confined in a subterranean dungeon, so dark that the difference of day
and night was never apparent to its inmate. Belisarius himself was
recalled, with flattering professions of confidence and friendship,
lest resentment should urge him to rebellion; but on his arrival at
Constantinople, the mask was thrown aside; he was degraded from the
rank of general of the East; a commission was despatched into Asia to
seize his treasures; and his personal guards, who had followed his
standard through so many battles, were removed from his command.
It was with mingled feelings of compassion and surprise, that the
people beheld the forlorn appearance of the general as he entered
Constantinople, and rode along the streets, with a small and squalid
train. Proceeding to the gates of the palace, he was exposed during
the whole day to the scoffs and insults of the rabble. He was received
by the emperor and Theodora with angry disdain, and when he withdrew,
in the evening, to his lonely palace, he frequently turned round,
expecting to see the appointed assassins advancing upon him.
In the evening, after sunset, a letter was brought him from Theodora,
declaring that his life was granted and a portion of his fortune spared
at the intercession of his wife, and she trusted that his future
conduct would manifest his gratitude to his deliverer. The favorable
moments of surprise and gratitude were improved by Antonina with
her usual skill. Thus, by the artifices of two designing women, the
conqueror of armies was subdued, and Belisarius once more became the
duped and submissive husband.
A fine of three hundred pounds weight of gold was levied upon the
property of Belisarius, and he was suffered for many months to languish
in obscurity. In 544, however, he was appointed to the command of
the war in Italy, whither he soon proceeded. Here, in his operations
against far superior forces, he displayed the same genius as before,
and in February, 547, he again entered Rome. He pursued the war with
various fortune; but at last, finding his means entirely inadequate
to the necessities of the contest, he begged of the emperor either
reinforcements or recall. Engrossed by religious quarrels, Justinian
took the easier course, and adopted the latter. Thus, after having
desolated Italy with all the horrors of war for several years, he now
abandoned it, from mere weakness and caprice.
Belisarius returned to Constantinople, and for several years his
life affords no remarkable occurrence. He continued in the tranquil
enjoyment of opulence and dignities; but, in the year 559, various
warlike tribes beyond the Danube, known under the general name of
Bulgarians, marched southward, and desolated several provinces by
sword, fire, and plunder. Zabergan, their enterprising leader, having
passed the frozen Danube in the winter, detached one portion of his
army for the pillage of Greece, and the other against the capital.
So sudden and bold an aggression filled Constantinople with helpless
and despairing terror. The people and the senators were agitated with
fear, and the emperor sat trembling in his palace. In this general
confusion and affright, all eyes were turned with hope to the conqueror
of Africa and Italy. Though his constitution was broken by his military
labors, his heart was alive to the call of his country, and Belisarius
prepared to crown his glorious life by a last and decisive battle. He
resumed his rusty armor, collected a handful of his scattered veterans,
and in the return of martial spirit he seemed to shake off the weakness
of decrepitude.
Sallying from the city with three hundred mounted men, he met Zabergan
at the head of two thousand cavalry. Selecting a favorable position, he
withstood the onset, and, seeming to recover the powers of his youth,
he astonished all around him by his intrepidity and skill. After a
severe and bloody struggle, the Bulgarians were driven back in the
utmost disorder; four hundred fell on the field, and Zabergan himself
escaped with difficulty. The whole army of barbarians, amounting to
many thousands, were seized with contagious fear, raised their camp,
and retreated to the north.
Belisarius was preparing for a close pursuit, when again his enemies
awaked the suspicions of Justinian by suggesting that he was aiming
at popular favor with disloyal views. The enthusiastic praises of
his heroic conduct, by the people, turned even the emperor’s heart
to jealousy, and he chose rather to purchase the departure of the
barbarians by tribute, than to permit Belisarius to obtain new laurels
by chastising their audacity.
From this period, Belisarius continued under the displeasure of
Justinian, whose suspicious temper seemed to grow more virulent as his
faculties sunk in the dotage of years. In 563, several conspiracies
against the life of Justinian were detected, and under torture, some of
the domestics of Belisarius accused their master of participation. This
testimony, disproved by the long life and the habitually submissive
loyalty of Belisarius, was sufficient for his conviction. He was
stripped of his fortune, deprived of his guards, and detained as a
close prisoner in his palace.
The other conspirators were condemned and executed; but, in
consideration of the past services of Belisarius, the decree of death
was changed for that of blindness, and his eyes were accordingly put
out.[3] He was now restored to liberty, but, deprived of all means
of subsistence, he was compelled to beg his bread before the gates of
the convent of Laurus. There he stood with a wooden platter which he
held out for charity, exclaiming to the passers-by, “Give a penny to
Belisarius the general!”
The affecting scene was long impressed upon the recollection of the
people; and it would seem that this spectacle of persecuted merit
aroused some dangerous feelings of indignation and pity, and he was,
therefore, removed from public view. Belisarius was brought back to his
former palace, and a portion of his treasures was allotted for his use.
His death, which was doubtless hastened by the grief and hardships of
his lot, occurred in 565; and Antonina, who survived him, devoted the
remains of her life and fortune to the cloister.
In person, Belisarius was tall and commanding; his features regular
and noble. When he appeared in the streets of Constantinople, he never
failed to attract the admiration of the people. As a military leader,
he was enterprising, firm, and fearless. His conception was clear,
and his judgment rapid and decisive. His conquests were achieved with
smaller means than any other of like extent recorded in history. He
experienced reverses in the field; but never did he fail without
strong and sufficient reason. His superior tactics covered his defeats,
retrieved his losses, and prevented his enemies from reaping the fruits
of victory. Never, even in the most desperate emergencies, was he known
to lose his courage or presence of mind.
Though living in a barbarous and dissolute age, Belisarius possessed
many shining virtues. In the march of his armies, he would avoid the
trampling of the corn-fields, nor would he allow his soldiers even to
gather apples from the trees without making payment to the villagers.
After a victory, it was his first care to extend mercy and protection
to the vanquished. The gift of a golden bracelet or collar rewarded
any valorous achievement among his troops; the loss of a horse or
weapon was immediately supplied from his private funds; the wounded
ever found in him a father and a friend. To all, he was open and easy
of access, and by his courteous demeanor often comforted, where he
could not relieve. From his generosity, one would have deemed him rich;
from his manners, poor. His private virtues promoted and confirmed the
discipline of his soldiers. None ever saw him flushed with wine, nor
could the charms of his fairest captives overcome his conjugal fidelity.
But the most remarkable feature in the character of Belisarius is his
steadfast loyalty, and the noble magnanimity with which he overlooked
the suspicious meanness and ingratitude of his sovereign. It is
impossible to find in history another instance of an individual so
strongly induced to rebellion by treacherous treatment on the part of
his country, and the opportunity of placing a crown upon his head
without the risk of effectual opposition, who refused, from patriotic
motives, the double temptation.
That Belisarius had faults, is not to be denied. His blind submission
to his wife displayed great weakness, and led him into most of the
errors which are charged upon his public career. In his last campaign
in Italy, his wealth having been exhausted by an enormous fine, he
endeavored to repair his losses by imitating the rapacity universally
practised by other commanders of that period. He thus inflicted upon
his memory a serious stain, and showed that, however he was exalted
above the age, he was still a man. His whole career affords a striking
moral, coinciding with the emphatic language of Scripture, “Put not thy
trust in princes.”
[Illustration]
[Footnote 1: These were a digest of the civil law of Rome, made by the
order of Justinian, and have been preserved to our time. They contained
five hundred and thirty-four decisions or judgments of lawyers, to
which the emperor gave the force of law. The compilation consists of
fifty books, and has contributed to save Justinian’s name from the
contempt and reproach which had otherwise been heaped upon it.]
[Footnote 2: A space where the chariot races were exhibited.]
[Footnote 3: This portion of the story of Belisarius has been the
subject of controversy. It has been doubted by Gibbon and other
historians, whether the infliction of blindness upon Belisarius and
his beggary, were not mere traditionary fables. But Lord Mahon, in his
excellent life of the great Roman general from which we have drawn the
preceding account, appears to have established their authenticity. The
beautiful tale of Belisarius by Marmontel, is fictitious in many of its
details.]
[Illustration]
ATTILA, KING OF THE HUNS
This renowned barbarian was the son of Mandras, and of a royal line. He
served in the army of his uncle, Roas, who was king of the Huns. At his
death, in 433, he succeeded him, sharing the throne with his brother
Bleda. The Huns at this period were very numerous and warlike. They
extended over the southern part of Russia, and a considerable portion
of the present empire of Austria. Attila’s kingdom lay between the
Carpathian mountains and the Danube, and was called Pannonia.
At this period, the Roman empire had been for more than a century
divided into the Eastern and Western empire. Theodosius II. was
now emperor of the former, and Constantinople its capital, while
Valentinian III. was emperor of the latter, and Rome, or Ravenna, the
seat of his government.
Both branches of the Roman empire were now sunk in the lap of luxury.
They were spread over with splendid cities, and enriched with all the
refinements of art, and all the spoils gathered from every quarter
of the world. These offered a tempting inducement to the fierce and
hungry barbarians of the north. Alaric[4] had shown the way to Rome a
few years before, and taught the weakness of the queen of the world.
Constantinople was not likely to be an inferior or more inaccessible
prize. Attila’s dominions bordered upon those of the two empires, and
the distance to either capital was not more than five or six hundred
miles.
Among the first achievements of the two brothers, they threatened
the Eastern empire with their armies, and twice compelled the weak
Theodosius to purchase peace on humiliating terms. They then extended
their dominions both east and west, until they reigned over the whole
country from the Baltic to the Caspian Sea.
Attila was regarded by the Huns as their bravest warrior, and most
skilful general. He performed such feats of valor, and success so
uniformly attended his career, that the ignorant and superstitious
people were inclined to think him more than mortal. He took advantage
of this feeling, and pretended that he had found the sword of their
tutelar god, and that with this he intended to conquer the whole earth.
Being unwilling to hold a divided sceptre, he caused his brother Bleda
to be murdered, and when he gave out that it was done by the command of
God, the event was celebrated with the greatest demonstrations of joy.
Being now sole master of a warlike people, his ambition made him the
terror of all the surrounding nations. It was a saying of his own, that
no grass grew where his horse had set his foot, and the title of the
“Scourge of God” was assigned to him, as characterizing his career.
He extended his dominions over the whole of Germany and Scythia. The
Vandals, the Ostrogoths, and a part of the Franks, acknowledged his
sway, and both the Eastern and Western empires paid him tribute.
Historians tell us that his army amounted to 700,000 men.
Having heard of the riches of Persia, he directed his march against it.
Being defeated on the plains of Armenia, he turned back, to satisfy
his desire of plunder in the dominions of the emperor of the East.
Regardless of existing treaties, he laid waste the whole country from
the Black Sea to the Adriatic. In three bloody engagements, he defeated
the troops sent against him by Theodosius. Thrace, Macedonia, and
Greece, were overrun by the savage robber, and seventy flourishing
cities were utterly destroyed.
Theodosius was now at the mercy of the victor and was obliged to sue
for peace. One of the servants of Attila, named Edekon, was tempted
by an agent of the emperor to undertake the assassination of his
master, on his return to Pannonia; but, at the moment he was about to
accomplish his object, his courage failed him, he fell on his knees
before Attila, confessed his criminal design, and disclosed the plot.
Constantinople trembled at the idea of Attila’s revenge; but he was
contented with upbraiding Theodosius, and the execution of Crisapheus,
who had drawn his servant into the scheme.
Priscus, a Roman historian, who was an ambassador to Attila in the
year 448, gives an interesting account of the king and his people. He
found the palace in the midst of a large village. The royal edifice was
entirely of wood: the houses of the Huns were also of wood, sometimes
mixed with mortar made of earth. The only stone building was a set
of baths. The wooden pillars of the palace were carved and polished,
and the ambassador could discover some evidence of taste in the
workmanship, as well as barbarous magnificence in the display of rich
spoils taken from more civilized nations.
They were soon invited to a sumptuous entertainment, in which the
guests were all served upon utensils of silver and gold; but a dish of
plain meat was set before the king on a wooden trencher, of which he
partook very sparingly. His beverage was equally simple and frugal. The
rest of the company were excited into loud and frequent laughter by
the fantastic extravagances of two buffoons; but Attila preserved his
usually inflexible gravity. A secret agent in the embassy was charged
with the disgraceful task of procuring the assassination of this
formidable enemy. Attila was acquainted with this, which was the real
object of the mission, but he dismissed the culprit, as well as his
innocent companions, uninjured. The emperor Theodosius was compelled,
however, to atone for his base attempt, by a second embassy, loaded
with magnificent presents, which the king of the Huns was prevailed
upon to accept. Theodosius died not long after, and was succeeded by
the more virtuous and able Marcian.
Attila was at this time collecting an enormous army, and threatened
both divisions of the Roman world at once. To each emperor he sent
the haughty message, “Attila, my lord and thy lord, commands thee
immediately to prepare a palace for his reception!” To this insult, he
added a demand upon the emperor for the remainder of the tribute due
from Theodosius. Marcian’s reply was in the same laconic style: “I have
gold for my friends, and steel for my enemies!”
Attila determined to make war first on Valentinian. Honoria, the
emperor’s sister, who had been guilty of some youthful error, and was
consequently confined in a convent, had sent Attila a ring, offering to
become his wife. It was to claim her and half the empire as her dower,
that Attila professed to be making these formidable preparations. At
last, he appeared to accept the excuse of Theodosius for not allowing
his sister to become his wife, and speedily marched with a prodigious
force to the westward. He set out in midwinter, and did not pause
till he reached the Rhine. Having defeated the Franks, he cut down
whole forests to make rafts for his army to cross the river, and now,
throwing off the mask, entered Gaul, a dependency of Rome.
The horrors of his march it is scarcely possible to describe.
Everything was destroyed that came in his way. Before him were terror
and despair; behind, a broad track marked with desolation, ruin and
death. He proceeded in his victorious career, till he reached the
ancient town of Orleans. Here an obstinate defence was offered. The
combined armies of Rome, under the celebrated Ætius, and the Goths
under Theodoric, attacked him here, and compelled him to raise the
siege. He retreated to Champaign, and waited for them in the plain of
Chalons. The two armies soon approached each other.
Anxious to know the event of the coming battle, Attila consulted
the sorcerers, who foretold his defeat. Though greatly alarmed, he
concealed his feelings, and rode among his warriors, animating them for
the impending struggle. Inflamed by his ardor, the Huns were eager for
the contest. Both armies fought bravely. At length the ranks of the
Romans and Gauls were broken, and Attila felt assured of victory, when,
suddenly, Thorismond, son of Theodoric, swept down like an avalanche
from the neighboring heights upon the Huns. He threw them into
disorder, spread death through their ranks, and Attila, pressed on all
sides, escaped to his camp with the utmost difficulty.
This was the bloodiest battle ever fought in Europe, for 106,000
men lay dead on the field. Theodoric was slain, and Attila, who had
gathered his treasures into a heap, in order to burn himself with them
in case he was reduced to extremities, was left unexpectedly to make
his retreat.
Having returned to Hungary and reinforced his army, he proceeded to
repeat his demand for the hand of Honoria. He mastered the unguarded
passes of the Alps, and, in 452, carried devastation into the north
of Italy. At last he approached the city of Rome, when a supplicatory
embassy met him, Pope Leo I. being at its head. The eloquence of the
pontiff, united to prudential considerations, prevailed, and the city
was saved; Attila returning to his home beyond the Danube. The Romans
looked upon this preservation as a miracle, and they have preserved
a legend that St. Peter and St. Paul appeared to the barbarian, and
threatened him with instant death, if he did not accept the proffered
terms.
Attila now soothed himself by adding the beautiful Ildico to his
numerous wives, whom he wedded with all due ceremony. On this occasion
he gave himself up to licentiousness, but in the morning after his
marriage, he was found dead in his tent, and covered with blood, Ildico
sitting veiled by his side. The story went abroad that he had burst
a blood-vessel, and died in consequence, but a common suspicion is
entertained that he was stabbed by his bride.
The news of Attila’s death spread terror and sorrow among his army.
His body was enclosed in three coffins,—the first of gold, the second
of silver, and the third of iron. The captives who dug his grave were
strangled, so that the place of his burial might not be known.
In person, Attila was marked with the Tartar characteristics, from
which he, as well as the people of his kingdom, were descended. He was
low in stature, broad-chested, and of a powerful frame. He was dark
complexioned, with a few straggling hairs for beard, a flat nose, large
head, and small eyes. No one could look upon him, and not feel that
he had come into the world to disturb it. The number of persons slain
in his battles amounted to hundreds of thousands, yet to so little
purpose, that his empire was immediately dismembered upon his death.
[Illustration]
[Footnote 4: Alaric was one of the most eminent of those northern
chiefs who successively overran Italy, during the decline of the
Western empire, and the first who gained possession of imperial Rome.
He learned the art of war under the celebrated emperor of the East,
Theodosius, who curbed the depredations of the Goths. At his death,
Alaric became their leader, and overran Greece, A. D. 396. In the year
403, he entered Italy with a powerful army, but was defeated, and
retired to his own country. In 410, he again entered Italy, besieged
and took Rome, which he entered at midnight, and gave it up to plunder
and pillage for six days. He now led his troops into the southern
provinces of Italy, but died suddenly while he was besieging Cozenza.
He was buried in the channel of the river Bucente, in Naples, that his
remains might not be found by the Romans. To perform the burial, the
water of the river was turned out of its course.]
[Illustration]
NERO.
Claudius Cæsar Nero was son of Caius Domitius Ænobarbus and Agrippina,
the daughter of Germanicus and wife of the Emperor Claudius, after the
death of her first husband. He was adopted by the Emperor Claudius,
A.D. 50, and when he was murdered by his wife, four years after, Nero
succeeded him on the throne. He possessed excellent talents, and
was carefully educated by Seneca and Burrhus. The beginning of his
reign was marked by acts of the greatest kindness and condescension,
by affability, complaisance and popularity. The object of his
administration seemed to be the good of his people; and when he
was desired to sign his name for the execution of a malefactor, he
exclaimed, “I wish to heaven I could not write!” He appeared to be an
enemy to flattery, and when the senate had liberally commended the
wisdom of his government, Nero desired them to keep their praises till
he deserved them.
But these promising virtues were soon discovered to be artificial,
and Nero displayed the real propensities of his nature. He delivered
himself from the sway of his mother, and at last ordered her to be
assassinated. This unnatural act of barbarity shocked some of the
Romans; but Nero had his devoted adherents; and when he declared
that he had taken away his mother’s life to save himself from ruin,
the senate applauded his measures, and the people signified their
approbation. Even Burrhus and Seneca, Nero’s advisers, either
counselled or justified his conduct. Many of his courtiers shared the
unhappy fate of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or caprice
all such as obstructed his pleasures, or stood in the way of his
inclinations.
In the night he generally sallied out from his palace, to visit the
meanest taverns and the scenes of debauchery in which Rome abounded.
In his nocturnal riots he was fond of insulting the people in the
streets, and on one occasion, an attempt to offer violence to the wife
of a Roman senator nearly cost him his life. He also turned actor, and
publicly appeared on the Roman stage, in the meanest characters. He had
an absurd passion to excel in music, and to conquer the disadvantages
of a hoarse, rough voice, he moderated his meals, and often passed the
day without eating.
The celebrity of the Olympic games having attracted his notice, he
passed into Greece, and presented himself as a candidate for the
public honors. He was defeated in wrestling, but the flattery of the
spectators adjudged him the victory, and Nero returned to Rome with all
the pomp and splendor of an eastern conqueror, drawn in the chariot
of Augustus, and attended by a band of musicians, actors, and stage
dancers from every part of the empire.