings gravity into action against the rise of the
waves. The practical execution of a wall upon this construction is
simple, while the aggregate quantity of materials is less than for any
of the curves of the conic sections of similar extent, and it seems
upon the whole to be peculiarly applicable for the defence of the sea
beach in question.
“If we examine the numerous works of this kind erected for similar
purposes along this coast, we shall find that the general process or
action of the waves is to undermine the seaward courses of the walls.
In some cases, however, where due attention has not been paid to
making up the backing of the face wall in a compact and firm manner,
the central parts have been found to sink and give way. But the more
common mode of failure is by the undermining of the seaward courses,
arising from too sudden a slope being given to the face wall, which
has a direct tendency to produce additional agitation in the waters
at the bottom of the wall, by which the beach is excavated, and the
foundation, being exposed to the wash of the sea, its destruction soon
follows. If we attend to the distribution which nature makes of the
matters composing a sea beach, unless where special local causes occur,
we find them laid with a very gradual descent towards low water mark.
The sands of Portobello, in this neighbourhood, form a striking example
of this. Here small quartzose grains mixed with light sea shells prove,
in their effects, a more effectual barrier against the overwhelming
force of the waves than perpendicular and massive walls of masonry.”
CHECKING DRIFT SAND.
Mr. Stevenson recommended Lord Palmerston to introduce the _Pinus
maritima major_, as a check for sand drift, on his estate of
Mullaghmore, in the following report, dated 21st July 1835:--
“During the reporter’s visit to Mullaghmore, his advice was also asked
regarding the operations at present going on for the improvement of
the land. He had then much satisfaction in viewing the interesting
improvements of reclaiming bog lands, and checking the inroads of the
sand flood or drift, by planting ‘bent’ grass upon the shores of this
estate. The system of dibbling the bent grass, pursued by Mr. Lynch,
is in the best style which the reporter has anywhere met with; and he
has been so impressed with the national importance of this scheme, from
the success already experienced at Mullaghmore, that he has already
taken the opportunity of recommending this system as applicable to the
entrance of Ballyshannon, and in other quarters, particularly to the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland.
“The question chiefly submitted to the consideration of the reporter,
in regard to these operations, was the best mode of defending the
margin of the bent grass towards the sea. For such purposes, buildings
or fences of any kind are not only expensive in their formation, but
are also in constant need of repair. Mr. Lynch seems so much at home
in all planting operations that the reporter begs simply to bring
under your Lordship’s notice the French mode of planting a species
of fir (_Pinus maritima major_), which was originally suggested to
the Government by the late M. Bremonteuil, _Ingénieur des Ponts et
Chaussées_. This system has been extensively tried along the stormy
shores of the Bay of Biscay, particularly in the district of Grave, at
the entrance of the Garonne, where the arid and sterile sands have been
covered with extensive forests, which thrive quite close to the water’s
edge. From the climate and exposure of the shores at Mullaghmore,
the reporter has no doubt of the success of similar plantations in
arresting the progress of the sand flood. It is believed that Mr.
Lawson, seedsman to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland,
is taking measures to import the seeds of the _Pinus maritima major_,
with a view to trying it on some of the exposed sandy districts of
Scotland.”
From the following extract of a letter from Mr. Kincaid of Dublin, who
was Lord Palmerston’s Commissioner, it is interesting to know that the
experiment was entirely satisfactory, proving that the _Pinus maritima
major_ is well adapted to the climate of the coasts of the British
Isles:--
“The Mullaghmore plantations extend to about 200 acres. About eighty
of these were planted twenty-five years ago. Some of the trees are
thirty feet in height, and vary from that height to about twenty or
twenty-five feet. The remainder were planted ten years ago, and are
making fair progress. All the pine plantations from opposite Newtown
Cliffony to Mullaghmore are in a most healthy condition, the trees
making growths of from twelve to twenty inches each year. The storms
have no bad effect on the south side of the great sand hill, but on its
summit, and towards the west side, the spray and gales of the Atlantic
will not allow the young trees to make any progress.”
NIGHT SIGNAL LAMPS.
In a report to the Trustees for improving the Queensferry passage, made
in 1811, Mr. Stevenson proposes a set of signals as described in the
following extract, his proposal being, in fact, the signal now in use
on all British railways:--
“Upon the supposition of its being the intention of this Honourable
Trust to have an establishment on the south side of the Firth similar
to that which is now proposed for the north side, the reporter takes
the liberty of observing that much advantage, as the Trustees know,
might be derived by the public from a few simple and well appointed
signals, both for night and day.
“Those intended for the day may be constructed upon a modified scale,
after the common telegraphic method; while the night signals can be
rendered extremely simple and effective by interposing at pleasure
between the observer and the reflector a shade of coloured glass. By
connecting these partial obscurations of colouring the light with an
index that shall be understood on both sides of the passage, orders may
be communicated in a very expeditious manner.”
CAUSE OF HEAVY SEAS IN IRISH CHANNEL.
In a report to the Right Honourable Viscount Cathcart, Commander of His
Majesty’s Forces, made on Portpatrick harbour in 1812, he gives the
following explanation of the well-known rough sea between Portpatrick
and Donaghadee:--
“In describing the harbour of Portpatrick, it may be noticed that
although the coast on which it is situated is not directly exposed
to the Atlantic Ocean, yet the opposing tides of the north and south
channels meet there and separate to flow up the Clyde and Solway
Firths, which, independent of storms, must occasion a very considerable
commotion in the waters of the channel between Portpatrick and
Donaghadee.
“Accordingly we find that the sea has made a great impression upon
the coast of Wigtonshire; and though the shores between Loch Ryan
and the Bay of Glenluce consist chiefly of whinstone (the greenstone
of mineralogists), which is one of the most indestructible rocks we
have, yet the figure of the coast is indented with many small cuts or
creeks, and rocks are all along the shore found jutting into the sea.
At the head of one of these creeks, which is about a hundred fathoms in
length, and thirty fathoms in breadth, the harbour of Portpatrick is
situated between two insulated rocks, upon one of which the piers are
built, the harbour being formed by an excavation, chiefly in the solid
rock.”
SEA ROUTES ACROSS IRISH CHANNEL.
In the same report he states the relative advantages of various routes
of communication across the Irish Channel:--
“A further extension of the intercourse between Scotland and Ireland
could be made with much advantage to both by a regular establishment of
packets between Ardrossan, Troon, or Dunure in Ayrshire, and Larne in
the county of Antrim. Between the two last places, viz., Dunure and
Larne, the distance would only be about sixty miles, being ten miles
shorter, and unquestionably much safer, than the passage from Holyhead
to Dublin.
“Under all the views of this subject, from the greater contiguity
of Portpatrick and Donaghadee than of Lochs Ryan and Larne, and the
former places having more immediate access to the open sea than the
latter, and also from the intercourse being now fully organised by
long establishment, it were perhaps better, even at a much greater
expense, to continue the present system than to change it. Portpatrick
harbour may be rendered incomparably better by the plan now proposed,
and Donaghadee is also capable and stands much in want of improvement,
by an extension of its piers and the erection of a permanent light to
direct the packets into the harbour under night.”
BUILD OF SHIPS.
In reporting to the Royal Burgh of Dundee as to the improvement of the
harbour in 1814, Mr. Stevenson takes occasion to introduce one of those
collateral questions to which I have referred:--
“It is curious to observe the changes and to trace the progressive
improvements which have taken place in the form and _build_ of ships.
When we contrast those of early navigators with ships of modern
times, among the many alterations, none seems more striking than the
difference of their depth. The draught of water that was required for a
ship of 300 tons burden would hardly be found enough to float a modern
built vessel of 100 tons. This alteration in the construction of
ships, which is mainly calculated to improve their sailing, by giving
them a better hold of the water, seems gradually to have advanced, as
the mariner became more adventurous in his voyages; and is only now
restrained by certain considerations of convenience, of which the most
prominent is the want of a sufficient depth of water in the havens and
harbours on the coast for their reception,--a circumstance which arises
partly from the natural position of harbours, but is chiefly owing
to the difficulties and expense attending the necessary engineering
operations, which increase enormously with the depth of water. Hence
it is that many of the ancient seaport towns of this country, which
at one time possessed an extensive trade, have, from neglecting their
harbours, sunk into a state of insignificancy; while others, by
proper exertions in this respect, have, under the most inauspicious
circumstances, attained to great commercial importance.”
PROSPECTIVE INCREASE OF POPULATION.
Another case of the same kind occurs in his report on the harbour of
North Berwick, made in 1812:--
“Before closing this report it may be noticed that North Berwick has
considerable advantages, which if acted upon would infallibly lead to
the rapid improvement of the town and neighbourhood. Situated upon an
extensive flat which skirts along the high land of North Berwick Law,
on a beautiful sandy bay, which is intersected by the street leading to
the harbour, few towns will more easily admit of elegant extension or
are better calculated for becoming a sea-bathing retreat.”
It has now the well-known reputation of being the best frequented
watering place on the east coast of Scotland.
TIDAL SCOUR.
In the report, of 1814, on Dundee we find the following remarks on
tidal scour:--
“To put this matter in a clearer point of view, let us see what nature
does upon the great scale, as for example in the extensive basin
forming the Firth of Tay. We there find that in consequence of the
rapidity of the current at the narrow passage in the neighbourhood of
Broughty Castle, which may be viewed as the _scouring aperture_ of the
basin of the Tay, the water is from forty to eighty feet in depth, and
moves with a velocity which carries a great quantity of sandy particles
along with it. But no sooner are the waters of this current allowed to
spread and cover the basin of the Tay, than the velocity ceases, and
the foreign matters fall to the bottom and form the various sandbanks
which appear at low water. In a similar way the deposition of silt and
earthy particles brought down the river in speats is accounted for.
Now, this view of the case is equally applicable to the harbour of
Dundee, for so long as the water preserves the velocity it acquires in
the _scouring apertures_ or arches in the quays, it carries all its
foreign matters along with it; but the moment it is allowed to expand
over the extent of the harbour the deposition of these earthy particles
begins. And in every case the well-known law in hydraulics holds good,
that the _scouring effect_ of a fluid is in the ratio of the square of
the velocity.”
UNSCREWING OF BOLTS.
The following observations made in 1807 on the action of the waves in
unscrewing bolts, are interesting:--
“The unlocking of screws, where _washers_ had been introduced as a
security was rather unexpected, and the writer took an opportunity of
conversing with his much respected friend Professor Playfair regarding
this circumstance. The Professor observed, that he had experienced some
inconvenience of this kind from the unlocking of almost all the screws
of a telescope which had been sent to him from London by the mail
coach. Indeed, from the spiral form of the screw, which is, in fact, an
inclined plane, Mr. Playfair readily accounted for such an occurrence,
and, when reflected upon, it seems to be an effect rather to be looked
for, and is a reason why riveting the point of a bolt in preference to
screwing it should generally be resorted to, where much motion is to be
apprehended.”
CEMENT RUBBLE COFFERDAMS.
I give his description of the cement rubble cofferdams, first used in
1808, at the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse:--
“At seven o’clock this morning, the tide proving more favourable,
the artificers began to work. At nine o’clock the rock was again
overflowed, and the boats returned to the tender after two hours’
work. Part of the operations of this morning’s tide consisted in
building up the crevices and inequalities of the rock round the margin
of the foundation with Pozzolano mortar and the chips produced from
excavation, with the view to dam out the water. These little walls
varied from six to eighteen inches in height; a small sluice or
aperture being formed in one of them, by which the water, during ebb
tide, was allowed to drain off.
“It formed part of the writer’s original design to erect a cast iron
cofferdam of about five feet in height round the site of the building;
but the surface of the rock was so irregular that the difficulty of
tightening it, and also of emptying the contained water, so as to get
the benefit of it during ebb tide, would have been so great, that
taking these circumstances into account, together with the loss of time
which would attend the erection of such a preparatory work, the idea
of a cofferdam was laid aside, soon after entering upon the actual
execution of the work.”
BUOYAGE SYSTEM.
In his report on the Forth Navigation, made to the Magistrates of
Stirling in 1828, Mr. Stevenson proposed a system of buoyage, which
has since been adopted by the several Lighthouse Boards of the United
Kingdom:--
“The channels proposed to be cleared through the different fords are
coloured red on the Plan, in reference to the sectional line. For the
use and guidance of river pilots, buoys and perches or beacons are
likewise intended to be placed in the positions shown in the Plan;
those coloured red are to be taken on the starboard, and those coloured
black upon the larboard side, in going up the river; and the whole are
to be so placed in connection with the clearing and deepening of the
fords as to be approached with safety.”
OBSERVATIONS ON FOG SIGNALS.
At a very early period Mr. Stevenson’s attention was directed to the
dangers of fog at sea, and the best means of providing an effective
fog signal for the mariner, and so long ago as 1808 he had come to
the conclusion that the best signal adapted for the purpose was the
sustained sound of a horn, which, as is well known, has within the last
few years been so much employed in the fog signals which are now being
established at many of the lighthouse stations in this and foreign
countries. The following extracts give an idea of the difficulties he
encountered, and his views on the subject:--
“The boats landed this evening (23d June 1808), when the artificers
had again two hours’ work. The weather still continuing very thick
and foggy, more difficulty was experienced in getting on board of the
vessels to-night than had occurred on any previous occasion, owing
to a light breeze of wind which carried the sound of the bell, and
the other signals made on board of the vessels, away from the rock.
Having fortunately made out the position of the sloop “Smeaton,” at the
north-east buoy, to which we were much assisted by the barking of the
ship’s dog, we parted with the Smeaton’s boat, when the boats of the
tender took a fresh departure for that vessel, which lay about half a
mile to the south westward. Yet such is the very deceiving state of
the tides that although there was a small binnacle and compass in the
landing master’s boat, we had nevertheless passed the ‘Sir Joseph’ a
good way, when fortunately one of the sailors caught the sound of a
blowing horn. The only fire-arms on board were a pair of swivels of one
inch calibre; but it is quite surprising how much the sound is lost in
foggy weather, as the report was heard but at a very short distance.
The sound from the explosion of gunpowder is so instantaneous that
the effect of the small guns was not so good as either the blowing of
a horn or the tolling of a bell, which afforded a more constant and
steady direction for the pilot. It may here be noticed that larger guns
would have answered better, but these must have induced the keeping of
a greater stock of gunpowder, which in a service of this kind might
have been attended with risk. A better signal would have been a bugle
horn, the tremulous sound of which produces a more powerful effect in
fog than the less sonorous and more sudden report of ordnance.”
And again he says:--
“In the course of this morning’s work two or three apparently distant
peals of thunder were heard, and the atmosphere suddenly became thick
and foggy. But as the Smeaton, our present tender, was moored at no
great distance from the rock, the crew on board continued blowing a
horn, and occasionally fired a musket, so that the boats got to the
ship without difficulty. The occurrence of thick weather, however,
became a serious consideration in looking forward to the necessary
change of quarters to the Pharos, distant about one mile from the rock,
instead of a few hundred yards, as in the case of the Smeaton.
“The weather towards the evening became thick and foggy, and there was
hardly a breath of wind to ruffle the surface of the water; had it not
therefore been the noise from the anvils of the smiths, who had been
left on the beacon throughout the day, which afforded a guide for the
boats, a landing could not have been attempted this evening, especially
with so large a company of artificers. This circumstance confirmed the
writer’s opinion with regard to the propriety of connecting large bells
to be rung with machinery in the lighthouse, to be tolled day and night
during the continuance of foggy weather, by which the mariner may be
forewarned of too near an approach to the rock, while every distant
object is obscured in the mist.”
Following out this subject, Mr. Stevenson caused observations to be
made at the Calf of Man--a small island at the south of the Isle of
Man, and separated from the main island by a narrow “sound.” The place
is noted for its fogs, on which Mr. Stevenson says:--
“I sent Mr. Macurich, a shipmaster in the lighthouse service, to the
Calf of Man, with directions to reside there, and make monthly returns
of the state of the weather, agreeably to a printed form. During his
stay of seven months, it appears upon the whole that the fog rested
only twice upon the highest land of the Calf Island, while it cleared
partially below. On one of these occasions I was on board of the
lighthouse yacht, then at anchor off the island, when the fog was for
a time general; and as the weather became clear, I observed that it
first disappeared upon the lower parts of the island, and that in half
an hour the whole of the Calf was seen. In the monthly returns made by
Mr. Macurich, the Calf island is represented as often perfectly free
of fog, while the higher parts of the opposite mainland of the Isle of
Man were hid in mist. To account for this, it may be noticed that the
mass of matter in the Calf Island is much less, and the land is also
much lower than in the main island. Part of this effect may also be
ascribed to the rapidity of the tides, which create a current of wind,
particularly in the narrow channel between the main and Calf islands,
which have a direct tendency to clear away the fog, as I have observed
at the Skerries in the Pentland Firth, and in similar situations on
different parts of the coast, where rapid currents prevail.”
These extracts are given to show the attention Mr. Stevenson gave to
the subject of fogs, which, as already noticed, led him to recommend
the horn, the instrument now so much used in giving signals to the
mariner.
Akin to this may be mentioned his expression of regret that no means
existed for determining the force of the wind, as noticed in the
following paragraph:--
“We cannot enough regret the want of an efficient anemometer, or
instrument for measuring the force of the wind. Indeed, we hardly know
any desideratum of more universal interest, for, notwithstanding the
labours of Lind and others on this subject, from the want of a proper
scale we are still groping in the dark with the use of such indefinite
terms as ‘light airs inclining to calm,’ ‘fresh breezes,’ ‘fresh
gales,’ ‘hard gales,’ and ‘very hard gales;’ for it rarely happens that
the sailor will admit the term ‘storm’ into his nomenclature.”
REGULATIONS FOR STEAM VESSELS.
The loss of the ‘Comet’ steamer by collision on the Clyde, in 1825, led
the Lord Advocate to entertain the idea of introducing a Bill for the
regulation of steamers, and to issue a circular in the following terms,
of which Mr. Stevenson received a copy:--
“EDINBURGH, _4th Feby. 1826_.
I annex a copy of the heads of such a Bill as, in my opinion, may
be calculated to afford sufficient security to steamboats, and
thereby alike promote the interests of the owners of such vessels
and that of the public. I feel noways wedded to any of the proposed
provisions, and am anxious to submit them to the consideration of
the better informed on such subjects, so as to obtain suggestions
either as to the additions or amendments which the Bill may be
fitted to receive.
“In directing your attention to this important subject, I need
hardly remind you that in our endeavours to render such vessels
perfectly secure in so far as respects the passengers, we must
not lose sight of the interest of the owners, or attempt to clog
the trade with unnecessarily embarrassing regulations. Such
restrictions are seldom enforced, and, if they should receive
effect, might lead to such harassing consequences as would injure
this useful description of property, and thereby to a certain
extent deprive the public of the great benefit which is now derived
from the use of vessels navigated by steam.--I have the honour to
be your most obedient servant,
“WM. RAE.”
The only account I can find of Mr. Stevenson’s views on this important
subject is contained in the following extract from a letter, dated
3d November 1825, to Captain Foulerton, one of the Wardens of the
Trinity House, with whom he appears to have had much correspondence,
in which he explains views which are very much in accordance with the
regulations for steamers now issued by the Board of Trade. His letter
says:--
“We lately had a melancholy accident, as you would see, by the running
down of the ‘Comet’ steam packet, by which, it is believed, that about
seventy people lost their lives. The Lord Advocate attended himself at
the taking of the precognition, and is, I believe, to bring some of the
parties to trial. He has also in view some regulations by an Act on
this new and important subject.
“From my seeming marine habits his Lordship has desired me to state
what occurs on the subject of lights. If we need this on the Forth and
Clyde, you must be in a worse state in the Thames. I have no doubt you
had this under the notice of your House. I think there should be two
lights, one in each bow, but under deck, in order to keep the lights
_entirely_ out of the view of those on deck. I am not for interfering
with their head sails. I would have them licensed like stage coaches,
and placed under the inspection of an officer of the navy, not below
the rank of a lieutenant. Six or eight officers might do the duty for
the whole United Kingdom for a time.”
The accident seems to have led to a further investigation into the
general question of the saving of life in cases of shipwreck on
the coasts of Scotland; and on this subject Mr. Stevenson made the
following replies to the queries submitted to him by the authorities:--
“QUERY.--Are shipwrecks frequent on the coasts of Scotland and
its islands?”
“Wrecks between the Firths of Forth and Moray are more frequent than on
any other part of the coast of Scotland. This may probably be accounted
for by the great number of vessels passing and repassing along that
coast. In the month of December 1799, a strong gale from the south-east
occasioned serious disasters on these shores, when upwards of seventy
sail were wrecked on the eastern coast of Scotland, and many of their
crews perished. This lamentable catastrophe was the means of causing
lifeboats upon Greathead’s plan to be fitted out at St. Andrews,
Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, and other places, which have
been found highly useful in saving the lives of mariners. This gale was
also the immediate cause of the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse,
which may be said almost entirely to have prevented shipwreck, so
frequent in St. Andrews Bay and the entrance of the Firth of Forth in
general.
“From the Moray Firth along the shores of the mainland to the entrance
of the Firth of Clyde, wrecks cannot be said to be very frequent,
although the navigation is rather difficult; but the safety of shipping
on this coast depends upon the great number of excellent natural bays
and harbours upon it.
“In the Orkney and Shetland Islands few seasons pass without wrecks
occurring. On the Lewis and Western Hebrides shipwrecks frequently
occur.”
“QUERY.--Are the coasts of Scotland in general well provided
with the means of giving assistance in case of shipwreck,
or are they deficient in such provision?”
“The coast of Scotland is provided with no other means of saving the
crews of vessels than the assistance they accidentally meet with from
the inhabitants along shore. The only lifeboats established are those
at the ports already mentioned.
“If Captain Manby’s apparatus was generally known and applied upon the
coast, it would be found highly beneficial.”
“QUERY.--Are any instances remembered of total shipwrecks where
lives lost might have been saved by the lifeboat or by
Captain Manby’s apparatus, at the distance of 350 or 400
yards off the coast?”
“In the year 1813 the ‘Oscar,’ Greenland ship of Aberdeen, Captain
Innes, went ashore upon Girdleness, at the entrance of Aberdeen
Harbour. There were on board fifty-four persons, of whom only two were
saved, by dropping from the bowsprit end. The ship was very near the
shore. She broke up about twenty minutes after she struck, and I have
no doubt that, if an active person had been on the spot with Captain
Manby’s apparatus, the greater part of the crew of this ship might have
been saved.
“In the winter of 1824 the ‘Deveron’ of Aberdeen, Captain Scott, went
ashore upon the sands three miles north of Aberdeen in a gale at
south-east. She was only about 300 yards from the shore, and here the
whole crew must have perished had it not been for the prompt use of
Captain Manby’s apparatus.
“Every one who has seen this apparatus must have admired its simplicity
and effect. It is however difficult to see how its application can be
very generally introduced so as to be useful along the whole extent of
chequered coasts of the British dominions. Certainly at all principal
ports it would naturally be expected that both this and the lifeboat
would be provided.
“A time seems to be approaching when the coast will be much more
complete in all such provision from the hands of the humane for the
safety of the mariner. We also hail with pleasure the extending efforts
of the respective Lighthouse Boards on the coasts of England, Scotland,
and Ireland, as a certain means of adding to the security of that
useful body of men, as well as to the facilities of her enterprising
merchants. Nor can we withhold the notice of the effect of the
operations of the Scots Board in this respect. At the entrance to the
Firth of Forth, prior to the erection of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, few
winters passed without some disastrous shipwreck.
“Even after the completion of this arduous undertaking, until the
beacon was erected on the Carr Rock, off Fifeness, the fisherman’s
observation was--‘The Carr has always her wreck: if she misses one
year, she is sure to have two the next.’ But since the erection of this
beacon in 1820 till this date (1825), not a single wreck has happened
on this part of the coast.”