GRAMMATICAL PHASES OF WRITING ENGLISH
The present chapter reviews only those grammatical principles that are
sometimes violated by students who have had a year of formal grammar.
=Clearness.=—If composition is the art of communicating one’s ideas
in words, it is certain that clearness is the first requisite of good
writing. Clearness, perfect intelligibility, is secured by means
innumerable. One secret however of being clear is to regard grammatical
usages. If a man is to be understood exactly, he must be grammatical. No
one is excepted. “Grammar,” said Molière, “knows how to lord it even over
kings.”
=Ambiguity.=—When an expression is open to two interpretations, it is
said to be ambiguous. In the sentence, “He is a fair man,” _fair_ is an
ambiguous word. In the sentence, “He was arrested by two officers, who
were about to board a West Madison street car, in possession of a large
amount of stolen property,” the phrase _in possession_, etc., holds an
ambiguous position. Grammatical errors often produce this fault.
=Solecisms.=—Infringements of grammatical rules are called
_solecisms_.[14] Never losing sight of the fact that writing English is
largely the art of telling some one else just what one means, let us note
a few solecisms that hinder a writer from giving his exact meaning.
=Coherence by placing Modifiers rightly.=—I. The rhetorics are fond
of quoting droll sentences in which, from being wrongly placed, ideas
fail to _cohere_, stick together. A favorite sentence is that from
an epitaph in an Ulster churchyard: “Erected to the memory of John
Phillips, accidently shot, as a mark of affection by his brother.” Mr.
Bardeen (“Sentence-Making”) quotes the following, which sounds like
a manufactured joke, but is nevertheless to the point. “Is there a
gentleman with one eye named Walker in the club?” “I don’t know; what was
the name of his other eye?” Another much quoted and startling sentence
reads thus: “In one evening I counted twenty-seven meteors sitting on
my back piazza.” Remedy the incoherence of these sentences. _Put close
together on the paper ideas that belong close together in the mind._ Do
not let adverbs and modifying clauses stray from the thought to which
they belong.
=Oral Exercise.=—The order of words in the following sentences should so
be changed as to increase the logical coherence of the thoughts.
1. The tops of the French ships were filled with riflemen, like those of
the enemy’s ships.
2. The killing by Orlando, of the wrestler, was indirectly due to a plot
against his brother, which Oliver invented.
3. I hardly ever remember to have heard such music.
4. I never remember to have seen him. [Here it is better to recast the
sentence than to change the position of _never_.]
5. The lad managed a bronco pony, very vicious and dangerous, when only
thirteen.
6. Wanted, a hostler to take care of a horse, of a religious turn of mind.
7. After a brief rest Blondin set out again with “Tom Sayers,” and
accomplished the feat he had undertaken without a hitch.
This week will see the last times of “The Rogue’s Comedy,” as next season
Mr. Willard will play the new play of Henry Arthur Jones entitled “The
Physician” exclusively.
II. _Only_, and _not only_, usually belong directly before the word
modified.
=Oral Exercise.=—Insert _only_ in the proper blank.
1. Browning —— wrote —— a few poems for boys.
2. She —— breathed —— the name; but we heard it.
3. We —— received his letter, —— this morning.
4. He —— gave —— five cents —— to the church.
III. Avoid the Janus-clause; the Janus-phrase; the Janus-adverb or
adjective. The Latin god Janus had two faces, one looking back, the other
ahead. Avoid putting a modifier where it becomes double-faced,—where it
may be taken either with the preceding idea or with the following idea.
=Oral Exercise.=—So change the position of the double-faced modifiers
that their allegiance will be known.
1. There is no doubt that Milton gave Dryden permission to paraphrase
Paradise Lost; Dryden did imitate Milton as a matter of fact not very
cleverly.
2. There can be no doubt that he quarrelled,—that he fought indeed
vigorously. He reappeared at least with a black eye.
3. She will sing in any case charmingly; her training has been admirable.
4. As Hazlitt says, in his book of English proverbs, where no fault is,
there needs no pardon.
IV. Avoid putting an adverb between the parts of an infinitive,—between
the _to_ and the verb. Some reputable writers approve this construction;
still, the better order is to place the modifier before or after the
whole infinitive. “Clearly to see,” or “To see clearly,” is better than
“To clearly see.” This error is called the _cleft infinitive_.
=Concord of Subject and Predicate.=
1. A collective noun takes a singular verb if the group of objects is
thought of as a whole: “The United States is coining gold and silver.”
The collective noun takes a plural verb if each separate member of the
group is thought of: “The United States are firmly bound together in one
union.”
2. When two subject nouns are so closely related in thought that they
seem to mean one thing, the verb is in the singular: “His courage and
bravery is well approved.”
3. In writing a long sentence, glance back at the number of the subject
before you write the verb. A plural near the verb often leads one to
forget that the subject is singular. Thus: “The great number of the crows
that settle nightly in the grove and fill the air with their cries, makes
[not _make_] the place a bedlam.”
4. When a singular subject precedes a parenthetical phrase, the former
reaches over the head of the latter, and makes the verb singular. This
rule holds even when the parenthesis is introduced by _with_. Thus:
“Napoleon, with all his army, was on the march.”
5. _Either_, _neither_, when used as distributive conjunctions, take
a singular verb. Mr. Carpenter[15] gives this instance of the error:
“Neither Senators Dawes nor Hoar were in their seats to-day.” How shall
the sentence be changed to distribute the senators properly?
6. If two subjects connected by _either—or_, etc., differ in person, it
is possible to make the verb agree with the subject nearest; as “Neither
she nor you are to blame in this; either I or he is to blame.” But this
construction is awkward. Avoid the difference in person, or else say,
“Neither she is to blame, nor are you; either he is to blame, or I am.”
7. _Each_, _every_, _either_, _neither_, when used as pronouns, always
take a singular verb. “Each of us knows; neither of us is ignorant.”
8. _None_ takes either a singular or a plural verb. It is originally _no
one_, and many careful writers prefer to keep the singular with it.
=Concord of Adjective (or Participle) and Noun.=
1. There is an old phrase, _these kind_, which, though permitted a
century ago, was essentially ungrammatical, and is not allowed to-day.
Say, _this kind_, _that kind_, etc.
2. (_a_) Every participle, like every adjective, must agree with its
noun in person and number. But furthermore, every participle has an
indisputable right to have something to agree with. Too often the poor
word is left dangling in mid air. _Shun the unrelated participle and
the misrelated participle._ The best of us are only too prone to such
slips as this: “Coming up stairs, it was seen that the great window
fell,” instead of, “Coming up stairs, we saw the great window fall.” Or
this: “Coming up stairs, the window fell on him,” where the _coming_ may
belong to the _window_ or to the _him_. In the first of the two incorrect
sentences the participle is unrelated; in the second it is misrelated, or
at least ambiguously related.
(_b_) Care should be taken not to use a participle when a verbal noun in
_ing_ is needed. “The fact of _Poe being_ intemperate should not blind
us to the fact of his genius,” is wrong for “The fact of _Poe’s being_
intemperate,” etc.
3. Particularly avoid a singular adjective with a plural noun, in such
expressions as, “A long way” [not _ways_]. Note here that _sidewise_, not
_sideways_, is correct.
=Concord of Pronoun and Antecedent.=
1. It should be remembered that every singular antecedent takes a
singular pronoun. “Everybody came forward and laid _his_ contribution on
the table”—not “_their_ contribution.”
2. Before writing the verb of a relative clause, think whether the
antecedent is singular or plural. “Her voice is one of the sweetest that
have [not _has_] been heard in this town.”
3. When a number of persons, men and women, are spoken of distributively,
the pronouns _he_ and _his_ are proper forms of reference—not _their_,
not _his or her_. “The audience rose and each person waved _his_
applause” would be correct, even if there were ten ladies to each man.
The _he_ or _his_ may here be called the _neutral_ pronoun. What pronouns
should fill the blanks in the following sentence? “Let every man and
woman who would like to join our picnic betake —— to the pier at three
o’clock, and give —— no anxiety about —— lunch; —— will find plenty of
sandwiches and cake and coffee on the picnic-boat.”
Such expressions as “every man and woman” are however undesirable
whenever the neutral pronoun is to be used. A neutral antecedent, like
_every person_, _everybody_, _every one_, is preferable.
4. When the indefinite pronoun _one_ is used, there is often ambiguity
in referring to it later by _he_, _his_, etc. Repeat the _one_. Thus,
“One does not always know one’s own mind.” Better still, use an
expression like the indefinite _you_, or, _a person_, which has its own
representative among the pronouns. Thus, “A person doesn’t always know
his own mind.”
5. Use sparingly, if at all, the Latin construction—_which fact_, _which
idea_, etc. Say rather, _a fact which_, etc. E.g. “He was slightly deaf,
_a misfortune which_ he bore without whimpering.”
6. Avoid the Latin construction that makes _which_ refer to the idea
of a whole clause; it is a clumsy fashion. Example, “He said that he
always doted on Shakespeare—_which_ I, for one, didn’t believe, because
I know the fellow.” There is nothing here for _which_ to tie to; it is
a relative without anything to which to relate. Rather a better way is
to discard the relative clause, substituting _and_ with a demonstrative.
Thus, “He bowed politely, _which_ set us all at ease,” becomes, “He bowed
politely, _and this_ set us all at ease.” The _this_ is allowed by our
idiom to refer to the clause, though the construction is still vague. It
is best to hunt up a good synonym for the idea of the preceding clause:
“He bowed politely, and this _courtesy_ set us all at ease.” But it is
not necessary to discard the relative clause. A little ingenuity will
enable one to find and insert just before the relative an appositive to
the clause. Into each of the following sentences slip an appropriate
appositive chosen from the following list: _a fact_, _an idea_, _a task_,
_a statement_, _an assertion_, _a notion_, _an excuse_, _a fancy_, _a
belief_, _a hyperbole_, _a prevarication_, _a remedy_.
(_a_) Mr. Ignatius Donnelly thinks that Bacon wrote Shakespeare, —— which
ought not to bother the student who likes Romeo and Juliet.
(_b_) Mame told father that there were a thousand cats in the back yard,
—— which, according to father, meant our cat and another.
(_c_) He has undertaken to learn two hard lessons in one hour, —— which
will probably prove too much for the lad.
(_d_) He proposes to cut the hand off, —— which seems rather cruel.
=Concord of Cases.=
Subject and complement of an intransitive verb agree in case.
1. The complement of an intransitive verb in a finite mode is in the
nominative case. “It’s I” [not _me_]. “I am he.” “I thought it was he.”
2. If the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case, the
complement is in the same case. “I thought it to be him” [not _he_]. But,
“It was thought to be he.”
=Concord of Tenses.=
1. In writing the verb of a subordinate clause, be sure that its tense
shall show just what you wish it to show—whether the _same_ time as that
of the principal verb, or _earlier_ time, or _later_ time. For example:—
_The same time._—“He did not think himself to be much of a poet.”
_Earlier time._—“He did not think that he had been much of a poet.” “He
was sorry not to have been much of a poet.” “Yesterday, when John spoke
of the matter, I should have liked to have had some experience that I
might have used in advising him.”
_Later time._—“I wanted to go” [not _to have gone_]. “I had intended to
go.” “I should have liked to go.”
=Oral Exercise.=—Correct the errors in concord of tenses, explaining each
emendation.
1. Where did you say St. Peter’s was?
2. Is it warm out of doors? I should say it was.
3. I fully intended to have met you at the concert.
=Government.=
1. “He invited him and _I_,” is not an unheard-of blunder. People often
needlessly shrink from saying a correct sentence like this—“He invited
him and me”—and will even insert the full names of _him_ and _me_ rather
than out with the right case of the pronoun.
2. In asking a question, think whether _who_ or _whom_ is required.
“_Whom_ did you see?” but, “_Who_ was it that you saw?”
3. _Let_ governs the objective case, quite as any other active verb. “Let
John and me go.”
4. An error often occurs in the case of the relative after a verb of
saying, thinking, telling, and the like. “Franklin’s Autobiography
is the work of a man _whom_ I should think would be known to every
American.” The _whom_ is wrong for _who_. Had the writer set off “I
should think” by commas, he would have seen the mistake.
5. How should the following newspaper sentence be corrected? “He stated
that the offering was $101,500, an amount upon which he would stake his
honor would all be paid up.”
=On the Reference of Pronouns.=
1. In the use of pronouns one cannot be too careful that each refers
to the right person. “Farmer Jones called on his neighbor and told him
that his cows were in his pasture,” leaves us in doubt whether Farmer
Jones came to make a complaint or an apology. How should the sentence be
constructed to remove the ambiguity? The following delicious error has
been much quoted: “If fresh milk does not seem to agree with the child,
boil it.” How change the sentence to save the child’s life?
2. Sometimes a demonstrative can be used to better advantage than a
personal pronoun. “They lent us their horses for the afternoon and these
[not _they_] took us a long way out into the country.”
3. Sometimes it is better to repeat the antecedent, varying it by simple
synonyms, than to use any pronoun. Not, “He gave him his word of honor,
that whenever he should see his brother in London, he would do all for
him that he ought to do for an old comrade’s brother.” Rather thus:
“He gave his friend his word of honor, that whenever he should see the
latter’s brother in London, he would do for the boy all that a man ought
to do for the brother of an old comrade.”
4. Acquire a habit of writing, “It is he,” or “It’s he,” instead of “He
is the one.” This latter phrase is permissible in colloquial speech,
where its clumsiness is not much felt. The correct expression may
sometimes seem over-precise. But a person of tact ought to be able to
speak correctly without seeming affected.
=Conjunctions and Prepositions.=
1. Shall we say “as large as,” “not as large as,” etc.? The first
expression is right. But after a negative, use _so_ for a correlative to
_as_: “not _so_ large as.”
2. In general be careful not to omit necessary conjunctions. What should
be supplied in the following sentence? and how should the order be
changed? “Henty is better known but not so interesting to older boys as
Stevenson.”
3. _And which_, _and who_, etc., are wrong for _which_, _who_, etc., when
no relative has previously been used. Correct the following: “Irving, the
historian, and whom we honor as our first writer of prose tales, is a
prime favorite of us all.”
4. _Like_ is not a conjunction. It is incorrect to say, “Do like I do.”
This wrong use of _like_ is habitual in many parts of our country, and
a native of any one of these districts has to watch himself narrowly
to acquire the habit of using _as_ for _like_. It is, however, correct
enough to say, “She talks _like him_.” Here _like_ is an adjective
governing what was the dative case, and the phrase _like him_ has the
value of an adverb.
5. _Different to_ is wrong for _different from_. This error, though
rarely to be found in America, is habitual in England. The commoner
American error is _different than_. This mistake frequently occurs when
the comparative degree has previously been used. _E.g._ “This last kind
of apple is different and sweeter than the first.” The better form is:
“This last kind of apple is different from the first, and sweeter.” _Do
not split the particles_, by saying, “This kind of apple is different
from and sweeter than the first.”
=Adverb or Adjective?=
1. There is a group of words—verbs of sensation and the like, _look_,
_sound_, _feel_, _smell_, _taste_, _appear_, _seem_—which take an
adjective to complete their meaning. “She looks _sweet_,” “It tastes
_sweet_,” “She _seems_ happy,” are common and correct ways of speaking.
_Notice that here something of the same idea can be given by saying_,
“She _is_ sweet,” “It _is_ sweet,” “She _is_ happy.” The _sweet_ idea
or the _happy_ idea describes the subject, the person, not the verb. Of
course, one might write a sentence in which the _sweet_ idea would tell
the way a given act was done. “She looked sweetly” would imply that she
was gazing sweetly at something or somebody.
But here must be noted an exception or two. (_a_) The word _bad_ has two
senses: moral badness, and badness that is not moral—badness of health,
for instance. If I say “I feel bad,” the bad seems to mean moral badness:
_i.e._ “I _am_ bad.” It is therefore permissible to break the rule and
apply _badly_ to physical feeling. “I feel badly” is a common expression
for “I feel sick”; and by the exception to the rule is correct. Which
is better in the following sentence—_bad_ or _badly_? “It sounds —— to
hear a young man swear.” (_b_) There are a few cases where the adverb is
retained when the verb is not felt as acting. “The report sounds well,”
certainly does not mean that the report is in good health; but it is
certainly good English. Similarly we have: “She appears well in company.”
It is to be kept in mind that _ill_ and _well_ are not always adverbs.
They are often adjectives; and if one says “I feel ill,” or “I feel
well,” one is using the adjective _ill_ or the adjective _well_.
=Oral Exercise.=—Which of the italicized words is preferable in the
following sentences? (_a_) “This old stern-wheel boat rides over the
waves quite as _easy_ (_easily_) as any propeller, if not _easier_
(_more easily_).” (_b_) “This old chaise rides as _easy_ (_easily_) as
any modern one.” (_c_) “An old shoe feels _easy_ (_easily_).” (_d_) “As
Billings read that passage it sounded _different_ (_differently_) from
the way in which the Colonel read it.” (_e_) “Do you feel _good_ (_well_)
after your night’s rest?” (_f_) “I’ve been to church and, for me, really
feel _good_ (_well_).” (_g_) “He voted _independently_ (_independent_).”
(_h_) “Home, sweet home” sounds _well_ (_good_) to the ears of the
American abroad.
=Shall or Will.=—Most Americans, like most Scotchmen, use the word _will_
too frequently, to the neglect of _shall_.
_Shall_ is from Old English _sceal_ (skayʹ-al) and once meant _owe_,
_be obliged_. It still may mean the same thing, when not used as a mere
auxiliary. That is, _should_ often means _ought_, which was once the
past tense of _owe_. It still can mean “to be obliged.” “You shall,” “he
shall,” are expressions that imply obligation, imposed by the speaker.
“I shall at last die” still has in it the idea of being compelled. But
this phrase illustrates happily one way by which _shall_ with the first
person has come to be felt as a mere future. Nearly always to-day _I
shall_ names a voluntary act; but the volition is usually not emphasized;
the speaker has usually made up his mind before he says _I shall_, and
the words simply foretell the future act. “I shall be there” incidentally
announces the speaker’s intention, but the chief thing it announces is
that the speaker will _be there_. It is probably the future fact that is
of interest to his friends. _Ordinarily, therefore_, shall _in the first
person means futurity more than it means volition._
_Will_ is from _wilian_ (wilʹ-yan), meaning _to wish_, _to will_. It
frequently means that to-day, though in the second and third persons it
is also used for the simple future. “I will” always implies volition. I
will _implies either deliberate intention, distinct wish, or distinct
willingness_. “I will go” means “I am determined to go,” or, “I wish to
go,” or, “I am willing to go.” Frequently such a phrase implies that
there is opposition or an obstacle. “You will,” “they will,” usually
lack the volitive idea; they simply foretell that which _you_, _they_,
are about to do. Yet _you will_, _he will_, _they will_ may still mean
_you are determined_, etc., if applied to a being that has the power of
choice. Here one has but to emphasize the _will_, and the old meaning
is brought back. Thus: “He _will_ persist in doing so, though all his
friends deplore it.”
Our first rule will accordingly be as follows: _To indicate mere
futurity, use shall in the first person, will in the second and third._
Examples: “I shall be glad to come. You and the others will find me on
hand at the pier.” So far, so good. But note that this rule also applies
when the speaker is made to report his own words in indirect narrative.
“Abner _says_ that he _shall_ be glad to come, and that you and the
others _will_ find him on hand at the pier.” Just so if the indirect
discourse is in the _past_, and it is still the speaker who reports his
own words. “Abner _said_ that he _should_ be glad to come, and that you
and the others _would_ find him at the pier.” All this seems sensible
enough, for the speaker is merely made to foretell his own future act.
The rule is too often broken. “Abner said he was afraid he’d miss the
boat.” Here the contraction _he’d_ stands (as always) for _he would_, a
form that is wrong in this place for _he should_.
The same rule applies when the indirect narrative is merely implied; that
is, when instead of such a word as _say_ we have _think_, or _fear_, or
_believe_. “Luke thinks he _shall_ miss his boat,” is correct; so is,
“Luke feared he _should_ miss the boat.”
Suppose, now, it is no longer what Luke said about his own future act,
but what somebody else said about it. “Evarts remarked that Luke was
ready and _would_ hurry to the pier; but Evarts feared that Luke _would_
miss the boat.” The _shall_ gives place naturally enough to _will_.
_After verbs of saying, thinking, telling, and the like, shall (or
should) is the proper auxiliary if the future act is foretold by the
actor._
Now we are ready to ask how these words should be used in questions. A
very simple rule is enough for most purposes: _In the second and third
persons, use in the question the form you expect in the answer._
“Shall you be at the pier by three, Abner?” Abner replies, “I certainly
shall.” “Will you kindly bring my lunch with you? the cook has it ready.”
“I will, with great pleasure.”
The rule holds when applied to indirect discourse. Thus: “Abner’s aunt
asked him whether he _should_ be at the pier by three. Abner replied that
he _should_. Then she wanted to know if he _would_ kindly bring her lunch
along; Abner promised that he _would_.”
If a question is put in the first person, _shall_ often asks for
instructions. “_Shall_ I go?” But if mere information is asked, _shall_
is still the form: “_Shall_ I be required to do all this?” “Yes, I fear
you will.” Briefly, then, _for a question in the first person always use_
shall.
=Oral Exercise.=—Where blanks appear in the following sentences insert
the right auxiliary. Correct any misuse of auxiliaries.
1. Sometimes an Irishman, sometimes a Frenchman, is credited with this
remark: “I will be drowned; nobody shall help me.”
2. I —— be delighted to see you with us.
3. I —— be obliged if you —— lend me your pencil.
4. The director thinks he —— be able to speak well of that student, if
the boy —— need a good word.
5. —— you be content if you get to college?
6. —— I be permitted to say that you —— see him before anything is done?
7. Jim Hawkins was mortally afraid that he —— be killed by Long John
Silver; and in turn Long John began to fear that Jim —— be the death of
him.
8. —— you like some bread? [Here _should_ is the right word; _to like_ is
a word of volition, and it does not need the volitive auxiliary _would_.]
9. —— you mind my asking where you bought that jersey?
10. His father insisted that he —— stick to the task; and the son
afterwards seemed glad of the fact, and asked whether he —— do some more
work of the same sort.
11. If we were better, we —— be happier.
12. In which sentence can a contraction of _he would_ be used? (_a_) He
said —— be glad to accept. (_b_) Luther declared —— go to a certain city,
though there were as many devils there as tiles on the housetops.
13. —— I be asked to go? Yes, you will.
14. Of whom —— I be afraid?
=Matters of Etymology.=
1. Good usage recommends that we say “the schools of Chicago” rather
than “Chicago’s schools”; “the cause of the accident” rather than “the
accident’s cause.” In other words, it recommends that we save the
possessive in _’s_ (or Saxon genitive) for living beings. For things, for
abstract ideas, for cities—everything except beings—the possessive in
_of_ (or Norman genitive) is preferred. Thus we say, “Napoleon’s hat,”
and “the rim of Napoleon’s hat,” instead of “Napoleon’s hat’s rim.” The
newspapers, perhaps to save space, have fallen into the habit of talking
about “Chicago’s interests,” “Evanston’s water-works,” “America’s navy,”
etc.; but it is better not to imitate these expressions.[16] Such matters
are matters, not of right and wrong, but of better and worse.
2. While _got_ is usually better than _gotten_ as a past participle, the
two words have, in one case, different meanings. “I have got my lesson”
is perhaps preferable to “I have gotten my lesson.” But “I have got to be
a scholar” means, “I must be a scholar”; while, “I have gotten to be a
scholar” is, well,—perhaps a boast.
3. Good use prescribes _he drank_, but _he has drunk_ [not, _he has
drank_].
4. _Anybody else’s_, or _anybody’s else_—which is in better use? For
most places, the former. Thus: “Anybody else’s dog would have been shot
for his sheep-stealing.” But _anybody’s else_ is often preferable at
the end of the clause or sentence. Thus: “If the dog had been anybody
else’s it would have been shot; unfortunately it was nobody’s else.” The
distinction has ceased to be a matter of logic, and become a matter of
euphony. Of course, _else_ is strictly an adjective, and might seem to
be exempt from the possessive case. But adjectives have always had a way
of growing fast to nouns and becoming part of them: _e.g._ sweetbriar,
Redfern, Goodman. Though _else_ is not written as a part of the noun
_anybody_ (which is already long enough), it is often felt as a part of
the noun. What you _think_ is not always _anybody + else_; it is often,
_anybodyelse_. As a matter of fact, the word _anybody_ itself is really
two words grown together till we do not think of them as adjective + noun.
=Oral Exercise in Review.=—Below are given a number of sentences from
Hughes’s _Tom Brown’s School Days_, a book which every one likes for
its racy Saxon style, but which is not always beyond reproach in
sentence-structure. Most, however, of the sentences given below were
correctly written. _Examine the passages, and decide as to which of the
bracketed words should be omitted. When several words are italicized,
correct the order of them._
1. Tom’s nurse was one who took in her instruction very slowly—she
seemed to have two left hands and no head; and so Mrs. Brown kept her on
longer than usual, that [she, the girl] might expend her awkwardness and
forgetfulness upon those who would not judge and punish [her, the girl]
too strictly for them.
2. It had been the immemorial habit of the village [either] to [either]
christen children [either] by Bible names or [by] those of the cardinal
and other virtues.
3. He was a hearty, strong boy from the first, given to fighting [with
and escaping from his nurse, with his nurse and escaping from her]
and fraternizing with all [of] the village boys, with whom he made
expeditions all around the neighborhood.
4. You shall hear at once what sort of [a] folk the Browns are, [at
least] my branch of them [at least]; and then if you don’t like the sort,
why cut the concern at once, and let you and [I, me] cry quits before
either of us can grumble at the other.
5. For a short time after a boy has taken up [such] a life [as, like]
Arnold would have urged upon him, he has a hard time of it. He finds his
judgment often at fault, his body and intellect running away with him
into all sorts of pitfalls, and [he, himself] coming down with a crash.
6. “No, Pompey, I must preach whenever I see a chance of being listened
to, [which, and this] I never did before.”
7. And now, my boys, you [who, whom] I want to get for readers, have you
had enough? [Will, shall] you give in at once, and say you’re convinced,
and let me begin my story, or will you have more of it? Remember, I’ve
[only] been over [only] a little bit of a hillside yet—what you could
ride round easily on your ponies in an hour.
8. To-day, however, [being, being the day of] the school-house match,
none of the school-house præpostors [stay, stays] by the door to watch
for truants of their side; there is _carte blanche_ to the school-house
fags to go where they like: “They trust to our honor,” as East proudly
informs Tom; “they know [very well] that no school-house boy would cut
the match [very well]. If he did [we’d, we should] very soon cut him, I
can tell you.”
9. Passing along the Ridgeway to the west for about a mile, [we come to,
appears] a little clump of young beech and firs, with a growth of thorn
and privet underwood.
10. I [only] know [only] two English neighborhoods thoroughly, and [in
each] within a circle of five miles, [within each] there is enough of
interest and beauty to last any reasonable man his life. I believe this
to be the case [almost] throughout the country [almost]; but each has
a special attraction, and [neither, none] can be richer than the one I
am speaking of and going to [very particularly] introduce to you [very
particularly].
11. It’s very odd [how, that] almost all English boys love danger.
12. He wore an old full-bottomed wig, the gift of some dandy old Brown
whom he had [in the middle of the last century] valeted [in the middle
of the last century], [which habiliment, a habiliment which] Master Tom
looked upon with considerable respect, not to say fear.
13. [It was he, He was the one] who bent the first pin with which Tom
extracted his first stickleback out of [“Pebbly Brook,”] the little
stream which ran through the village, [“Pebbly Brook”]. The first
stickleback was a splendid fellow, with fabulous red and blue gills. Tom
kept him in a small basin till the day of [his, the fish’s] death, and
became a fisherman from that day.
14. His nurse told him that those good-natured looking women were in the
constant habit of enticing children into the barges and taking [them,
these] up to London and selling them, [which, a story which] Tom wouldn’t
believe.
15. “I say,” said East, as soon as he [got, had gotten] his wind, looking
with much increased respect at Tom, “you [ain’t, you’re not, aren’t, are
not] a bad scud, not by [no, any] means.”
16. But who [shall, will] tell the joy of the next morning, when the
church bells were ringing a merry peal, and [in the servants’ hall] old
Benjy appeared [in the servants’ hall] resplendent in a long blue coat
and brass buttons [in the servants’ hall], and a pair of old yellow
buckskins and top-boots, which he had cleaned _for and inherited from
Tom’s grandfather_.
17. So, as we are going [to at any rate, at any rate to] see Tom Brown
through his boyhood, [supposing, if] we never get any further, [which,
though] (if you show a proper sense of the value of this history, there
is no knowing but [that, what] we may), let us have a look at the life
and environments of the child.
18. He felt [like, as if] he had been severely beaten all down his back,
the natural result of his performance at his first match.
19. “And now come in and see my study; we [shall, will] have just time
before dinner; and afterwards, before calling over, [we’ll, we shall] do
the close.”
20. It [certainly] wasn’t very large [certainly], being about six feet
long by four broad. It couldn’t be called light, as there [was, were]
bars and a grating to the window; [which] little precautions [which] were
necessary in the studies on the ground floor looking out into the close,
to prevent the exit of small boys [after locking up], and the entrance of
contraband articles [after locking up.]
21. And now, [having broken my resolution never to write a Preface,]
there are just two or three things which I [would, should] like to say a
word about [having broken my resolution never to write a Preface].
22. My dear boys, old and young, you who have belonged, [or do belong,]
to other schools and other houses, don’t begin throwing my poor little
book about the room, and abusing [me and it] [it and I], and vowing[17]
you’ll read no more when you get to this point. I allow you’ve
provocation for it. But, come now, [would, should] you, any of you, give
a fig for a fellow who _didn’t believe in, and stand up for his own house
and his own school_? You know you [wouldn’t, shouldn’t]. Then don’t
object to my cracking up the old school-house, Rugby. Haven’t I a right
to do it, when I’m taking all the trouble of writing this true history
for all your benefits? If [you’re not, you ain’t] satisfied, go and write
the history [of your own houses] in your own times [of your own houses]
and say all you know for your own schools and houses, [provided it’s
true,] and [I’ll, I shall] read it without abusing you [provided it’s
true].
23. All the way up to London he had pondered what he [would, should] say
to Tom [by way of parting advice], something that the boy could keep in
his head ready for use, [by way of parting advice].
24. “I say, Green,” Snooks began one night, “[ain’t, isn’t] that new boy,
Harrison, your fag?”
“Yes; why?”
“Oh, I know something of him at home, and [would, should] like to excuse
him—will you swap?”
“[Who, Whom] will you give me?”
“Well, let’s see; there’s Willis, Johnson—no, that won’t do. Yes, I have
it—there’s young East, I’ll give you him.”
“Don’t you wish you may get it?” replied Green. “I’ll tell you what I’ll
do—I’ll give you [if you like] two for Willis [if you like].”
“[Whom, Who] then?” asked Snooks.
“Hall and Brown.”
“[Shouldn’t, Wouldn’t] have ’em at a gift.”
25. By keeping out of bounds [all day], or at all events out of the house
and quadrangle, [all day,] and [carefully] barring themselves [carefully]
in at night, East and Tom managed to hold on without feeling very
[miserably, miserable]; but it was as much as they could do.
26. His friends at home, [hadn’t put him into tails] having regard,
I suppose, to his age, and not to his size and place in the school,
[hadn’t put him into tails]; and [even] his jackets were always too small
[even]; and he had a talent for destroying clothes, and making himself
look [shabbily, shabby].
=Oral Review-Exercise.=—Correct the following sentences, after naming
each fault.
1. Belonging to the modern realistic school of novelists, his address was
an able defence of their tenets.
2. It is not probable that the scholars will yet give him a very lofty
place, and they will be disinclined to call his books literature, but the
division of sentiment as to their exact standing will not detract from
the brilliancy of the future they promise.
3. “Here you are, a great, hulking fellow, endowed by providence with
magnificent strength, instead of which you go about stealing nuts.”
4. Cæsar and all his legions was encamped around the city, and the
barbarians knew well enough it was them they had to fight, them the
soldiers of the Roman god-like man.
5. “It wasn’t us! it wasn’t us! We wasn’t there, we warnt.”
6. Neither of the adventurers, Olson and Lefevre, saw their native land
again.
7. He sat the cage down; and the bird cried, between each mouthful,
“Polly wants a cracker.”
8. Like Lucretius, his pleasure was in watching the sea fight from a
secure place.
9. Masquerading under the stage name of Viola Violet, there was a gasp of
astonishment when she made her first entrance and was recognized by her
many friends in the audience.
10. Lacking practice in what might be called the technique of acting,
there was now and then some restraint in pose and gesture, and the
essential element of artistic repose was lacking.
11. Passengers are warned not to get off the train while in motion.
12. Without stopping to fully describe the construction of this aural
instrument, suffice it to say, that it is small and compact, and can be
carried in the pocket, weighing about two ounces, constructed mostly of
aluminum.
13. When I go back to Cuba again I should like to go with 10,000
interpreters instead of one, all in United States uniforms, and who would
talk fast and to the point and would not expect or wait for an answer.
14. Passing a field where brother David was sowing rye, several merry
voices called out, “How are you, Mr. Newton?”
15. Mr. Adams positively declines to hang cards over the edges of the
boxes at the grand opera with the names of those present in large type.
16. Eva picked up the letter from the hall table, looked quickly round
at the closed hall door, at the closed dining-room door, and at the baize
door that led to the kitchen stairs—and kissed it.
17. Talking the other day with a friend (the late Mr. Keats) about Dante,
he observed that whenever so great a poet told us anything in addition
or continuation of an ancient story, he had a right to be regarded as
classical authority.
18. Alcibiades told the Spartan envoys that if they would say to the
Athenians that their power was limited and that they could only listen
and then tell the Spartans what they heard that he would see that the
Athenians did not join the alliance: so when the ambassadors went there
they did as Alcibiades said and Alcibiades got up and said, that they
could not tell two things alike and the Athenians would not have anything
more to do with them and they joined the alliance.
19. Having given this department-store question much careful thought I
have decided a more dangerous monopoly could not be found, for reasons
as follows: First, they tend to centralize business, which is dangerous,
and should not exist if we wish our city to grow and thereby equalize
taxation. Second, the continuous advertising of the entire stock of an
unfortunate merchant on sale in these stores at 33 cents on the dollar is
not encouraging to strangers who visit us.