DIRECTIONS FOR NURSES.
1002. The nurse requires knowledge and practice to enable her to
discharge aright her duty to the patient, as much as the physician and
surgeon do to perform what is incumbent on them. Woman, from her
constitution and habits, is the natural nurse of the sick; and, in
general, no small portion of her time is spent in ministering at the
couch of disease and suffering.
1003. As the young and vigorous, as well as the aged and the infirm,
are liable to be laid upon the bed of sickness, by an epidemic, or
imprudent exposure, or by some accident, it is therefore necessary
that the girl, as well as the matron, may know how she can render
services in an efficient and proper manner. No _girl_ should consider
her education complete who is not acquainted with the principles of
the duties of a general nurse and a temporary watcher.
1004. It is to be regretted, that while we have medical schools and
colleges to educate physicians, there is no institution to educate
_nurses_ in their equally responsible station. In the absence of such
institutions, the defect can be remedied, to some extent, by teaching
every girl _hygiene_, or _the laws of health_. To make such knowledge
more available and complete, attention is invited to the following
suggestions relative to the practical duties of a nurse.
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1002. Does the nurse require knowledge and practice in her employment,
as well as the physician? Who is the natural nurse of the sick? 1003.
What, then, is incumbent on every girl? 1004. Should there be schools
to educate nurses, as well as physicians and surgeons?
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1005. BATHING. The nurse, before commencing to bathe the patient,
should provide herself with water, two towels, a sponge, a piece of
soft flannel, and a sheet. The temperature of the room should also be
observed.
1006. When the patient is feeble, use _tepid_ or warm water. Cold
water should only be used when the system has vigor enough to produce
reaction upon the skin. This is shown by the increased redness of the
skin, and a feeling of warmth and comfort, after a proper amount of
friction. Before using the sponge to bathe, a sheet, or fold of cloth,
should be spread smoothly over the bed, and under the patient, to
prevent the bed-linen on which the patient lies from becoming damp or
wet.
1007. Apply the wet sponge to one part of the body at a time; as the
arm, for instance. By doing so, the liability of contracting chills is
diminished. Take a dry, soft towel, wipe the bathed part, and follow
this by vigorous rubbing with a crash towel, or, what is better, a
mitten made of this material; then use briskly a piece of soft
flannel, to remove all moisture that may exist on the skin, and
particularly between the fingers and the flections of the joints. In
this manner bathe the entire body.
1008. The sick should be thoroughly bathed, at least twice in
twenty-four hours. Particular attention should be given to the parts
between the fingers and toes, and about the flections of the joints,
as the accumulation of the excretions is most abundant on these parts.
In bathing, these portions of the system are very generally neglected.
The best time for bathing, is when the patient feels most vigorous,
and freest from exhaustion. The practice of daubing the face and hands
with a towel dipped in hot rum, camphor, and vinegar, does not remove
the impurities, but causes the skin soon to feel dry, hard, and
uncomfortable.
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1005. What should a nurse provide herself with, before bathing a
patient? 1006. When should cold water be used? 1007. How should the
bathing then be performed, so that the patient may not contract a
cold? 1008. How often should a sick person be bathed? What is said of
daubing the face and hands merely with a wet cloth?
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1009. FOOD. It is the duty of every woman to know how to make the
simple preparations adapted to a low diet, in the most wholesome and
the most palatable way. Water-gruel,[24] which is the simplest of all
preparations, is frequently so ill-made as to cause the patient to
loathe it. Always prepare the food for the sick, in the neatest and
most careful manner.
[24] Directions for making the simple preparations for the sick are
found in almost every cook-book.
1010. When the physician enjoins abstinence from food, the nurse
should strictly obey the injunction. She should be as particular to
know the physician's directions about diet, as in knowing how and when
to give the prescribed medicines, and obey them as implicitly.
1011. When a patient is convalescent, the desire for food is generally
strong, and it often requires firmness and patience, together with
great care, on the part of the nurse, that the food is prepared
suitably, and given at proper times The physician should direct how
frequently it should be taken.
1012. PURE AIR. It is the duty of the nurse to see that not only the
room is well ventilated in the morning, but that fresh air is
constantly admitted during the day. Great care must be taken, however,
that the patient does not feel the current.
1013. Bed-linen, as well as that of the body, should be aired every
day, and oftener changed in sickness than in health. All clothing,
when changed, should be well dried, and warmed by a fire previous to
its being put on the patient or the bed.
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1009. Should every woman know how to make the simple preparations
adapted to a low diet? 1010. Should the nurse strictly obey the
injunctions of the physician relative to food? 1011. What period of a
person's illness requires the most care in regard to the food? 1012.
Give another duty of the nurse. 1013. What directions respecting the
bed-linen of the patient? What is necessary when there is a change of
clothing?
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1014. TEMPERATURE. The warmth of the chamber should be carefully
watched by the nurse. The feelings of the patient or nurse are not to
be relied on as an index of the temperature of the room. There should
be a well-adjusted thermometer in every sick-room. This should be
frequently consulted by the nurse.
1015. The temperature of the sick-chamber should be _moderate_. If it
is so cold as to cause a chill, the disease will be aggravated. If, on
the other hand, it is too warm, the patient is enfeebled and rendered
more susceptible to cold on leaving the sick-chamber. The Latin maxim,
"_In medio tutissimus ibis_," (in medium there is most safety,) should
be regarded in the rooms of the sick.
1016. QUIET. The room of the patient should be kept free from noise.
The community should be guided by this rule, that no more persons
remain in the room of the sick, than the welfare of the patient
demands. It is the duty of the physician to direct when visitors can
be admitted or excluded from the sick-room, and the nurse should see
that these directions are enforced.
1017. The movements of the attendants should be gentle and noiseless.
Shutting doors violently, creaking hinges, and all unnecessary noise,
should be avoided. Most persons refrain from loud talking in the sick
chamber, but are not equally careful to abstain from _whispering_,
which is often more trying than a common tone.
1018. It is the duty of the nurse to ascertain the habits of the
patient as respects the period for eating and sleep, when in health,
that she may prepare the food and arrange the sick-room in accordance
with the practice of the patient. If the person who is sick is
ignorant of the necessity of the removal of the waste products from
the system the nurse should invite attention to these functions at
such periods as are in accordance with the previous habits of the
patient.
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1014. Why should there be a well-adjusted thermometer in every
sick-chamber? 1015. What is said of the temperature of the sick-chamber?
1016. Why should the sick-room be kept quiet? 1017. What is said of noise
in the sick-chamber? Of whispering? 1018. Should the habits of the
patient be regarded in reference to the period for eating and sleep?
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1019. The deportment and remarks of the nurse to the patient should be
tranquil and encouraging. The illness of a friend, or persons who have
recently died, should not be alluded to in the sick-room. No doubts or
fears of the patient's recovery, either by a look or by a word, should
be communicated by the nurse in the chamber of the sick. When such
information is necessary to be communicated, it is the duty of the
physician to impart it to the sick person.
1020. The nurse should not confine herself to the sick-room more than
six hours at a time. She should eat her food regularly, sleep at
regular periods, and take exercise daily in the open air. To do this,
let her quietly leave the room when the patient is sleeping. A
watcher, or temporary nurse, may supply her place. There is but little
danger of contracting disease, if the nurse attends to the simple laws
of health, and remains not more than six hours at a time in the
sick-room.
DIRECTIONS FOR WATCHERS.
1021. These necessary assistants, like the nurse, should have
knowledge and practice. They should ever be cheerful, kind, firm, and
attentive in the presence of the patient.
1022. A simple, nutritious supper should be eaten before entering the
sick-room; and it is well, during the night, to take some plain food.
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1019. What should be the deportment of the nurse toward the patient?
Should doubts and fears of the patient's recovery be communicated in
the sick-room? When necessary to impart such intelligence, on whom
does it depend? 1020. How long should a nurse remain in the
sick-chamber at a time? 1021. What qualifications are necessary in a
watcher? 1022. What directions in regard to the food of the watcher?
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1023. When watching in cold weather, a person should be warmly
dressed, and furnished with an extra garment, as a cloak or shawl,
because the system becomes exhausted toward morning, and less heat is
generated in the body.
1024. Light-colored clothing should be worn by those who have care of
the sick, in preference to dark-colored apparel; particularly if the
disease is of a contagious character. Experiments have shown, that
black and other dark colors will absorb more readily the subtile
effluvia that emanate from sick persons, than white or light colors.
1025. Whatever may be wanted during the night, should be brought into
the sick-chamber, or the adjoining room, before the family retires for
sleep, in order that the slumbers of the patient be not disturbed by
haste, or searching for needed articles.
1026. The same general directions should be observed by watchers, as
are given to the nurse; nor should the watcher deem it necessary to
make herself acceptable to the patient by exhausting conversation.
1027. It can hardly be expected that the farmer, who has been laboring
hard in the field, or the mechanic, who has toiled during the day, is
qualified to render all those little attentions that a sick person
requires. Hence, would it not be more benevolent and economical to
employ and _pay_ watchers, who are qualified by knowledge and
_training_, to perform this duty in a faithful manner, while the
kindness and sympathy of friends may be _practically_ manifested by
assisting to defray the expenses of these qualified and useful
assistants?
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1023. When watching in cold weather, what precaution is necessary?
1024. What is said relative to the color of the clothing worn in the
sick-room? 1025. What suggestions to watchers relative to the
arrangement of the sick-chamber? 1026. What should watchers observe?
1027. What is said of employing those persons to watch who labor hard
during the day?
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APPENDIX.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES
1028. POISONING, either from accident or design, is of such frequency
and danger, that it is of the greatest importance that every person
should know the proper mode of procedure in such cases, in order to
render immediate assistance when within his power.
1029. Poisons are divided into two classes--_mineral_ (which include
the acids) and _vegetable_.
1030. The first thing, usually, to be done, when it is ascertained
that a poison has been swallowed, is to evacuate the stomach, unless
vomiting takes place spontaneously. Emetics of the sulphate of zinc,
(white vitriol,) or ipecacuanha, (ipecac,) or ground mustard seed,
should be given.
1031. When vomiting has commenced, it should be aided by large and
frequent draughts of the following drinks: flaxseed tea, gum-water,
slippery-elm tea, barley water, sugar and water, or any thing of a
mucilaginous or diluent character.
MINERAL POISONS.
1032. AMMONIA.--The _water of ammonia_, if taken in an over-dose, and
in an undiluted state, acts as a violent corrosive poison.
1033. The best and most effectual antidote is _vinegar_. It should be
administered in water, without delay. It neutralizes the ammonia, and
renders it inactive. Emetics should not be given.
1034. ANTIMONY.--The _wine of antimony_ and _tartar emetic_, if taken
in over-doses, cause distressing vomiting. In addition to the diluent,
mucilaginous drinks, give a tea-spoonful of the sirup of poppies,
paregoric, or twenty drops of laudanum, every twenty minutes, until
five or six doses have been taken, or the vomiting ceases.
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1025. Is it useful to know the antidotes or remedies for poison? 1029.
Into how many classes are poisons divided? 1030. What is the first
thing to be done when it is ascertained that poison has been
swallowed? 1031. What should be taken after the vomiting has
commenced? 1032. What effect has an over-dose of ammonia? 1033. The
antidote? Should an emetic be given for this poison? 1034. What effect
has an over-dose of the wine of antimony or tartar emetic?
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1035. The antidotes are _nutgalls_ and _oak bark_, which may be
administered in infusion, or by steeping in water.
1036. ARSENIC.--When this has been taken, administer an emetic of
ipecac, speedily, in mucilaginous teas, and use the stomach-pump as
soon as possible.
1037. The antidote is the _hydrated peroxide of iron_. It should be
kept constantly on hand at the apothecaries' shops. It may be given in
any quantity, without injurious results.
1038. COPPER.--The most common cause of poisoning from this metal, is
through the careless use of cooking utensils made of it, on which the
_acetate of copper_ (verdigris) has been allowed to form. When this
has been taken, immediately induce vomiting, give mucilaginous drinks,
or the _white of eggs_, diffused in water.
1039. The antidote is the _carbonate of soda_, which should be
administered without delay.
1040. LEAD.--The _acetate_ (sugar) _of lead_ is the preparation of
this metal, which is liable to be taken accidentally, in poisonous
doses. Induce immediate vomiting, by emetics of ground mustard seed,
sulphate of zinc, and diluent drinks.
1041. The antidote is diluted _sulphuric acid_. When this acid is not
to be obtained, either the sulphate of magnesia, (epsom salts,) or the
sulphate of soda, (glauber's salts,) will answer every purpose.
1042. MERCURY.--The preparation of this mineral by which poisoning is
commonly produced, is _corrosive sublimate_. The mode of treatment to
be pursued when this poison has been swallowed, is as follows: The
_whites of a dozen eggs_ should be beaten in two quarts of cold water,
and a tumbler-full given every two minutes, to induce vomiting. When
the whites of eggs are not to be obtained, soap and water should be
mixed with wheat flour, and given in copious draughts, and the
stomach-pump introduced as soon as possible. Emetics or irritating
substances should not be given.
1043. NITRE--_Saltpetre._--This, in over-doses, produces violent
poisonous symptoms. Vomiting should be immediately induced by large
doses of mucilaginous, diluent drinks; but emetics which irritate the
stomach should not be given.
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1035. What is the antidote? 1036. What should immediately be done when
arsenic is swallowed? 1037. What is the antidote? Can any quantity of
this preparation of iron be given without injurious results? 1038.
What should be given when verdigris has been taken into the stomach?
1039. What is the antidote? 1040. What should immediately be given
when sugar of lead is taken? 1041. What is the antidote? 1042. Give
the treatment when corrosive sublimate has been swallowed. 1043. What
effect has an over-dose of saltpetre? What treatment should be
adopted?
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1044. ZINC.--Poisoning is sometimes caused by the _sulphate of zinc_,
(white vitriol.) When this takes place, vomiting should be induced,
and aided by large draughts of mucilaginous and diluent drinks. Use
the stomach-pump as soon as possible.
1045. The antidote is the _carbonate_, or _super-carbonate of soda_.
1046. NITRIC, (aqua fortis,) MURIATIC, (MARINE ACID,) OR SULPHURIC
(OIL OF VITRIOL,) ACIDS, may be taken by accident, and produce
poisonous effects.
1047. The antidote is _calcined magnesia_, which should be freely
administered, to neutralize the acid and induce vomiting. When
magnesia cannot be obtained, the _carbonate of potash_ (salaeratus) may
be given. _Chalk_, powdered and given in solution, or strong _soap
suds_, will answer a good purpose, when the other articles are not at
hand. It is of very great importance that something be given speedily,
to neutralize the acid. One of the substances before mentioned should
be taken freely, in diluent and mucilaginous drinks, as gum-water,
milk, flaxseed, or slippery-elm tea. Emetics ought to be avoided.
1048. OXALIC ACID.--This acid resembles the sulphate of magnesia,
(epsom salts,) which renders it liable to be taken, by mistake, in
poisonous doses. Many accidents have occurred from this circumstance.
They can easily be distinguished by tasting a small quantity. _Epsom
salts_, when applied to the tongue, have a very bitter taste, while
_oxalic acid_ is intensely sour.
1049. The antidote is _magnesia_, between which and the acid a
chemical action takes place, producing the oxalate of magnesia, which
is inert. When magnesia is not at hand, _chalk_, _lime_, or _carbonate
of potash_, (salaeratus,) will answer as a substitute. Give the
antidote in some of the mucilaginous drinks before mentioned. No time
should be lost in introducing the stomach-pump as soon as a surgeon
can be obtained.
1050. LEY.--The ley obtained by the leaching of ashes may be taken by
a child accidentally. The antidote is vinegar, or oil of any kind. The
vinegar neutralizes the alkali by uniting with it, forming the acetate
of potash. The oil unites with the alkali, and forms soap, which is
less caustic than the ley. Give, at the same time, large draughts of
mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, &c.
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1044. What is the antidote for white vitriol? 1047. What is the
antidote for aqua fortis and oil of vitriol? Should emetics be
avoided? 1048. How can oxalic acid be distinguished from epsom salts?
1049. What is the antidote for an over-dose of oxalic acid? When
magnesia cannot be obtained, what will answer as a substitute? 1050.
What is the antidote when ley is swallowed?
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VEGETABLE POISONS.
1051. The vegetable poisons are quite as numerous, and many of them
equally as virulent, as any in the mineral kingdom. We shall describe
the most common, and which, therefore, are most liable to be taken.
1052. OPIUM.--This is the article most frequently resorted to by those
wishing to commit suicide, and, being used as a common medicine, is
easily obtained. From this cause, also, mistakes are very liable to be
made, and accidents result from it. Two of its preparations,
_laudanum_ and _paregoric_, are frequently mistaken for each other;
the former being given when the latter is intended.
1053. _Morphia_, in solution, or _morphine_, as it is more commonly
called by the public, is a preparation of the drug under consideration,
with which many cases of poisoning are produced. It is the active
narcotic principle of the opium; and one grain is equal to six of this
drug in its usual form.
1054. When an over-dose of opium, or any of its preparations, has been
swallowed, the stomach should be evacuated as speedily as possible. To
effect this, a teaspoonful of ground mustard seed, or as much tartar
emetic as can be held on a five cent piece, or as much _ipecacuanha_
as can be held on a twenty-five cent piece, should be mixed in a
tumbler of warm water, and one half given at once, and the remainder
in twenty minutes, if the first has not, in the mean time, operated.
In the interval, copious draughts of warm water, or warm sugar and
water, should be drank.
1055. The use of the stomach-pump, in these cases, is of the greatest
importance, and should be resorted to without delay. After most of the
poison has been evacuated from the stomach, a strong infusion of
_coffee_ ought to be given; or some one of the vegetable acids, such
as _vinegar_, or _lemon-juice_, should be administered.
1056. The patient should be kept in motion, and salutary effects will
often be produced by dashing a bucket of cold water on the head.
_Artificial respiration_ ought to be established, and kept up for some
time. If the extremities are cold, apply warmth and friction to them.
After the poison has been evacuated from the stomach, stimulants, as
warm wine and water, or warm brandy and water, should be given, to
keep up and sustain vital action.
1057. STRAMONIUM--_Thorn-Apple._--This is one of the most active
narcotic poisons, and, when taken in over-doses, has, in numerous
instances, caused death.
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1051. Are vegetable poisons as numerous and as virulent in their
effects as mineral? 1052. What is said of opium and its preparations?
1054, 1055, 1056. What treatment should be adopted when an over-dose
of opium or any of its preparations is taken? 1057. What is said of
stramonium?
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1058. HYOSCIAMUS--_Henbane._--This article, which is used as a
medicine, if taken in improper doses, acts as a virulent irritating
and narcotic poison.
1059. The treatment for the two above-mentioned articles is similar to
that of poisoning from over-doses of opium.
1060. CONIUM--_Hemlock._--Hemlock, improperly called, by many,
_cicuta_, when taken in an over-dose, acts as a narcotic poison. It
was by this narcotic that the Athenians used to destroy the lives of
individuals condemned to death by their laws. Socrates is said to have
been put to death by this poison. When swallowed in over-doses, the
treatment is similar to that of opium, stramonium, and henbane, when
over-doses are taken.
1061. BELLADONNA--_Deadly Nightshade._--CAMPHOR. ACONITE--_Monkshood_,
_Wolfsbane._ BRYONIA--_Bryony._ DIGITALIS--_Foxglove._
DULCAMARA--_Bittersweet._ GAMBOGE. LOBELIA--_Indian Tobacco._
SANGUINARIA--_Bloodroot._ OIL OF SAVIN. SPIGELIA--_Pinkroot._
STRYCHNINE--_Nux vomica._ TOBACCO.--All of these, when taken in
over-doses, are poisons of greater or less activity. The treatment of
poisoning, by the use of any of these articles, is similar to that
pursued in over-doses of opium. (See OPIUM, page 442.)
1062. In _all_ cases of poisoning, call a physician as soon as
possible.
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1058. Of henbane? 1059. What should be the treatment when an
over-dose of stramonium or henbane is taken? 1060. What name is
sometimes improperly given to _conium_, or hemlock? How was this
narcotic poison used by the Athenians? How are the effects of an
over-dose counteracted? 1061. What is the treatment when an
over-dose of deadly nightshade, monkshood, foxglove, bittersweet,
gamboge, lobelia, bloodroot, tobacco, &c., is taken? 1062. Should a
physician be called in all cases when poison is swallowed?
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A.
The essential parts of every secretory apparatus are a simple
membrane, apparently textureless, named the _primary_, or _basement
membrane_, certain cells and blood-vessels. The serous and mucous
membrane are examples.
B.
The division and description of the different membranes and tissues
are not well defined and settled by anatomical writers. This is not a
material defect, as a clear description of the different parts of the
system can be given by adopting the arrangement of almost any writer.
C.
FAT is one of the non-nitrogenous substances. It forms the essential
part of the adipose tissue. Chemical analysis shows that all fatty
substances are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are
lighter than water, generally fluid at the natural temperature of the
body, and burn with a bright flame, forming water and carbonic acid.
CASEINE is abundantly found in milk. When dried, it constitutes
cheese. Alcohol, acids, and the stomach of any of the mammalia
coagulate it; and it is also soluble in water. It is found in the
blood, bile, saliva, and the lens of the eye.
CHONDRINE is a variety of gelatin. It is obtained from cartilage. It
is soluble in warm water, but solidifies on cooling.
LACTIC ACID is common to all the solids and fluids of the system. It
is found united with potash, soda, lime, or magnesia.
D.
The word _duodenum_ is derived from the Latin, signifying "twelve,"
since the intestine, of which this is the name, is usually about
twelve fingers' breadth in length. The _jejunum_ is also from the
Latin _jejunum_, empty, since it is usually found in that condition
after death, as the food seems to pass rapidly through this part of
the intestine. The term _ileum_ is from the Greek, signifying "to
twist," since it always appears in a contorted condition. The name
_caecum_ is derived from the fact of its being a blind or short sack,
perforated by the extremity of the ileum. The name of the next
division of the intestine--_colon_--is from the Greek, "to prohibit,"
as the contents of the alimentary canal pass slowly through this
portion. The _rectum_ is named from the straight direction that it
assumes in the latter part of its course.
E.
The food is forced through the alimentary canal by contractions of its
muscular coat, produced by the nervous filaments of the sympathetic
system, not being at all dependent on the cerebro-spinal centre. This
is called the peristaltic, or vermicular motion. The great length of
intestine in all animals, and especially in the herbivorous ones, is
owing to the necessity of exposing the food to a large number of the
lacteals, that the nourishment may all be taken from it.
F.
The different processes through which the food passes before
assimilation are of considerable interest. The mastication and mixture
of the saliva with the food are purely of a mechanical nature. When
any solid or fluid substance is placed upon the tongue, or in contact
with the inner surface of the cheeks, by an involuntary act, the
salivary glands are stimulated to activity, and commence pouring the
saliva into the mouth through the salivary ducts. As soon as
mastication commences, the contraction of the masseter and other
muscles employed in mastication stimulates the salivary glands to
increased action, and a still greater quantity of saliva is secreted
and forced upon the food, which is constantly being ground to a finer
condition, until it is sufficiently reduced for deglutition.
Whether the salivary fluid acts any other part than simply that of a
demulcent to assist the gastric juice in still further dissolving the
food, is yet a matter of some doubt, although it is found that no
other liquid will equally well subserve the process of digestion and
promote health.
After the food is in the condition ready to be swallowed, by an
apparently involuntary motion, it is placed upon the back of the
tongue, which carries it backwards to the top of the pharynx, where
the constrictions of the pharynx, aided by the muscles of the tongue
and floor of the mouth, with a sudden and violent movement thrust it
beyond the epiglottis, in order to allow the least necessary time to
the closure of the glottis, after which, by the compression of the
oesophagus, it is forced into the stomach.
Here it is that the true business of digestion commences. For as soon
as any substance except water enters the stomach, this organ, with
involuntary movements, that seem almost like instinct, commences the
secretion of the gastric juice, and by long-continued contractions of
its muscular coat, succeeds in effecting a most perfect mixture of the
food with this juice, by which the contents of the stomach are reduced
to the softest pulp.
The gastric juice, in its pure state, is a colorless, transparent
fluid; "inodorous, a little saltish, and perceptibly acid. It
possesses the property of coagulating albumen, and separating the whey
of milk from its curd, and afterwards completely dissolving the curd.
Its taste, when applied to the tongue, is similar to that of
mucilaginous water, slightly acidulated with muriatic acid." The
organs of its secretion are an immense number of tubes or glands, of a
diameter varying from one five hundredth to one three hundredth of an
inch, situated in the mucous coat of the stomach, and receiving their
blood from the gastric arteries. A chemical analysis shows it to
consist of water, mucilage, and the several free acids--muriatic,
acetic, lactic, and butyric, together with a peculiar organic matter
called _pepsin_, which acts after the manner of ferments between the
temperature of 50 deg. and 104 deg. F.
The true process of digestion is probably owing to the action of
pepsin and the acids, especially if the presence of the chloro-hydric
or muriatic be admitted; since we know, by experiments out of the
body, that chlorine, one of its elements, is a powerful solvent of all
organic substances.
The antiseptic properties of the gastric juice, as discovered by
experiments made on Alexis St. Martin, doubtless have much influence
on digestion, although their true uses are probably not yet known.
As soon as the food is reduced to a state of fluidity, the pyloric
orifice of the stomach is unclosed, and it is thrust onwards through
the alimentary canal, receiving in the duodenum the secretions of the
liver and pancreas, after which it yields to the lacteals its nutrient
portion, and the residuum is expelled from the body.
There have been many hypotheses in regard to the nature of the
digestive process. Some have supposed that digestion is a mere
mechanical process, produced by the motion of the walls of the
stomach; while others, in later times, have considered it as under the
influence of a spirit separate from the individual, who took up his
residence in the stomach and regulated the whole affair; while others
still would make it out to be a chemical operation, and thus
constitute the stomach a sort of laboratory. But to all these
ridiculous hypotheses Sir John Hunter has applied the following
playful language: "Some will have it that the stomach is a mill;
others that it is a fermenting vat; and others that it is a stewpan;
but in my view of the matter, it is neither a mill, a fermenting vat,
nor a stewpan, but a stomach, _a stomach_!"
At the present day this process is regarded as a complex, and not a
simple operation. It seems to be a process in which the mechanical,
chemical, and vital agencies must all act in harmony and order; for if
one of these be withdrawn, the function cannot be sustained for any
considerable length of time; and of the chemical and mechanical parts
of the process, since the former is much more important, and, as a
matter of course, the vital powers are indispensable, therefore
digestion may be considered as a chemical operation, directly
dependent on the laws of vitality, or of life; since the proper
consistency of the food depends, in a great measure, upon the
character of the solvents, while the secretion of these fluids, their
proper amount, together with the peculiar instinct--as it almost
seems to be--necessary to direct the stomach in its many functions,
are exclusively and entirely dependent on the laws and conditions of
life.
G.
As food is necessary to supply the waste and promote the growth of the
body, it follows that that will be the best adapted to the system
which contains the same chemical elements of which the body is
composed; viz., oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. These elements
are found in greater or less quantity in all animal food, and in many
vegetable products. Hence, that article of food which contains all
these elements in a proper proportion will tend much more to the
growth and strength of the body than those kinds which are deficient
in one or more of them. Much experience on this point, and scientific
research, seem to show that a reasonable amount of animal food in
health tends to give greater strength of muscle, and a more general
sense of fulness, than in ordinary cases a vegetable diet is able to
do, owing to the presence of nitrogen in animal tissues. Yet there are
examples of the healthiest and strongest men, who live years without a
morsel of animal food; and the fact can only be accounted for, by
supposing that the system has the power to make the most economical
use of the little nitrogen offered to it in the food; or else that it
has by some means the power to abstract it from the atmosphere, and
transform it to the living animal substance.
H.
The proximate principles, which are the most important in nourishing
the body, are albumen and fibrin. These constitute the greater part of
all the softer animal tissues, and are also found in certain classes
of vegetables, such as peas, beans, lentils, and many seeds. Hence, in
many cases, a vegetable diet, especially if embracing any of those
articles, would be sufficient to sustain life, even if no animal food
should be eaten. But no animal can exist for a long time if permitted
only to eat substances destitute of nitrogen, as in the case of a dog
fed entirely on sugar, which lived but thirty days. And owing to this
fact, Baron Liebig proposes to call substances used for food,
containing nitrogen, "elements of nutrition," and those containing an
excess of carbon, "elements of respiration;" since, according to his
view, the food is necessary to support the growth of the body by
replacing the effete and worn-out particles with new matter, and also
to keep up the supply of fuel, in order to promote a sufficient degree
of heat in the system. Accordingly, under the first division would be
included all lean meats and vegetables, such as peas, &c.; while the
fat of animals, vegetable oils, sugars, tubers, (as the potato,) and
all other substances containing starch, would be included under the
latter division.
I.
This definition of exhalants is from the theory of Haller and others.
It is now believed that the fluids exude through the thin coats of the
blood vessels. This process is called _exosmose_, and is the
_exhalation_ of old physiologists.
J.
It is a well-established fact, in animal and vegetable physiology,
that membranes possess the property of allowing fluids and gases to
pass through them in either direction, and also to permit two fluids
to pass in opposite directions at the same time. This property is
designated _endosmose_ when a fluid passes from without a body inward;
and _exosmose_ when the reverse takes place. The first is called
_imbibition_. One of the most striking instances of this, in the human
system, is shown in the lungs, where carbonic acid and water pass out
through the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes and air-cells; and
the oxygen of the air enters the blood through the same membrane. By
this process of imbibition, the oxygenation of the blood is much more
readily and faithfully accomplished; inasmuch, as by the immense
number of bronchial tubes and air-cells a larger quantity of blood is
exposed to a greater portion of air, than if the blood were directly
laid open to the atmosphere in a mass, or the air were immediately
transmitted through it.
Since the function of respiration is to free the system of superfluous
carbon and hydrogen, by union with the oxygen of the air, it follows
that the greater the amount of the products to be expelled, the larger
the quantity of oxygen will be required to effect this purpose, as we
find to be the case with those who consume large quantities of food.
The quantity of oxygen daily consumed through the lungs by an adult is
about 32.5 oz., and the carbon in the food 13.9 oz. But in order to
convert this whole amount of carbon into carbonic acid, which passes
off through the lungs and skin, 37 oz. of oxygen are required; the
remaining 4.5 oz. being absorbed by the skin. If the supply of food
remain the same, while the amount of oxygen in the inspired air is
diminished, the superfluous carbon will induce disease in the system,
as is the case of those persons who are limited in their supply of air
of a proper quality or quantity, and, consequently, have less appetite
for food than those who are abundantly supplied with air of the proper
standard of health; and in children, who proportionally consume more
food than adults, and who are more active, thereby causing a more
rapid circulation of blood, and, consequently, the removal of more
superfluous particles of matter.
In children we notice the need of air, by their disposition to be much
in the open air, and often inspiring more deeply than is common in
older persons. Also, if the carbon of the food does not have a
requisite supply of oxygen from the air, or other sources, the body
becomes emaciated, although nourishing food may be used. And on the
other hand, if there be a diminished supply of food, but an abundance
of atmospheric air, leanness and emaciation are sure to follow; owing
to the fact that if the oxygen has no waste carbon from the body to
unite with, it combines with the fat, and some other soft portions of
the body, which the Author of nature seems to have provided for this
very purpose; as is seen in the case of hibernating animals, who enter
their places of winter abode sleek and fat, but crawl out in the
spring not merely deprived of their fatty matter, but also with great
diminution of all the softer parts, which have given up their share of
carbon to supply animal heat. One important cause of emaciation in
febrile diseases is the greater rapidity of the pulse and respiration,
which consume more carbon than is afforded by the scanty supply of
food that is taken, although profuse perspiration, which almost always
occurs in some stages of fevers, greatly diminishes the full state of
the body.
K.
The theory of Baron Liebig concerning the change which the blood
experiences in color, in its passage through the lungs, meets with
the approbation of many physiologists, although there are some
important difficulties in the way of fully receiving it. A chemical
analysis of the blood shows it to be composed of albumen and
fibrin, together with some other substances, in small proportions, and
always perceptible traces of iron. He attributes the change in color
to the iron, as this substance enters into combination with carbon
and oxygen. For, as the blood passes through the trunks of the larger
vessels and capillaries, it receives the carbon from the tissues
which are continually transformed, and taking up the oxygen from the
arterialized blood, forms carbonic acid, which unites with the iron,
forming proto-carbonate of iron. This being of a gray color, he
supposes it to be that which, with the other impurities of the blood,
gives the venous blood the dark blue color. Then, as the blood
comes in contact with the oxygen, as it is returned and exposed to
this element in the lungs, the carbonic acid leaves the iron, which
has a stronger affinity for oxygen than for carbonic acid, and forms
the scarlet red peroxide of iron, that gives the characteristic
color to the arterial blood. After this, as the blood is sent out
through the smaller arteries and capillaries, it again gathers carbon
and other impurities from the system, and becomes the dark, venous
blood, thus completing the whole change of color in the circulation.
L.
As already mentioned, different articles of food have been divided
into the azotized and non-azotized, or those which contain nitrogen as
one of their constituents, and those which are nearly destitute of it.
Of these, according to Liebig, the azotized portions are simply to
supply the waste that is continually going on in the body, and promote
its growth in the early stages of existence, or, in other words, the
nutrient portion; while the sugar, starch, &c., are mainly of use in
the respiratory organs. The correctness of this view may be understood
from the fact, that the inhabitants in the colder regions of the earth
consume a much larger quantity of oil and fat than the residents of
hotter climates; and also those dwelling in the temperate zones can
eat with greater impunity a larger quantity of fat meats in the winter
than in the summer, there being then so much more demand for animal
heat than in the summer.
M.
The suggestion of using the bellows in asphyxia, is from the
directions of that distinguished and veteran surgeon, Valentine Mott,
of New York city. The directions in the first part of the paragraph
are the most practical, and best adapted to the wants of the
community.
GLOSSARY
AB-DUC'TOR. [L. _abduco_ to lead away.] A muscle which moves certain
parts, by separating them from the axis of the body.
AB-DO'MEN. [L. _abdo_, to hide.] That part of the body which lies
between the thorax and the bottom of the pelvis.
AB-DOM'IN-IS. Pertaining to the abdomen.
A-CE-TAB'U-LUM. [L. _acetum_, vinegar.] The socket for the head of the
thigh-bone; an ancient vessel for holding vinegar.
A-CE'TIC. [L. _acetum_, vinegar.] Relating to acetic acid. This is
always composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, in the same
proportion.
A-CHIL'LIS. A term applied to the tendon of two large muscles of the
leg.
A-CRO'MI-ON. [Gr. +akros+, _akros_, highest, and +omos+, _omos_,
shoulder.] A process of the scapula that joins to the clavicle.
AD-DUC'TOR. [L. _adduco_, to lead to.] A muscle which draws one part
of the body toward another.
AL-BU-GIN'E-A. [L. _albus_, white.] A term applied to white textures.
AL-BU'MEN. [L. _albus_, white.] An animal substance of the same nature
as the white of an egg.
A-LU'MIN-UM. [L.] The name given to the metallic base of alumina.
AL'VE-O-LAR. [L. _alveolus_, a socket] Pertaining to the sockets of
the teeth.
AM-MO'NI-A. An alkali. It is composed of three equivalents of hydrogen
and one of nitrogen.
A-NAS'TO-MOSE. [Gr. +ana+, _ana_, through, and +stoma+, _stoma_,
mouth.] The communication of arteries and veins with each other.
AN-A-TOM'I-CAL. Relating to the parts of the body, when dissected or
separated.
A-NAT'O-MY. [Greek +ana+, _ana_, through, and +tome+, _tome_ a
cutting.] The description of the structure of animals. The word
_anatomy_ properly signifies dissection.
AN'GU-LI. [L. _angulus_, a corner.] A term applied to certain muscles
on account of their form.
AN-I-MAL'CU-LAE. [L. _animalcula_, a little animal.] Animals that are
only perceptible by means of a microscope.
AN'NU-LAR. [L. _annulus_, a ring.] Having the form of a ring.
AN-TI'CUS. [L.] A term applied to certain muscles.
A-ORT'A. [Gr. +aorte+, _aorte_; from +aer+, _aer_, air, and +tereo+,
_tereo_, to keep.] The great artery that arises from the left
ventricle of the heart.
AP-O-NEU-RO'SIS. [Gr. +apo+, _apo_, from, and +neuron+, _neuron_, a
nerve.] The membranous expansions of muscles and tendons. The ancients
called every white tendon _neuron_, a nerve.
AP-PA-RA'TUS. [L. _apparo_, to prepare.] An assemblage of organs
designed to produce certain results.
AP-PEND'IX. [L., an addition.] Something appended or added.
A'QUE-OUS. [L. _aqua_, water.] Partaking of the nature of water.
A-RACH'NOID. [Gr. +arachne+, _arachne_, a spider, and +eidos+,
_eidos_, form.] Resembling a spider's web. A thin membrane that
covers the brain.
AR'BOR. [L.] A tree. _Arbor vitae._ The tree of life. A term applied to
a part of the cerebellum.
AR'TE-RY. [Gr. +aer+, _aer_, air, and +tereo+, _tereo_, to keep;
because the ancients thought that the arteries contained only air.] A
tube through which blood flows from the heart.
A-RYT-E'NOID. [Gr. +arytaina+, _arutaina_, a ewer, and +eidos+,
_eidos_, form.] The name of a cartilage of the larynx.
AS-CEND'ENS. [L.] Ascending; rising.
AS-PHYX'I-A. [Gr. +a+, _a_, not, and +sphyxis+, _sphyxis_, pulse.]
Originally, want of pulse; now used for suspended respiration, or
apparent death.
AS-TRAG'A-LUS. [Gr.] The name of a bone of the foot. One of the tarsal
bones.
AUD-I'TION. [L. _audio_, to hear.] Hearing.
AUD-IT-O'RI-US. [L.] Pertaining to the organ of hearing.
AU'RI-CLE. [L. _auricula_, the external ear; from _auris_, the ear.] A
cavity of the heart.
AU-RIC'U-LAR. [L. _auricula_.] Pertaining to the auricle.
AX-IL'LA. [L.] The armpit.
AX'IL-LA-RY. Belonging or relating to the armpit.
A-ZOTE'. [Gr. +a+, _a_, not, and +zoe+, _zoe_, life.] Nitrogen. One of
the constituent elements of the atmosphere. So named because it will
not sustain life.
BEN-ZO'IC. _Benzoic acid._ A peculiar vegetable acid, obtained from
benzoin and some other balsams.
BI'CEPS. [L. _bis_, twice, and _caput_, a head.] A name applied to
muscles with two heads at one extremity.
BI-CUS'PIDS. [L. _bis_ and _cuspis_, a point.] Teeth that have two
points upon their crown.
BILE. [L. _bilis_.] A yellow, viscid fluid secreted by the liver.
BI-PEN'NI-FORM. [L. _bis_ and _penna_, a feather.] _Bipenniform
muscle._ Having fibres on each side of a common tendon.
BRACH'I-AL. [L. _brachium_.] Belonging to the arm.
BRE'VIS. [L.] _Brevis_, short; _brevior_, shorter.
BRONCH'I-A, -AE. [L.] A division of the trachea that passes to the
lungs.
BRONCH'I-AL. Relating to the bronchia.
BRONCH-I'TIS. [L.] An inflammation of the bronchia.
BUC-CI-NA'TOR. [L. _buccinum_, a trumpet.] The name of a muscle of the
cheek, so named because used in blowing wind instruments.
BUR'SAE MU-CO'SA. [L. _bursa_, a purse, and _mucosa_, viscous.] Small
sacs, containing a viscid fluid, situated about the joints, under
tendons.
CAE'CUM. [L.] Blind; the name given to the commencement of the colon.
CALX, CAL'CIS. [L.] The heel-bone.
CAL'CI-UM. [L.] The metallic basis of lime.
CAP'IL-LA-RY. [L. _capillus_, a hair.] Resembling a hair; small.
CAP'SU-LAR. Pertaining to a capsule.
CAP'SULE. [L. _capsula_, a little chest.] A membranous bag, enclosing
a part.
CA'PUT. [L.] The head. _Caput coli._ The head of the colon.
CAR'BON. [L. _carbo_, a coal.] Pure charcoal. An elementary
combustible substance.
CAR-BON'IC. Pertaining to carbon.
CAR'DI-AC. [Gr. +kardia+, _kardia_, heart.] Relating to the heart, or
upper orifice of the stomach.
CAR'NE-A, -AE. [L. _caro_, _carnis_, flesh.] Fleshy.
CA-ROT'ID. [Gr. +karos+, _karos_, lethargy.] The great arteries of the
neck that convey blood to the heart. The ancients supposed drowsiness
to be seated in these arteries.
CAR'PAL. [L. _carpus_, the wrist.] Relating to the wrist.
CAR'PUS, -I. [L.] The wrist.
CAR'TI-LAGE. [L. _cartilago_.] Gristle. A smooth, elastic substance,
softer than bone.
CAR-TI-LAG'IN-OUS. Pertaining to cartilage.
CAU-CA'SIAN. One of the races of men.
CA'VA. [L.] Hollow. _Vena cava._ A name given to the two great veins
of the body.
CEL'LU-LAR. [L. _cellula_, a little cell.] Composed of cells.
CER-E-BEL'LUM. [L.] The hinder and lower part of the brain, or the
little brain.
CER'E-BRAL. Pertaining to the brain.
CER'E-BRUM. [L.] The front and large part of the brain. The term is
sometimes applied to the whole contents of the cranium.
CER'E-BRO-SPI'NAL. Relating to the brain and spine.
CER'VIX. [L.] The neck.
CER'VI-CAL. Relating to the neck.
CHEST. [Sax.] The thorax; the trunk of the body from the neck to the
abdomen.
CHLO'RINE. [Gr. +chloros+, _chloros_, green.] _Chlorine gas_, so named
from its color.
CHOR'DA, -AE. [L.] A cord. An assemblage of fibres.
CHO'ROID. [Gr. +chorion+, _chorion_.] A term applied to several parts
of the body that resemble the skin.
CHYLE. [Gr. +chulos+, _chulos_, juice.] A nutritive fluid, of a
whitish appearance, which is extracted from food by the action of the
digestive organs.
CHYL-I-FI-CA'TION. [_chyle_ and L. _facio_, to make.] The process by
which chyle is formed.
CHYME. [Gr. +chumos+, _chumos_, juice.] A kind of grayish pulp formed
from the food in the stomach.
CHYM-I-FI-CA'TION. [_chyme_ and L. _facio_, to make.] The process by
which chyme is formed.
CIL'IA-RY. [L. _cilia_, eyelashes.] Belonging to the eyelids.
CIN-E-RI'TIOUS. [L. _cinis_, ashes.] Having the color of ashes.
CLAV'I-CLE. [L. _clavicula_, from _clavis_, a key.] The collar-bone;
so called from its resemblance in shape to an ancient key.
CLEI'DO. A term applied to some muscles that are attached to the
clavicle.
CO-AG'U-LUM. [L.] A coagulated mass, a clot of blood.
COC'CYX. [Gr.] An assemblage of bones joined to the sacrum.
COCH'LE-A. [Gr. +kochlo+, _kochlo_, to twist; or L. _cochlea_, a
screw.] A cavity of the ear resembling in form a snail shell.
CO'LON. [Gr.] A portion of the large intestine.
CO-LUM'NA, -AE.[L.] A column or pillar.
COM-MU'NIS. [L.] A name applied to certain muscles.
COM-PLEX'US. [L. _complector_, to embrace.] The name of a muscle that
embraces many attachments.
COM-PRESS'OR. [L. _con_, together, and _premo_, _pressus_, to press.]
A term applied to some muscles, that compress the parts to which they
are attached.
CON'DYLE. [Gr. +kondulos+, _kondulos_, a knuckle, a protuberance.] A
prominence on the end of a bone.
CON-JUNC-TI'VA. [L. _con_, together, and _jungo_, to join.] The
membrane that covers the anterior part of the globe of the eye.
COP'PER. A metal of a pale, red color, tinged with yellow.
COR-A'COID. [Gr. +korax+, _korax_, a crow, and +eidos+, _eidos_,
form.] A process of the scapula shaped like the beak of a crow.
CO'RI-ON. [Gr. +chorion+, _chorion_, skin.] The true skin.
CORN'E-A. [L. _cornu_, a horn.] The transparent membrane in the fore
part of the eye.
COS'TA. [L. _costa_, a coast, side, or rib.] A rib.
CRIB'RI-FORM. [L. _cribrum_, a sieve, and _forma_, form.] A plate of
the ethmoid bone, through which the olfactory nerve passes to the
nose.
CRI'COID. [Gr. +krikos+, _krikos_, a ring, and +eidos+, _eidos_,
form.] A name given to a cartilage of the larynx, from its form.
CRYS'TAL-LINE. [L. _crystallinus_, consisting of crystal.] _Crystalline
lens._ One of the humors of the eye. It is convex, white, firm, and
transparent.
CU'BI-TUS, -I. [L. _cubitus_, the elbow.] One of the bones of the
forearm, also called the _ulna_.
CU'BOID. [Gr. +kubos+, _kubos_, a cube, and +eidos+, _eidos_, form.]
Having nearly the form of a cube.
CU-NE'I-FORM. [L. _cuneus_, a wedge.] The name of bones in the wrist
and foot.
CUS'PID. [L. _cuspis_, a point.] Having one point.
CU-TA'NE-OUS. [L. _cutis_, skin.] Belonging to the skin.
CU'TI-CLE. [L. _cutis_.] The external layer of the skin.
CU'TIS VE'RA. [L. _cutis_, and _vera_, true.] The internal layer of
the skin; the true skin.
DEL'TOID. [Gr. +delta+, _delta_, the Greek letter +Delta+, and
+eidos+, _eidos_, form.] The name of a muscle, that resembles in form
the Greek letter +Delta+.
DENS. [L.] A tooth.
DENT'AL. [L. _dens_, tooth.] Pertaining to the teeth.
DE-PRESS'OR. [L.] The name of a muscle that draws down the part to
which it is attached.
DERM'OID. [Gr. +derma+, _derma_, the skin, and +eidos+, _eidos_,
form.] Resembling skin.
DE-SCEND'ENS. [L. _de_ and _scando_, to climb.] Descending, falling.
DI'A-PHRAGM. [Gr. +diaphragma+, _diaphragma_, a partition.] The
midriff; a muscle separating the chest from the abdomen.
DI-AR-RHOE'A. [Gr. +diarreo+, _diarrheo_, to flow through.] A morbidly
frequent evacuation of the intestines.
DI-AS'TO-LE. [Gr. +diastello+, _diastello_, to put asunder.] The
dilatation of the heart and arteries when the blood enters them.
DI-GES'TION. [L. _digestio_.] The process of dissolving food in the
stomach, and preparing it for circulation and nourishment.
DIG-I-TO'RUM. [L. _digitus_, a finger.] A term applied to certain
muscles of the extremities.
DOR'SAL. [L. _dorsum_, the back.] Pertaining to the back.
DU-O-DE'NUM. [L. _duodenus_, of twelve fingers' breadth.] The first
portion of the small intestine.
DU'RA MA'TER. [L. _durus_, hard, and _mater_, mother.] The outermost
membrane of the brain.
DYS'EN-TER-Y. [Gr. +dys+, _dus_, bad, and +enteria+, _enteria_,
intestines.] A discharge of blood and mucus from the intestines
attended with tenesmus.
DYS-PEP'SI-A. [Gr. +dys+, _dus_, bad, and +pepto+, _pepto_, to
digest.] Indigestion, or difficulty of digestion.
EN-AM'EL. [Fr.] The smooth, hard substance which covers the crown or
visible part of a tooth.
EP-I-DERM'IS. [Gr. +epi+, _epi_, upon, and +derma+, _derma_, the
skin.] The scarf-skin; the cuticle.
EP-I-GLOT'TIS. [Gr. +epi+, _epi_, upon, and +glotta+, _glotta_, the
tongue.] One of the cartilages of the glottis.
EU-STA'CHI-AN TUBE. A channel from the fauces to the middle ear, named
from Eustachius, who first described it.
EX'CRE-MENT. [L. _excerno_, to separate.] Matter excreted and ejected;
alvine discharges.
EX-CRE-MEN-TI'TIAL. Pertaining to excrement.
EX'CRE-TO-RY. A little duct or vessel, destined to receive secreted
fluids, and to excrete or discharge them; also, a secretory vessel.
EX-HA'LANT. [L. _exhalo_, to send forth vapor.] Having the quality of
exhaling or evaporating.
EX-TENS'OR. [L.] A name applied to a muscle that serves to extend any
part of the body; opposed to _Flexor_.
FA'CIAL. [L. _facies_, face.] Pertaining to the face.
FALX. [L. _falx_, a scythe.] A process of the dura mater shaped like a
scythe.
FAS'CI-A. [L. _fascia_, a band.] A tendinous expansion or aponeurosis.
FAS-CIC'U-LUS, -LI. [L. _fascis_, a bundle.] A little bundle.
FAUX, -CES. [L.] The top of the throat.
FEM'O-RAL. Pertaining to the femur.
FEM'O-RIS. A term applied to muscles that are attached to the femur.
FE'MUR. [L.] The thigh-bone.
FE-NES'TRA, -UM. [L. _fenestra_, a window.] A term applied to some
openings into the internal ear.
FI'BRE. [L. _fibra_.] An organic filament, or thread, which enters
into the composition of every animal and vegetable texture.
FI'BRIN. A peculiar organic substance found in animals and vegetables;
it is a solid substance, tough, elastic, and composed of thready
fibres.
FI'BROUS. Composed or consisting of fibres.
FI'BRO-CAR'TI-LAGE. An organic tissue, partaking of the nature of
fibrous tissue and that of cartilage.
FIB'U-LA. [L., a clasp.] The outer and lesser bone of the leg.
FIB'U-LAR. Belonging to the fibula.
FIL'A-MENT. [L. _filamenta_, threads.] A fine thread, of which flesh,
nerves, skin, &c., are composed.
FLEC'TION. [L. _flectio_.] The act of bending.
FOL'LI-CLE. [L. _folliculus_, a small bag.] A gland; a little bag in
animal bodies.
FORE'ARM. The part of the upper extremity between the elbow and hand.
FOS'SA. [L., a ditch.] A cavity in a bone, with a large aperture.
FRAE'NUM. [L., a bridle.] _Fraenum linguae._ The bridle of the tongue.
FUNC'TION. [L. _fungor_, to perform.] The action of an organ or system
of organs.
FUN'GI-FORM. [L. _fungus_ and _forma_.] Having terminations like the
head of a fungus, or a mushroom.
GAN'GLI-ON, -A. [Gr.] An enlargement in the course of a nerve.
GAS'TRIC. [Gr. +gaster+, _gaster_, the stomach.] Belonging to the
stomach.
GAS-TROC-NE'MI-US. [Gr. +gaster+, _gaster_, the stomach, and +kneme+,
_kneme_, the leg.] The name of large muscles of the leg.
GEL'A-TIN. [L. _gelo_, to congeal.] A concrete animal substance,
transparent and soluble in water.
GLE'NOID. [Gr. +glene+, _glene_, a cavity.] A term applied to some
articulate cavities of bones.
GLOS'SA. [Gr.] The tongue. Names compounded with this word are applied
to muscles of the tongue.
GLOS'SO-PHA-RYN'GI-AL. Relating to the tongue and pharynx.
GLOT'TIS. [Gr.] The narrow opening at the upper part of the larynx.
GLU'TE-US. [Gr.] A name given to muscles of the hip.
HEM'OR-RHAGE. [Gr. +haima+, _haima_, blood and +regnuo+, _regnuo_, to
burst.] A discharge of blood from an artery or vein.
HU'MER-US. [L.] The bone of the arm.
HY'A-LOID. [Gr.] A transparent membrane of the eye.
HY'DRO-GEN. [Gr. +hydor+, water, and +gennao+, to generate.] A gas
which constitutes one of the elements of water.
HY'GI-ENE. [Gr. +hugieinon+, _hugieinon_, health.] The part of
medicine which treats of the preservation of health.
HY'OID. [Gr. +u+ and +eidos+, _eidos_, shape.] A bone of the tongue
resembling the Greek letter upsilon in shape.
HY-OID'E-US. Pertaining to the hyoid bone.
HY'PO-GLOS'SAL. Under the tongue. The name of a nerve of the tongue.
IL'E-UM. [Gr. +eilo+, _eilo_, to wind.] A portion of the small
intestines.
IL'I-AC. [From the above.] The flank; pertaining to the small
intestine.
IL'I-UM. The haunch-bone.
IN-CI'SOR. [L. _incido_, to cut.] A front tooth that cuts or divides.
IN'DEX. [L. _indico_, to show.] The fore-finger; the pointing finger.
IN-NOM-I-NA'TA. [L. _in_, not, and _nomen_, name.] Parts which have no
proper name.
IN-OS'CU-LATE. [L. _in_ and _osculatus_, from _osculor_, to kiss.] To
unite, as two vessels at their extremities.
IN'TER. [L.] Between.
IN-TER-COST'AL. [L. _inter_, between, and _costa_, a rib.] Between the
ribs.
IN-TER-NO'DI-I. [L. _inter_, between, and _nodus_, knot.] A term
applied to some muscles of the forearm.
IN-TER-STI'TIAL. [L. _inter_, between, and _sto_, to stand.]
Pertaining to or containing interstices.
IN-TES'TINES. [L. _intus_, within.] The canal that extends from the
stomach to the anus.
I'RIS. [L., the rainbow.] The colored circle that surrounds the pupil
of the eye.
I'VO-RY. A hard, solid, fine-grained substance of a fine white color;
the tusk of an elephant.
JE-JU'NUM. [L., empty.] A portion of the small intestine.
JU'GU-LAR. [L. _jugulum_, the neck.] Relating to the throat. The great
veins of the neck.
LA'BI-UM, LA'BI-I. [L.] The lips.
LAB'Y-RINTH. [Gr.] The internal ear, so named from its many windings.
LACH'RY-MAL. [L. _lachryma_, a tear.] Pertaining to tears.
LAC'TE-AL. [L., _lac_, milk.] A small vessel or tube of animal bodies
for conveying chyle from the intestine to the thoracic duct.
LAM'I-NA, -AE. [L.] A plate, or thin coat lying over another.
LAR'YNX. [Gr. +larunx+, _larunx_.] The upper part of the windpipe.
LAR-YN-GI'TIS. Inflammation of the larynx.
LA-TIS'SI-MUS, -MI. [L., superlative of _latus_, broad.] A term
applied to some muscles.
LE-VA'TOR. [L. _levo_, to raise.] A name applied to a muscle that
raises some part.
LIG'A-MENT. [L. _ligo_, to bind.] A strong, compact substance serving
to bind one bone to another.
LIN'E-A, -AE. [L.] A line.
LIN'GUA, -AE. [L.] A tongue.
LIV'ER. The name of one of the abdominal organs, the largest gland in
the system. It is situated below the diaphragm, and secretes the
bile.
LOBE. A round projecting part of an organ.
LON'GUS, LON'GI-OR. [L., long, longer.] A term applied to several
muscles.
LUM'BAR. [L. _lumbus_, the loins.] Pertaining to the loins.
LYMPH. [L. _lympha_, water.] A colorless fluid in animal bodies, and
contained in vessels called lymphatics.
LYM-PHAT'IC. A vessel of animal bodies that contains or conveys
lymph.
MAG-NE'SI-UM. The metallic base of magnesia.
MAG'NUS, -NA, -NUM. [L., great.] A term applied to certain muscles.
MA'JOR. [L., greater.] Greater in extent or quantity.
MAN'GA-NESE. A metal of a whitish gray color.
MAR'ROW. [Sax.] A soft, oleaginous substance, contained in the
cavities of bones.
MAS-SE'TER. [Gr. +massaomai+, _massaomai_, to chew.] The name of a
muscle of the face.
MAS'TI-CATE, MAS-TI-CA'TION. [L. _mastico_.] To chew; the act of
chewing.
MAS'TOID. [Gr. +mastos+, _mastos_, breast, and +eidos+, _eidos_,
form.] the name of a process of the temporal bone behind the ear.
MAS-TOID'E-US. A name applied to muscles that are attached to the
mastoid process.
MAX-IL'LA. [L.] The jaw-bone.
MAX'IL-LA-RY. Pertaining to the jaw.
MAX'I-MUS, -UM. [L., superlative of _magnus_, great.] A term applied
to several muscles.
ME-A'TUS. [L. _meo_, to go.] A passage or channel.
ME-DI-AS-TI'NUM. A membrane that separates the chest into two parts.
ME'DI-UM, -A. [L.] The space or substance through which a body passes
to any point.
MED'UL-LA-RY. [L., _medulla_, marrow.] Pertaining to marrow.
ME-DUL'LA OB-LON-GA'TA. Commencement of the spinal cord.
ME-DUL'LA SPI-NA'LIS. The spinal cord.
MEM'BRA-NA. A membrane; a thin, white, flexible skin formed by fibres
interwoven like net-work.
MEM'BRA-NOUS. Relating to membrane.
MES'EN-TER-Y. [Gr. +mesos+, _mesos_, the middle, and +enteron+,
_enteron_, the intestine.] The membrane in the middle of the
intestines, by which they are attached to the spine.
MES-EN-TER'IC. Pertaining to the mesentery.
MET-A-CAR'PAL. Relating to the metacarpus.
MET-A-CAR'PUS. [Gr. +meta+, _meta_, after, and +karpos+, _karpos_,
wrist.] The part of the hand between the wrist and fingers.
MET-A-TAR'SAL. Relating to the metatarsus.
MET-A-TAR'SUS. [Gr. +meta+, _meta_, after, and +tarsos+, _tarsos_, the
tarsus.] The instep. A term applied to seven bones of the foot.
MID'RIFF. [Sax. _mid_, and _hrife_, the belly.] See DIAPHRAGM.
MIN'I-MUS, -I. [L.] The smallest. A term applied to several muscles.
MI'NOR. [L.] Less, smaller. A term applied to several muscles.
MI'TRAL. [L. _mitra_, a mitre.] The name of the valves in the left
side of the heart.
MO-DI'O-LUS. [L. _modus_, a measure.] A cone in the cochlea around
which the membranes wind.
MO'LAR. [L. _mola_, a mill.] The name of some of the large teeth.
MOL'LIS. [L.] Soft.
MO'TOR, -ES. [L. _moveo_, to move.] A mover. A term applied to certain
nerves.
MU'COUS. Pertaining to mucus.
MU'CUS. A viscid fluid secreted by the mucous membrane, which it
serves to moisten and defend.
MUS'CLE. A bundle of fibres enclosed in a sheath.
MUS'CU-LAR. Relating to a muscle.
MY-O'DES. A term applied to certain muscles of the neck.
NA'SAL. Relating to the nose.
NA'SUS. [L., the nose.] The nostrils.
NERVE. An organ of sensation and motion in animals.
NERV'OUS. Relating to the nerves.
NEU-RI-LEM'A. [Gr. +neuron+, _neuron_, a nerve, and +lemma+, _lema_, a
sheath.] The sheath or covering of a nerve.
NI'GRUM. [L.] Black.
NI'TRO-GEN. That element of the air which is called azote.
NU-TRI'TION. The art or process of promoting the growth, or repairing
the waste of the system.
OC-CIP-I-TA'LIS. Pertaining to the back part of the head.
OC'CI-PUT. [L. _ob_ and _caput_, the head.] The hinder part of the
head.
OC-U-LO'RUM. Of the eyes.
OC'ULUS, -I. [L.] The eye.
OE-SOPH'A-GUS. [Gr. +oio+, _oio_, to carry, and +phago+, _phago_, to
eat.] The name of the passage through which the food passes from the
mouth to the stomach.
O-LEC'RA-NON. [Gr. +olene+, _olene_, the cubit, and +kranon+,
_kranon_, the head.] The elbow; the head of the ulna.
OL-FACT'O-RY. [L. _oleo_, to smell, and _facio_, to make.] Pertaining
to smelling.
O-MEN'TUM. [L.] The caul.
O'MO. [Gr. +omos+, _omos_, the shoulder.] Names compounded of this
word are applied to muscles attached to the shoulder.
OPH-THAL'MIC. [Gr. +ophthalmos+, _ophthalmos_, the eye.] Belonging to
the eye.
OP-PO'NENS. That which acts in opposition to something. The name of
two muscles of the hand.
OP'TI-CUS, OP'TIC. [Gr. +optomai+, _optomai_, to see.] Relating to the
eye.
OR-BIC'U-LAR. [L. _orbis_, a circle.] Circular.
OR-BIC-U-LA'RIS. A name applied to several muscles.
OR'GAN. A part of the system destined to exercise some particular
function.
OR'I-GIN. Commencement; source.
OS. [L.] A bone; the mouth of any thing.
O'RIS. [L. _os_, _oris_.] Of the mouth.
OS HY-OID'ES. [Gr. See HYOID.] The name of the bone at the base of the
tongue.
OS'MA-ZOME. [Gr. +osme+, _osme_, smell, and +zomos+, _zomos_, broth.]
A principle obtained from animal fibre which gives the peculiar taste
to broth.
OS'SA. [L., plural of _os_, bone.] Bones.
OS'SE-OUS. Pertaining to bones.
OS-SI-FI-CA'TION. The formation of bones in animals.
OS'SI-FY. [L. _ossa_, bones, and _facio_, to make.] To convert into
bone.
OS'SIS. Of a bone.
O-VA'LE. [L.] The shape of an egg.
OX-AL'IC. Pertaining to sorrel. _Oxalic acid_ is the acid of sorrel.
It is composed of two equivalents of carbon and three of oxygen.
OX'Y-GEN. A permanently elastic fluid invisible and inodorous. One of
the components of atmospheric air.
PA-LA'TUM. [L.] The palate; the roof of the mouth.
PAL-PE-BRA'RUM. [L. _palpebra_, the eyelid.] Of the eyelids.
PAL'MAR. [L. _palma_, the palm.] Belonging to the hand.
PAL-MA'RIS. A term applied to some muscles attached to the palm of the
hand.
PAN'CRE-AS. [Gr. +pan+, _pan_, all, and +kreas+, _kreas_, flesh.] The
name of one of the digestive organs.
PAN-CRE-AT'IC. Belonging to the pancreas.
PA-PIL'LA, -AE. [L.] Small conical prominences.
PA-RAL'Y-SIS. Abolition of function whether of intellect, sensation,
or motion.
PA-REN'CHY-MA. [Gr. +parencheo+, _parengcheo_, to pour through.] The
substance contained between the blood vessels of an organ.
PA-ROT'ID. [Gr. +para+, _para_, near, and +otos+, _otos_, the gen. of
+ous+, _ous_, the ear.] The name of the largest salivary gland.
PA-TEL'LA, -AE. [L.] The knee-pan.
PA-THET'I-CUS, -CI. [Gr. +pathos+, _pathos_, passion.] The name of the
fourth pair of nerves.
PEC'TUS. [L.] The chest.
PEC'TO-RAL. Pertaining to the chest.
PEC-TO-RA'LIS. Belonging to the chest.
PE'DIS. [L., gen. of _pes_, the foot.] Of the foot.
PEL'I-TONGS. A term applied to masses of fat.
PEL'LI-CLE. [L., dim. of _pellis_, the skin.] A thin skin or film.
PEL'VIC. Relating to the pelvis.
PEL'VIS. [L.] The basin formed by the large bones at the lower part of
the abdomen.
PEN'NI-FORM. [L. _penna_, a feather.] Having the form of a feather, or
quill.
PER-I-CAR'DI-UM. [Gr. +peri+, _peri_, around, and +kardia+, _kardia_,
the heart.] A membrane that encloses the heart.
PER-I-CHON'DRI-UM. [Gr. +peri+, _peri_, around, and +chondros+,
_chondros_, cartilage.] A membrane that invests cartilage.
PER-I-CRA'NI-UM. [Gr. +peri+, and +kranion+, _kranion_, the cranium.]
A membrane that invests the skull.
PER'MA-NENT. Durable; lasting.
PER-I-STAL'TIC. [Gr. +peristello+, _peristello_, to involve.] A
movement like the crawling of a worm.
PER-SPI-RA'TION. [L. _per_, through, and _spiro_, to breathe.] The
excretion from the skin.
PHAL'ANX, -GES. [Gr. +phalanx+, _phalanx_, an army.] Three rows of
small bones forming the fingers or toes.
PHA-LAN'GI-AL. Belonging to the fingers or toes.
PHA-RYN'GE-AL. Relating to the pharynx.
PHAR'YNX. [Gr. +pharunx+, _pharunx_.] The upper part of the
oesophagus.
PHOS'PHOR-US. [Gr. +phos+, _phos_, the light, and +phero+, _phero_, to
bear.] A combustible substance, of a yellowish color, semi-transparent,
resembling wax.
PHREN'IC. [Gr. +phren+, _phren_, the mind.] Belonging to the
diaphragm.
PHYS-I-OL'O-GY. [Gr. +phusis+, _phusis_, nature, and +logos+, _logos_,
a discourse.] The science of the functions of the organs of animals
and plants.
PI'A MA'TER. [L., good mother.] The name of one of the membranes of
the brain.
PIG-MEN'TUM. [L.] Paint; a preparation of colors.
PIN'NA. [L., a wing.] A part of the external ear.
PLA-TYS'MA. [Gr. +platus+, _platus_, broad.] A muscle of the neck.
PLEU'RA, -AE. [Gr. +pleura+, _pleura_, the side.] A thin membrane that
covers the inside of the thorax, and also forms the exterior coat of
the lungs.
PLEU'RAL. Relating to the pleura.
PLEX'US. [L. _plecto_, to weave together.] Any union of nerves,
vessels, or fibres, in the form of net-work.
PNEU-MO-GAS'TRIC. [Gr. +pneumon+, _pneumon_, the lungs, and +gaster+,
_gaster_, the stomach.] Belonging to both the stomach and lungs.
POL'LI-CIS. [L.] A term applied to muscles attached to the fingers and
toes.
PONS. [L.] A bridge. _Pons varolii._ A part of the brain formed by the
union of the crura cerebri and cerebelli.
POP-LIT-E'AL. [L. _poples_, the ham.] Pertaining to the ham or
knee-joint. A name given to various parts.
POS'TI-CUS. [L.] Behind; posterior. A term applied to certain
muscles.
POR'TI-O DU'RA. [L., hard portion.] The facial nerve; 8th pair.
POR'TI-O MOL'LIS. [L., soft portion.] The auditory nerve; 7th pair.
PO-TAS'SI-UM. [L.] The metallic basis of pure potash.
PRO-BOS'CIS. [Gr. +pro+, _pro_, before, and +bosko+, _bosko_, to
feed.] The snout or trunk of an elephant or other animal.
PROC'ESS. A prominence or projection.
PRO-NA'TOR. [L. _pronus_, turned downward.] The muscle of the forearm
that moves the palm of the hand downward.
PSO'AS. [Gr. +psoai+, _psoai_, the loins.] The name of two muscles of
the leg.
PUL-MON'IC. }
}
PUL'MO-NA-RY. } [L. _pulmo_, the lungs.] Belonging or
} relating to the lungs.
PUL-MO-NA'LIS. }
PU'PIL. A little aperture in the centre of the iris, through which the
rays of light pass to the retina.
PY-LOR'IC. Pertaining to the pylorus.
PY-LOR'US. [Gr. +puloros+, _puloros_, a gate keeper.] The lower
orifice of the stomach, with which the duodenum connects.
RA'DI-US. [L., a ray, a spoke of a wheel.] The name of one of the
bones of the forearm.
RA-DI-A'LIS. Radial; belonging to the radius.
RA'DI-ATE. Having lines or fibres that diverge from a point.
RA'MUS. [L.] A branch. A term applied to the projections of bones.
REC-RE-MEN-TI'TIAL. [L. _re_, again, and _cerno_, to secrete.]
Consisting of superfluous matter separated from that which is
valuable.
REC'TUM. The third and last portion of the intestines.
REC'TUS, -I. [L.] Straight; erect. A term applied to several muscles.
RE-SID'U-AL. Pertaining to waste matter.
RE-SID'U-UM. [L.] Waste matter. The faeces.
RES-PI-RA'TION. [L. _re_, again, and _spiro_, to breathe.] The act of
breathing. Inspiring air into the lungs and expelling it again.
RE-SPI'RA-TO-RY. Pertaining to respiration; serving for respiration.
RET'I-NA. [L., _rete_, a net.] The essential organ of sight. One of
the coats of the eye, formed by the expansion of the optic nerve.
RO-TUN'DUM, -A. [L.] Round; circular.
RU'GA, -AE. [L.] A wrinkle; a fold.
SAC'CU-LUS. [L., dim. of _saccus_, a bag.] A little sac.
SA'CRAL. Pertaining to the sacrum.
SA'CRUM. [L., sacred.] The bone which forms the posterior part of the
pelvis, and is a continuation of the spinal column.
SA-LI'VA. [L.] The fluid which is secreted by the salivary glands,
which moistens the food and mouth.
SAL'I-VA-RY. That which belongs to the saliva.
SAN'GUIN-E-OUS. [L. _sanguis_, the blood.] Bloody; abounding with
blood; plethoric.
SAR-TO'RI-US. [L. _sartor_, a tailor.] A term applied to a muscle of
the thigh.
SCA'LA, -AE. [L., a ladder.] Cavities of the cochlea.
SCA-LE'NUS. [Gr. +skalenos+, _skalenos_, unequal.] A term applied to
some muscles of the neck.
SCAPH'OID. [Gr. +skaphe+, _skaphe_, a little boat.] The name applied
to one of the wrist-bones.
SCAP'U-LA. [L.] The shoulder-blade.
SCAP'U-LAR. Relating to the scapula.
SCARF-SKIN. The outer, thin integument of the body; the cuticle.
SCI-AT'IC. [Gr., pertaining to the loins.] The name of the large nerve
of the loins and leg.
SCLE-ROT'IC. [Gr. +skleros+, _skleros_, hard.] A membrane of the eye.
SE-BA'CEOUS. [L., _sebum_, tallow.] Pertaining to fat; unctuous
matter.
SE-CRE'TION. The act of secerning; the act of producing from the blood
substances different front the blood itself, as bile, saliva. The
matter secreted, as mucus, bile, &c.
SE-CRE'TO-RY. Performing the office of secretion.
SE-CUN'DUS. Second. A term applied to certain muscles.
SEM-I-CIR'CU-LAR. Having the form of a half circle. The name of a part
of the ear.
SEM-I-TEN-DI-NO'SUS. [L. _semi_, half and _tendo_, a tendon.] The name
of a muscle.
SEP'TUM. [L.] A membrane that divides two cavities from each other.
SE'ROUS. Thin; watery. Pertaining to serum.
SE'RUM. [L.] The thin, transparent part of blood.
SER-RA'TUS. [L. _serro_, to saw.] A term applied to some muscles of
the trunk.
SIG'MOID. [Gr.] Resembling the Greek +s+, sigma.
SI-LI'CI-UM. A term applied to one of the earths.
SI'NUS. [L., a bay.] A cavity, the interior of which is more expanded
than the entrance.
SKEL'E-TON. [Gr. +skello+, _skello_, to dry.] The aggregate of the
hard parts of the body; the bones.
SO'DI-UM. The metallic base of soda
SPHINC'TER. [Gr. +sphingo+, _sphingo_, to restrict.] A muscle that
contracts or shuts an orifice.
SPI'NAL CORD. A prolongation of the brain.
SPI-NA'LIS. Relating to the spine.
SPINE. A thorn. The vertebral column; back-bone.