In the year 1619, memorable in the history of the United States, a
Dutch trading vessel carried to the colonists of Virginia twenty
Negroes from the West Indies and sold them as slaves, thus laying the
foundation of slave society in the American colonies. In the
seventeenth century slavery made but little progress in these parts of
America, and during that whole period not more than twenty-five
thousand slaves were brought to the colonies to work in the tobacco
and rice fields of the South or to serve as maids, butlers, and
coachmen in the North. The eighteenth century, however, saw a rapid
increase in slavery, until the census of 1790, much to the surprise of
most observers, showed a slave population of 679,679 living in every
State and territory of the country except Massachusetts and Maine.
With the extensive development of various industries in the colonies,
slavery soon left the North and was used exclusively in the South.
There are several reasons for this shift. In the first place, the
colonies of the North were settled by people from the lower and middle
classes, who had been accustomed to working for themselves and who
thus had no use for slaves, while the South was settled largely by
adventurers, who had never worked and who looked upon labor as
dishonorable. In the second place, the North had a temperate climate
in which any man could safely work, while the heat of the South was so
intense that a white man endangered his life by working in it, whereas
the Negro was protected by facility of acclimation. Another cause was
the difference in soil. The soil of the South was favorable to the
growth of cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar, the cultivation of which
crops required large forces of organized and concentrated labor, which
the slaves supplied. On the other hand, the soil of the North favored
the raising of cereals, which required neither organized nor
concentrated labor; for one man working alone was able to produce more
than one man working in a group: and thus slave labor was of little or
no advantage to the North. Then, too, its soil, lacking the fertility
of that of the South, required considerable fertilizing, which slave
labor did not have the intelligence to learn. Thus in 1750 the slaves
included three per cent of the population of the New England colonies,
nine per cent of the middle colonies, and twenty-five per cent of
those south of the Potomac River.[1] By the end of the eighteenth
century every State north of Maryland, with the exception of New
Jersey, had provided for the immediate or gradual abolition of
slavery, while the rise of the cotton industry, quickened by the
invention of the cotton gin in 1793, had bound the institution on the
South.
In order to understand the institutions of the South, it is first
necessary to know something about the dominating class of people. The
planters, numbering in 1860 about 384,750 and owning 2,308,518
slaves,[2] were first in the social scale and controlled affairs.
"They included an aristocracy or gentry reflecting distinctions of
colonial government, and expanding under influences that prevented an
amalgamation of widely separated elements."[3]
The home of the planter was usually a large country house of ten or
twelve rooms, situated on an elevation, or river bluff. The house was
surrounded by a large porch, almost as tall as the house itself, the
roofs of which were supported by rows of large white columns. Inside
the house there was a large hall, with a wide stairway leading to
another hall on the second floor. Opening from the hall on the first
floor were the parlors, library and dining room, and, on the second
floor, the living rooms of the family. The ceilings were high, and the
windows tall and wide. The carpets were very plain, but very heavy,
while on the walls were portraits of ancestors, of Washington, or of
Calhoun. The house was surrounded by beautiful lawns with tall
spreading trees and sometimes marble statues.[4] The home of the
planter was indeed picturesque.
The typical planter's family was composed of about twelve sons and
daughters, a "tall, lank, and rather weatherworn gentleman, and a
slender, soft-voiced, weary-looking mother, unless one counts the
inevitable guest or the old-maiden cousin, who, like the furniture or
the servants, always formed part of a planter's household."[5] The
planter, the master of the plantation, was usually well educated,
honorable, and generous. His chief work was managing the plantation.
He planned, ordered, and saw to the performance of the work. He also
spent much time engaging in politics, caring more for the honor of the
public station than for the remuneration, and often went on sporting
trips, being used to out-of-door life from boyhood. "The high sense of
personal worth, the habit of command, the tyranny engendered by the
submission of the prostrate race, made the Southern gentleman jealous
in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel,"[6] and, as a result, the duel
was very common. Men went about fully armed and used their pistols
with slight provocation. They were used to exercising absolute power
over their dependents and became furious at opposition; thus a quarrel
between one lord and another was, during the earlier period, usually
settled by the pistol.
The mistress, usually mother of a large family of her own and
over-mother of the pickaninnies, was the "chatelaine of the whole
establishment." She supervised the domestic duties, superintended the
household industries, was head nurse for the sick, and instructor in
religion and morals for the family and for the slaves. She was highly
honored and respected by the men, who showed her much consideration.
"No patience was had with plans to bring women into competition with
the men in the public life; but a generalization of the Pauline advice
to the Corinthian church did not hinder the mother from exercising a
gentle but firm sway over her husband and sons, while she set the
example of virtue and modesty for her daughters."[7]
One of the chief characteristics of the Southern people was their
hospitality, which was increased by the fact that they had few
opportunities to extend it. Any traveler was welcome to eat at their
tables, which were always loaded with meats, breads, seasonal
vegetables, relishes, pickles, preserves, jellies, and cakes. He was
willingly entertained until he again took up his journey. The general
effect of the hospitality upon the status of the Southern society was
similar to that of "some rosy afterglow upon a landscape, enhancing
the charm of many features, and making attractive others that under a
cold white light might mar the whole."[8]
Another prominent feature of the planters was their remarkable
progress. Between 1859 and 1860 they had eleven thousand sons and
daughters in Southern colleges, while the enrollment of New England
colleges was only four thousand. The income of the higher institutions
in the South was $700,000, while that of New England was $268,000.
They also boasted of many prominent scholars, such as Francis Lieber,
who was a professor at the University of South Carolina; Mr. Le Conte
and Joseph Senat, who were great geologists and who were also
professors at the University of South Carolina; Messrs. Ruffner,
Wiley, Yansey, and Manly, prominent Southern educators; and many
notable statesmen who went forth from the Southern universities. Does
it not seem natural, then, that the Southern planters, who were so
charming and so progressive, should dominate the political and social
life of the South?
No picture of the planter, however, is "able to be free from the warm,
underlying color, the object upon which his progress rested
advantageously"--slavery. The attractive life of the planter was made
possible by the fact that he had hundreds of slaves to perform the
manual labor. The power of the master over the slave was very similar
to that of a master over an indentured apprentice in Europe. Both the
apprentice and the slave were bound for a term of years, the slave
being bound for life. In both cases the master regulated and
controlled the person and had absolute enjoyment of his labor. The
prominent difference in their power was that the master of a slave
could sell him to another, and had the right to sell his child born
during slavery, while the master of an indentured apprentice could not
so treat him. In both cases the master was an absolute despot.[9]
Since the master, although making the rules of the plantation, was
frequently absent, and since the enforcement of the rules and the
severity of the labor depended upon the overseer, it is helpful to
know the general character of this important power in order to
understand the labor of the slaves. He was usually ignorant,
high-tempered, and brutal. Patrick Henry has described him as a most
"abject, degraded, and unprincipled man." Such men usually worked the
Negroes to the limit, having a Negro driver go with each gang of
slaves in order to secure the utmost labor. In the light of these
facts, it is easy to understand how the slaves might be mistreated, in
spite of the benevolent intentions of the master. Yet the overseers
were not wholly blamable for their cruelty, inasmuch as they were
assured of work only as long as they pleased the master, who judged
them by the good behavior of the slaves, the general condition of the
plantation, and the size and quality of the crop. Calhoun has
truthfully said that by displaying too great an interest in the size
of the crop, the master unconsciously encouraged cruelty by the
overseer.
As to the general severity of the work, writers differ. Rhodes, in his
history of the United States, says that the slaves presented a picture
of sadness and fear, and that they toiled from morning until night,
working on an average of fifteen hours a day, while during the picking
season on the cotton plantations they worked sixteen hours and during
the grinding season on the sugar plantations they labored eighteen
hours daily. On the other hand, Murat, in his history of the United
States, says that the work of the slaves was less strenuous than that
of the free workers of the North, that they worked from sunrise till
three o'clock in the afternoon, resting two hours at noon and
receiving Sunday as a holiday and a half holiday on Saturday, and that
they received many privileges, such as farming a small piece of land
for themselves and selling its products. According to him, the slaves
were supremely happy and contented. Which of these views is correct,
it is difficult to say, for it is doubtless true that some slaves were
driven to the extreme, while others enjoyed a comparatively easy life.
When it is remembered, however, that, since the Constitution forbade
the importation of slaves after 1808, the price of slaves had steadily
risen, it is safe to conclude that the work was no more severe to the
slaves than was agricultural life to the whites in the North, for it
was advantageous to the owner to keep the slave in good health as long
as possible, and this was not to be accomplished by overworking him.
The family life of the Negro was regulated by the planter, who, in
return for the service of the slave, provided him with food,
clothing, shelter, and all the necessities of life. This part of slave
life is very sad. "A slave, his wife, and their children, around that
charmed centre, a family table, with its influence of love,
instruction, discipline, humble as they necessarily would be, yet such
as God has given them, are too seldom seen."[10] Negroes were married
only that slaves might be bred for the master to sell. The Negro
families ranged from fifteen to twenty-five children. A certain man in
Virginia said that he was fortunate "because his women were uncommonly
good breeders; he did not suppose there was a lot of women anywhere
that bred faster than his; he never heard of babies coming faster than
they did on his plantation; and every one of them, in his estimation,
was worth two hundred dollars, as Negroes were selling then, the
moment they drew breath."[11] Many people purchased Negro women
because they were good breeders, making large fortunes by selling
their children. This compulsory breeding naturally crushed the
maternal instincts in Negro women. One month after the birth of a
child, it was taken to a nursery and cared for by a servant until it
was sold, while the mother worked in the field. Thus she neither fed,
clothed, nor controlled her child, and consequently the usual love
between mother and child was absent. This is well illustrated in the
case of a certain slave mother, who, when dying, was asked how she
felt about leaving her children and who replied: "O missis, you will
take care of them; I don't mind them." It has been truthfully said
that the most appalling feature of slavery was the lack of family life
suffered by the Negro.
The Negroes lived in huts near the large house, which were usually log
cabins with board floors and good chimneys and which were generally
comfortable, but which, because of filth and indolence, presented a
foul and wretched appearance. Indeed, the appearance of the slave
himself was unfavorable. Olmsted describes him as "clumsy, awkward,
gross, elephantine in all his expressions and demeanor." The clothing
of the slave was of every variety, from the "smart mulatto lady's
maid, who wore the still fresh dress that had been her mistress's,
down to the pickaninny of three, five, or eight years of age, who went
as nature made him."[12] The little Negroes usually wore only a shirt
that reached to their knees, while the grown ones received two pairs
of shoes, a new suit of clothes, and a hat each year.[13] Their food,
as well as their clothes, varied according to the master, generally
consisting of cornmeal, bacon, and molasses, while on some plantations
they were allowed wheat flour, seasonal vegetables, and even
chicken.[14] It is reasonable to judge that the living of the slaves
was not very high, for it was to the interest of the master to bring
the food and clothing of the slaves down to the lowest cost.
The education of the slaves was very displeasing to the planter. North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana passed laws
forbidding slaves being taught to read or write, although North
Carolina slaves could be taught arithmetic. It was said that if they
were educated they would read abolition papers and would be
discontented. On the other hand, some of the planters contended that
they should be taught to read in order that they might understand the
Bible. The majority of Negroes, however, were illiterate. As to their
religious education, there was much consideration. Southern people
were very pious and orthodox in their faith and usually baptized their
slaves, taught them the catechism, and then had them confirmed. Their
favorite text, however, was "Servants obey in all things your
masters." One can not blame the planter for his attitude towards the
education of the slave; for, after all, his chief aim was to obtain
the utmost work from him, and what educated man free to read and think
for himself would really be willing to work as a slave for another?
The question which next presents itself is: "How could anyone justify
such a system by which one man is enslaved to the other, sacrificing
his right to life, liberty, and happiness that another might prosper?"
In the first place, the planter argued that the Negroes were naturally
inferior to the white race and could not enjoy the intellectual
pursuits; for they had always been savages, having lived in savagery
in Africa before taken into captivity and, even in the nineteenth
century when freed in Hayti, returning to that state of civilization.
From this fact it was argued that, inasmuch as the Negroes belonged to
an inferior race, it was only natural that men should enslave them and
that they should be controlled by their superiors. Chancellor Harper
said: "It is the order of nature and of Heaven that the being of
superior faculties and knowledge, and therefore of superior power,
should control and dispose of those who are inferior."
The planter argued, secondly, that the Negro was happy and contented
in slavery; for he was secure, working for the master, and in return
receiving good care all of his life. He was relieved of all worry of
sickness or old age, for he knew his master would have to care for
him. In time of business depression it was not he who suffered, but
the master. On the other hand, the free worker of the North labored
for his employer during the best part of his life and then, when no
longer able to work, or during business depression, was turned away
and obliged to suffer from lack of care. It was maintained that the
assertion that the Negro was not happy when he might be whipped was
"pathos misapplied." If a man hired a white laborer who robbed him, he
dismissed the worker, who was then sentenced to prison, thus
disgracing his family, which then suffered from lack of support. On
the other hand, a master could not discharge his slave, but whipped
and corrected him. After the whipping the Negro felt no bad
consequence and his family did not suffer from his wrong doings. It
was asserted that the slave was happy and loved his master as a
father, "looking up to him as his supporter, director, and defender."
Dew inquired: "Why, then, since the slave is happy and happiness is
the great object of all animated creation, should we endeavor to
disturb his contentment by infusing into his mind a vain and
indefinite desire for liberty, a something which he can not comprehend
and which must inevitably dry up every source of his happiness?"
But the chief argument advanced was that slavery was the price of
prosperity and progress of the South. The North had a moderate climate
because of the sea breeze and elevation, and thus white men were able
to till the soil, while the intense heat of the South rendered it
impossible for the white man to work in the fields and made a large
supply of black men necessary. As Harper said, "The products of slave
labor furnished more than two-thirds of the materials of our commerce,
employed in transporting and exchanging; and among the slaveholding
States is to be found the greater market for all the productions of
their industry, of whatever kind. The prosperity of those States,
therefore, and the civilization of their cities have been for the most
part created by the existence of slavery." In addition, slavery
released the planter from manual labor and gave him more time to
cultivate his mind, and thus the Southern planter was highly educated,
cultured, and refined. In the mind of the planter, slavery was "the
defence of human civilization." Students of economics, however, saw
that it was an evil which had to pass away.