before stated, of a very ambitious character. It is intended to cover
the whole field of man’s religious and moral nature, to set forth
the purposes of Providence in dealing with him, the various degrees
of human society and the faults chargeable to each class of men,
and finally the method which should be followed by man in order to
reconcile himself with the God whom he has offended by his sin. This
is evidently one of those all-comprehending plans to which nothing
comes amiss; the whole miscellany of the author’s ideas and knowledge,
whether derived from books or from life, might be poured into it and
yet fail to fill it up. Nevertheless the work is not an undigested
mass: it has a certain unity of its own,--indeed in regard to connexion
of parts it is superior to most medieval works of the kind. The author
has at least thought out his plan, and he carries it through to the end
in a laboriously conscientious manner. M. Jusserand in his _Literary
History of the English People_ conjectured reasonably enough that if
this work should ever be discovered, it would prove to be one of those
tirades on the vices of the age which in French were known as ‘bibles.’
It is this and much more than this. In fact it combines the three
principal species of moral compositions all in one framework,--the
manual of vices and virtues, the attack on the evils of existing
society from the highest place downwards, and finally the versified
summary of Scripture history and legend, introduced here with a view
to the exaltation and praise of the Virgin. In its first division,
which extends over nearly two-thirds of the whole, our author’s work
somewhat resembles those of Frère Lorenz, William of Waddington and
other writers, who compiled books intended to be of practical use to
persons preparing for confession. For those who are in the habit of
constant and minute self-examination it is necessary that there should
be a distinct classification of the forms of error to which they may
be supposed to be liable, and sins must be arranged under headings
which will help the memory to recall them and to run over them rapidly.
The classification which is based upon the seven mortal sins is both
convenient and rational, and such books as the _Somme des Vices et des
Vertus_ and the _Manuel des Pechiez_, with the English translations
or adaptations of them, were composed for practical purposes. While
resembling these in some respects, our author’s work is not exactly of
the same character. Their object is devotional, and form is sacrificed
to utility. This is obvious in the case of the first-named book, the
original, as is well known, of the _Ayenbite of Inwyt_ and of Chaucer’s
_Persones Tale_, and it is also true of the _Manuel des Pechiez_,
though that is written in verse and has stories intermingled with the
moral rules by way of illustration. The author of this work states his
purpose at once on setting forth:
‘La vertu del seint espirit
Nus seit eidant en cest escrit,
A vus les choses ben mustrer,
Dunt hom se deit confesser,
E ausi en la quele manere.’
Upon which he proceeds to enumerate the various subjects of which he
thinks it useful to treat, which are connected by no tie except that of
practical convenience: ‘First we shall declare the true faith, which
is the foundation of our law.... Next we shall place the commandments,
which every one ought to keep; then the seven mortal sins, whence
spring so many evils.... Then you will find, if you please, the
seven sacraments of the Church, then a sermon, and finally a book on
confession, which will be suitable for every one.’
On the other hand the _Mirour de l’omme_ is a literary production, or
at least aspires to that character, and as such it has more regularity
of form, more ornaments of style, and more display of reading. The
division and classification in this first part, which treats of vices
and of virtues, have a symmetrical uniformity; instead of enumerating
or endeavouring to enumerate all the subdivisions under each head, all
the numerous and irregularly growing branches and twigs which spring
from each stem, the author confines himself to those that suit his
plan, and constructs his whole edifice on a perfectly regular system.
The work is in fact so far not a manual of devotion, but rather a
religious allegory. The second part, which is ingeniously brought into
connexion with the same general plan, resembles, as has been said, such
compositions as the _Bible Guiot de Provins_, except that it is very
much longer and goes into far more elaborate detail on the various
classes of society and their distinctive errors. Here the author speaks
more from his own observation and less from books than in the earlier
part of his poem, and consequently this division is more original
and interesting. Many parts of it will serve usefully to confirm the
testimony of other writers, and from some the careful student of
manners will be able to glean new facts. The last 2,500 lines, a mere
trifle compared with the bulk of the whole, contain a Life of the
Virgin, as the principal mediator between God and man, and the book
ends (at least as we have it) with not unpoetical praises and prayers
addressed to her.
It remains to be seen how the whole is pieced together.
Sin, we are told, is the cause of all evils, and brought about first
the fall of Lucifer and of his following from Heaven, and then the
expulsion of Adam from Paradise. In a certain sense Sin existed before
all created things, being in fact that void or chaos which preceded
creation, but also she was a daughter conceived by the Devil, who
upon her engendered Death (1-216). Death and Sin then intermarrying
produced the seven deadly Vices, whose names are enumerated, and the
Devil, delighted by his progeny, sent Sin and her seven daughters to
gain over the World to his side, and then called a conference with a
view to defeating the designs of Providence for the salvation of Man,
and of consummating the ruin which had already been in part effected
(217-396). They resolved to send Temptation as a messenger to Man, and
invite him to meet the Devil and his council, who would propose to him
something from which he would get great advantage. He came, but before
his coming Death had been cunningly hidden away in an inner chamber,
so that Man might not see him and be dismayed. The Devil, Sin and the
World successively addressed him with their promises, and Temptation,
the envoy, added his persuasion, so that at length the Flesh of Man
consented to be ruled by their counsels. The Soul, however, rejected
them and vehemently expostulated with the Flesh, who was thus resolved
to follow a course which would in the end ruin them both (397-612).
The Flesh wavered and was in part dismayed, but was unable altogether
to give up the promised delights; upon which the Soul informed her
of Death, who had been treacherously concealed from her view, and to
counteract the renewed enticements of Sin called in Reason and Fear
to convince the Flesh of her folly. Reason was overcome in argument
by Temptation, but Fear took the Flesh by the hand and led her to the
place where Death lay concealed. The Flesh trembled at sight of this
horrid creature, and Conscience led her back to Reason, who brought
her into agreement with the Soul, and thus for the time the designs
of the Devil and of Sin were frustrated (613-756). The Devil demanded
that Sin should devise some remedy, and she consulted with the World,
who proposed marriage between himself and the seven daughters of Sin,
in order that from them offspring might be produced by means of which
Man might the more readily be overcome. The marriage was arranged
and the daughters of Sin went in procession to their wedding. Each
in turn was taken in marriage by the World, and of them the first
was Pride (757-1056). By her he had five daughters, each of whom is
described at length, namely Hypocrisy, Vainglory, Arrogance, Boasting
and Disobedience, and lastly comes the description of Pride herself
(1057-2616). The same order is observed with regard to the rest. The
daughters of Envy are Detraction, Sorrow for others’ Joy, Joy for
others’ Grief, Supplanting and Treachery (Fals semblant) (2617-3852).
Anger has for her daughters Melancholy, Contention, Hatred, Strife,
and Homicide (3853-5124). Sloth produces Somnolence, Laziness (or
Pusillanimity), Slackness, Idleness, Negligence (5125-6180). Avarice
bears Covetousness, Rapine, Usury, Simony and Niggardy (6181-7704).
Gluttony’s daughters are Voracity, Delicacy, Drunkenness, Superfluity,
Prodigality (7705-8616). Finally, Lechery is the mother of Fornication,
Rape, Adultery, Incest and Vain-delight (8617-9720). The Devil
assembled all the progeny of the Vices and demanded the fulfilment of
the promise made by the World, that Man should be made subject to him,
and they all together made such a violent attack upon Man, that he
surrendered himself to their guidance and came to be completely in the
power of Sin, whose evil influence is described (9721-10032). Reason
and Conscience prayed to God for assistance against the Vices and
their progeny, and God gave seven Virtues, the contraries of the seven
Vices, in marriage to Reason, in order that thence offspring might be
born which might contend with that of the Vices (10033-10176). Each
of these, as may readily be supposed, had five daughters. Humility,
who is the natural enemy of Pride, produced Devotion to set against
Hypocrisy, Fear against Vainglory, Discretion against Arrogance,
Modesty against Boasting, and Obedience against Disobedience, and
after the description of all these in succession follows that of
Humility herself (10177-12612). So of the rest; the five daughters of
Charity, namely Praise, Congratulation, Compassion, Help and Goodwill,
are opposed each in her turn to the daughters of Envy, as Charity is
to Envy herself (12613-13380). Patience, the opponent of Anger, has
for her daughters Good-temper, Gentleness, Affection, Agreement and
Mercy (13381-14100). Prowess, the opposite of Sloth, is the mother
of Watchfulness, Magnanimity, Resolution, Activity and Learning (or
Knowledge), to the description of which last is added an exhortation to
self-knowledge and confession of sins (14101-15180). Generosity, the
contrary of Avarice, produces Justice, Liberality, Alms-giving, Largess
and Holy-purpose, this fifth daughter being the opposite of Simony,
the fourth daughter of Avarice, as Largess is of Niggardy, the fifth
(15181-16212). Measure, the contrary of Gluttony, is the mother of
Dieting, Abstinence, Nourishment, Sobriety, Moderation (16213-16572).
Chastity, the enemy of Lechery, has for her daughters Good-care
(against Fornication), Virginity, Matrimony, Continence and Hard-life
(16573-18372).
Let us now, says our author, observe the issue of this strife for
the conquest of Man, in which the Flesh inclines to the side of the
Vices, and the Soul to that of Reason and the Virtues. We must examine
the whole of human society, from the Court of Rome downwards, to
decide which has gained the victory up to this time, and for my part
I declare that Sin is the strongest power in this world and directs
all things after her will and pleasure (18373-18420). Every estate
of Man, therefore, is passed in review and condemned--the Pope and
the Cardinals (18421-19056), the Bishops (19057-20088), the lower
dignitaries of the Church, Archdeacons and others (20089-20208), the
parish priests, the chantry priests, and those preparing for the
priesthood (20209-20832), the members of religious orders, first the
monks and then the friars (20833-21780), the secular rulers of the
world, Emperors and Kings (21781-23208), great lords (23209-23592),
knights and men of arms (23593-24180), the men of the law, pleaders and
judges (24181-24816), the sheriffs, reeves and jurymen (24817-25176),
the class of merchants and traders (25177-25500), that of artificers
(25501-25980), victuallers (25981-26424), labourers (26425-26520). In
short, all estates have become corrupted; whether the lay people are
more to blame for it or the priests the author will not say, but all
agree in throwing the blame on the world (or the age) and in excusing
themselves (26521-26604). He addresses the world and asks whence comes
all the evil of which he complains. Is it from earth, water, air or
fire? No, all these are good in themselves. Is it from the heavenly
bodies, sun, moon, stars, planet or comet? No, for the prayer of a
good man can overcome all their influences. Is it from plants, birds,
or beasts? But these all follow nature and do good. From what then
is this evil? It is surely from that creature to whom God has given
reason and submitted all things on earth, but who transgresses against
God and does not follow the rules of reason. It is from Man that all
the evils of the age arise, and we read in prophecy that for the sin
of Man all the world, with the creatures which it contains, shall be
troubled. Man is a microcosm, an abridgement of the world, and it is no
wonder that all the elements should be disturbed when he transgresses
(26605-26964). On the other hand the good and just man can command the
elements and the powers of the material world, as Joshua commanded
the sun and moon to stand still and as the saints have done at all
times by miracles, and he is victorious at last even over Death, and
attains to immortality by the grace of God (26965-27120). Surely, then,
every man ought to desire to repent of his sin and to turn to God,
that so the world may be amended and we may inherit eternal life. The
author confesses himself to be as great a sinner as any man; but hope
is his shield by the aid and mercy of Jesus Christ, notwithstanding
that he has so idly wasted his life and comes so late to repentance
(27121-27360). But how can he escape from his sins, how can he dare
to pray, with what can he come before his God? Only by the help of
his Lady of Pity, Mary, maid and mother, who will intercede for him
if he can obtain her favour. Therefore he desires, before finishing
his task, to tell of her conception and birth, her life and her
death (27361-27480). Upon this follows the tale of the Nativity of
the Virgin, as we find it (for example) in the _Legenda Aurea_, her
childhood and espousal, the Nativity of Jesus Christ and the joys of
our Lady, the Circumcision and the Purification, the baptism of our
Lord, his miracles and his passion, the Resurrection, the sorrows of
our Lady and her joys, the Ascension and the descent of the Spirit,
the life of the Virgin Mary with St. John, her death, burial, and
assumption; and the poet concludes his narrative with a prayer to both
Son and Mother that they will have mercy upon his pain because of the
pains which they themselves suffered, and give him that joy in which
they now rejoice. Especially he is bound to celebrate the praise of
his Lady, who is so gentle and fair and so near to God who redeemed us
(27481-29904). He begins therefore to tell first of the names by which
she is called, and with the praises of her, no doubt, he ended his
book, which, as we have it, breaks off at l. 29945.
This, it will be seen, is a literary work with due connexion of parts,
and not a mere string of sermons. At the same time it must be said that
the descriptions of vices and virtues are of such inordinate length
that the effect of unity which should be produced by a well-planned
design is almost completely lost, and the book becomes very tiresome to
read. We are wearied also by the accumulation of texts and authorities
and by the unqualified character of the moral judgements. The maxim in
l. 25225,
‘Les bons sont bons, les mals sont mals,’
is thoroughly characteristic of Gower, and on the strength of it he
holds a kind of perpetual Last Judgement, in which he is always engaged
in separating the sheep from the goats and dealing out to the latter
their doom of eternal fire. The sentence sounds like a truism, but it
contains in fact one of the grossest of fallacies. In short, our author
has little sense of proportion and no dramatic powers.
As regards the invention of his allegory he seems to be to some extent
original. There is nothing, so far as I know, to which we can point as
its source, and such as it is, he is apparently entitled to the credit
of having conceived it. The materials, no doubt, were ready to his
hand. Allegory was entirely in the taste of the fourteenth century,
dominated as it was by the influence of the _Roman de la Rose_, from
which several of Gower’s personifications are taken. The _Mariage des
Sept Arts_ was a work of this period, and the marriage of the Deadly
Sins was not by any means a new idea. For example in MS. Fairfax 24
(Bodleian Libr.) there is a part of a French poem ‘de Maritagio nouem
filiarum diaboli,’ which begins,
‘Li deable se vout marier,
Mauveisté prist a sa moiller:
. . . . . . .
De ceste ix filles engendra
Et diversement les marya,’ &c.
And no doubt other pieces of a similar kind exist.
The same is true as regards the other parts of the book, as has been
already pointed out; the combination alone is original.
The style is uniformly respectable, but as a rule very monotonous.
Occasionally the tedium is relieved by a story, but it is not
generally told in much detail, and for the most part the reader has
to toil through the desert with little assistance. It must not be
supposed, however, that the work is quite without poetical merit. Every
now and then by some touch of description the author betrays himself
as the graceful poet of the _Balades_, his better part being crushed
under mountains of morality and piles of deadly learning, but surviving
nevertheless. For example, the priest who neglects his early morning
service is reminded of the example of the lark, who rising very early
mounts circling upward and pours forth a service of praise to God from
her little throat:
‘Car que l’en doit sanz nul destour
Loenge rendre au creatour
Essample avons de l’alouette,
Que bien matin de tour en tour
Monte, et de dieu volant entour
Les laudes chante en sa gorgette.’ (5635 ff.)
Again, Praise is like the bee which flies over the meadows in the
sunshine, gathering that which is sweet and fragrant, but avoiding all
evil odours (12853 ff.). The robe of Conscience is like a cloud with
ever-changing hues (10114 ff.). Devotion is like the sea-shell which
opens to the dew of heaven and thus conceives the fair white pearl; not
an original idea, but gracefully expressed:
‘Si en resçoit le douls rosé,
Que chiet du ciel tout en celée,
Dont puis deinz soi ad engendré
La margarite blanche et fine;
Ensi Devocioun en dée
Conceipt, s’elle est continué,
La Contemplacioun divine.’ (10818 ff.)
The lines in which our author describes the life of the beggar show
that, though he disapproves, he has a real understanding of the
delights of vagabondage, with its enjoyment of the open-air life, the
sunshine, the woods, and the laziness:
‘Car mieulx amont la soule mie
Ove l’aise q’est appartenant,
C’est du solail q’est eschaulfant,
Et du sachel acostoiant,
Et du buisson l’erbergerie,
Que labourer pour leur vivant’ &c. (5801 ff.)
Other descriptions also have merit, as for example that of the
procession of the Vices to their wedding, each being arrayed and
mounted characteristically (841 ff.), a scene which it is interesting
to compare with the somewhat similar passage of Spenser, _Faery
Queene_, i. 4, that of Murder rocked in her cradle by the Devil and fed
with milk of death (4795), and that of Fortune smiling on her friends
and frowning on her enemies (22081 ff.).
Contemplation is described as one who loves solitude and withdraws
herself from the sight, but it is not that she may be quite alone:
she is like the maiden who in a solitary place awaits her lover, by
whose coming she is to have joy in secret (10597 ff.). The truly
religious man, already dead in spirit to this world, desires the
death of the body ‘more than the mariner longs for his safe port,
more than the labourer desires his wage, the husbandman his harvest,
or the vine-dresser his vintage, more than the prisoner longs for
his ransoming and deliverance, or the pilgrim who has travelled far
desires his home-coming’ (10645 ff.). Such passages as these show both
imagination and the power of literary expression, and the stanzas which
describe the agony of the Saviour are not wholly unworthy of their high
subject:
‘Par ce q’il ot le corps humein
Et vist la mort devant la mein,
Tant durement il s’effroia,
Du quoy parmy le tendre grein
Du char les gouttes trestout plein
Du sanc et eaue alors sua;
Si dist: O piere, entendes ça,
Fai que la mort me passera,
Car tu sur tout es soverein;
Et nepourqant je vuil cela
Que vous vuilletz que fait serra,
Car je me tiens a toy certein.’ (28669 ff.)
The man who wrote this not only showed some idea of the dignified
handling of a tragic theme, but also had considerable mastery over
the instruments that he used; and in fact the technical skill with
which the stanza is used is often remarkable. There is sometimes a
completeness and finish about it which takes us by surprise. The
directions which our author gives us for a due confession of our sins
are not exactly poetical, but the manner in which all the various
points of _Quomodo_ are wrapped up in a stanza, and rounded off at the
end of it (14869 ff.) is decidedly neat; and the same may be said of
the reference to the lives of the holy fathers, as illustrating the
nature of ‘Aspre vie’:
‘Qui list les vies des saintz pieres,
Oïr y puet maintes manieres
De la nature d’Aspre vie:
Les uns souleins en les rocheres,
Les uns en cloistre ove lour confreres,
Chascun fist bien de sa partie;
Cil plourt, cist preche, cil dieu prie,
Cist june et veille, et cil chastie
Son corps du froid et des miseres,
Cist laist sa terre et manantie,
Cil laist sa femme et progenie,
Eiant sur tout leur almes cheres.’ (18253 ff.)
In fact, he is a poet in a different sense altogether from his
predecessors, superior to former Anglo-Norman writers both in
imagination and in technical skill; but at the same time he is
hopelessly unreadable, so far as this book as a whole is concerned,
because, having been seized by the fatal desire to do good in his
generation, ‘villicacionis sue racionem, dum tempus instat, ...
alleuiare cupiens,’ as he himself expresses it, he deliberately
determined to smother those gifts which had been employed in the
service of folly, and to become a preacher instead of a poet. Happily,
as time went on, he saw reason to modify his views in this respect (as
he tells us plainly in the _Confessio Amantis_), and he became a poet
again; but meanwhile he remains a preacher, and not a very good one
after all.