a beautiful tapestry on ruins and old walls. It is a Continental
species, and those found naturalized here are believed to be the
descendants of greenhouse escapes. The stems are very long and slender;
the leaves lobed like certain forms of Ivy, often purple beneath, dark
green above. The calyx is five-parted, and the corolla is like that
of the familiar Snapdragon of our gardens. The two lips are so formed
that they close the mouth of the corolla, which is hence said to be
_personate_ or masked; the tube is spurred, in which it differs from
Snapdragon. When the seed-capsule is nearly ripe it turns about on its
stalk and seeks a cranny in the wall, where it can disperse its seeds.
Flowers July to September. The name _Linaria_ is derived from the Latin
_Linum_, from the resemblance of the leaves of the common Toad-flax
(_see_ page 105) to those of the Flax (_see_ page 96).
=Round-leaved Crane’s-bill= (_Geranium rotundifolium_).
This neat member of a charming family is by no means a common plant;
in fact, northward of South Wales and Norfolk it is unknown. Southward
it may be found in hedges and waste places, flowering in June and
July. The stems are slight, and greatly swollen at the joints. The
leaf-stalks are long, and the leaves, though their general outline is
kidney-shaped, are deeply cut into about seven lobes, which are in
turn lobed or toothed. Owing to the close general resemblance of this
species to its immediate congeners some rather minute differences
should be noted. The sepals end each in a hard point--in botanists’
language they are _mucronate_--the margin of the narrow petals
is _entire_, that is, not notched, and the narrow lower portion
(_claw_) is not fringed with hairs. The carpels, or divisions of the
seed-vessel, are keeled but not wrinkled, and the seeds are _pitted_.
Its nearest allies are:--
I. The Dove’s-foot Crane’s-bill (_G. molle_), with similar leaves
to the last, but with _notched_ petals, the claw bearded. Flowers
more rosy than _rotundifolium_.
II. Small-flowered Crane’s-bill (_G. pusillum_). Leaves more deeply
lobed, sepals as long as the notched petals, claw slightly hairy.
Flowers, pale rose.
III. Long-stalked Crane’s-bill (_G. columbinum_). Lobes of leaves
distant from each other, the segments into which they are again cut
being very narrow; sepals large, acuminate and awned, as long as
the entire rose-purple petals; claws less hairy than in last. All
the leaf and flower-stalks long.
IV. Cut-leaved Crane’s-bill (_G. dissectum_). Similar to _G.
columbinum_, but all stalks much shorter. Bright red petals,
notched.
V. Herb-Robert (_G. robertianum_). Plant more or less red. Leaves
divided into five leaflets, these again divided. Calyx angular,
the sepals long-awned and hairy. Petals narrow and entire; purple
streaked with red; claw smooth.
VI. Shining Crane’s-bill (_G. lucidum_). Plant more or less crimson
in summer. Leaves divided into five segments, each bluntly lobed
at the top. The calyx is a wrinkled pyramid, each sepal awned. The
rosy petals are much longer than the sepals; claw smooth. There are
two lines of hairs on the upper branches.
All the above are annual or biennial plants. The name of the genus
is from the Greek _geranos_, a crane, from a fancied resemblance in
the fruit to a Crane’s-bill.
The mechanism for the dispersal of seeds in the Crane’s-bills is worthy
of attention. When the petals fall off the carpels enlarge, and the
outer layer of the style separates from the axis, splitting into five
portions, each attached to a carpel at the bottom and to the style at
top. The axis of the style further elongates, but the tails of the
carpels do not, and there is, in consequence, great tension, which ends
in the carpel being detached from its base. The “tail” curls up, the
carpel is reversed, and the seed drops out.
=The Hemlock Stork’s-bill= (_Erodium cicutarium_).
Closely related to the Crane’s-bills--and at one time included in the
genus Geranium with them--are the Stork’s-bills, of which we have
three British representatives. Only one of the three, however, is at
all plentiful, and that is the one we have figured. It is a common
species, but must be looked for on dry wastes and commons, especially
near the coast. Quite apart from its umbels of pretty pink flowers
it is a handsome plant. The leaves are cut up into a large number of
leaflets, arranged in slightly irregular pairs on either side of the
rib, and these leaflets are cut up into many irregular lobes. It is the
arrangement so common in ferns: the leaf is _pinnate_, because it is
furnished with pinnæ or wings, and as the pinnæ are themselves almost
winged they are pinnatifid, or cut in a pinnate manner. The parts of
the flower agree in number with Geranium, that is, sepals five, petals
five, stamens ten (but five are aborted, and produce no anthers),
stigmas five. The fruits agree pretty closely with those of the
Crane’s-bills, but in _Erodium_ the tails of the carpels are lined on
their inner face with fine silky hairs, and instead of curling simply
they twist spirally, and cause the hairs to stand out at right angles.
The seed remains attached to the tail, which becomes detached from the
axis of the style and is blown to the ground. There the twisted tail
is alternately lengthened and shortened by moisture and dryness of the
atmosphere, and with assistance of the hairs this automatic movement
gradually forces the pointed hairy seed into the ground. It flowers
from June to September.
[Illustration: =Stork’s-bill.=
Erodium cicutarium.
--GERANIACEÆ.--]
[Illustration: =Milfoil. Yarrow.=
Achillea millefolium.
--COMPOSITÆ.--]
The Musky Stork’s-bill (_E. moschatum_) is much larger than the
last mentioned. Easily identified by the strong smell of musk.
Flowers June and July. Local.
The Sea Stork’s-bill (_E. maritimum_). Leaves narrow, heart-shaped,
lobed and toothed. Petals minute, pale pink, sometimes absent.
Sandy and gravelly coasts: rare. May to September. Name from Greek,
_Erodios_, a heron.
=Yarrow or Milfoil= (_Achillea millefolium_).
One of the commonest weeds in pastures, or on commons, roadside
wastes, and often on lawns, is the Yarrow. Its leaves, as its second
popular name indicates, are cut up into a large number of segments;
these are very slender and crowded, and are again cut up; so that the
general aspect of the leaf is exceedingly light and feathery. This is
especially the case with the leaves (radical) that spring directly
from the creeping root; those given off by the flowering stem become
more simple as they near the summit. Unlike as the flowers may at
first sight appear to those of the Daisy and Dandelion, those of the
Yarrow are also composites. The yellowish disc-florets are tubular,
and contain both anthers and stigmas; the white or pink ray-florets
are pistillate only. It abounds on all commons, pastures and wastes,
flowering from June till the end of the year. There is one other
British species,
The Sneezewort (_A. ptarmica_), which is almost as widely distributed.
Its flower-heads are much fewer than in Yarrow, and its leaves are
more simple in character, the edges being merely cut into teeth. The
disc-florets are more green than yellow. It is about a month later
than Yarrow in coming into flower, but thereafter the two species keep
time together. The name _Achillea_ was given to the genus in honour
of Achilles, who is reputed to have used Yarrow for the purpose of
staunching his wounds.
=Groundsel= (_Senecio vulgaris_).
We have selected this very vulgar plant as a familiar example of a
genus that contains some very striking species. They all produce
composite flowers, but in this common weed the ray-florets are usually
wanting, and consequently the few cylindric flower-heads have a very
singular appearance. The leaves are deeply cut, the lobes irregularly
toothed. The flowers are succeeded by the well-known fluffy pappus
attached to the seeds, which has enabled the plant to become one of the
most widely distributed in all temperate and cold climates. It is to
this hoary head of seed-bearers that the genus is indebted for its
name, which is derived from the Latin _Senex_--an old man. There are
other eight British species, of which the most frequent are briefly
noted below.
[Illustration: =Groundsel.=
Senecio vulgaris.
--COMPOSITÆ.--]
[Illustration: =Rye-grass.=
Lolium perenne.
=Brome-grass.=
Bromus erectus.
--GRAMINEÆ.--]
I. Mountain Groundsel (_S. sylvaticus_). Leaves similar to _S.
vulgaris_, but divisions more accentuated. When the ray is present
it is rolled back. The flower-heads are more numerous than in
_vulgaris_. Plant with unpleasant fœtid smell. Dry upland banks and
pastures. July to September.
II. Stinking Groundsel (_S. viscosus_). More objectionable-smelling
than the last. Leaves broader, more divided, glandular, hairy and
viscid. Plant much branched and spreading. Flowers larger: rays
rolled back. Waste ground. Local. July and August.
III. Ragwort (_S. jacobæa_). Stem thick and leafy, 2 to 4 feet
high, somewhat cottony, with clusters of large golden yellow
flower-heads with spreading rays. Leaves finely lobed and toothed.
Waysides, woods and pastures. June to October. Very plentiful.
IV. Hoary Ragwort (_S. erucifolius_). Similar to the last, but the
stem more loosely cottony; the segments of the leaves more regular
and less divided; rootstock creeping. Hedges and roadsides. July
and August.
V. Water Ragwort (_S. aquaticus_). Like _S. jacobæa_, but of lesser
growth. Flower-heads larger, leaf-stalks longer. Wet places,
riversides, ditches. July and August.
=Rye-grass= (_Lolium perenne_), and
=Upright Brome= (_Bromus erectus_).
The structure of grass-flowers has been already described, and the
reader should refer back to page 19. The inflorescence is a spike, the
spikelets arranged in two rows, with their edges to the stem, which is
channelled. There is only one outer glume, which is strongly ribbed,
and shorter than the spikelet. The flowering glumes number from six to
ten, or more.
This is one of the grasses that send forth leafy runners, which root
and occupy surrounding ground. It is one of the most valuable to the
farmer, on account of it early ripening, and its usefulness either for
permanent pasture or for cropping. With good management as many as four
crops may be obtained in one year. It grows in all waste places, and
flowers in May.
The Darnel (_L. temulentum_) is its only native congener; an
annual. It is similar to _L. perenne_, but produces no runners.
Its presence among wheat is dreaded, as when ground up into flour
it is believed to produce headache, vertigo, and other symptoms of
poisoning. Darnel is the Tares of the New Testament, and is one of
the very few grasses that are deleterious.
Upright Brome (_Bromus erectus_) is a perennial of strong growth,
with stout creeping rootstock, sending up smooth and rigid stems
2 or 3 feet in height. The narrow leaves have their edges rolled
inwards. The inflorescence is a lax panicle; the spikelets purplish
in tint. The two empty glumes are unequal, and contain from five to
eight flowering glumes, with awns, and hairy all over. There are
seven other British species in the genus.
=Henbane= (_Hyoscyamus niger_).
At one time the Henbane was held in great esteem as a medicinal plant,
and was then to be found very commonly on rubbish heaps, and the banks
of ditches. Although it is still retained in the Pharmacopœia, its
empirical use is not so great as formerly, neither does the plant
appear to be so plentiful as of old. Its appearance and smell are
somehow suggestive of its evil nature. It has a stout, branching stem,
growing to a height of about two feet. The leaves are oblong, with
irregular lobes, and the bases of the upper ones clasp the stem. The
flowers spring from the axils of the leaves, and are almost stalkless.
The calyx is pitcher-shaped, with a five-toothed mouth. The corolla
is funnel-shaped, with five unequal lobes, and of a dingy yellow,
streaked with purple-brown veins, though a form occurs with the corolla
uniformly yellow. The five stamens are inserted at the base of the
corolla-tube, and end in purple anthers, discharging their pollen by
slits. The ovary is two-celled, supporting a simple style with a round
head--the stigma. The whole plant is densely covered with sticky hairs.
On fertilization the ovary grows into a constricted capsule, with a
distinct lid, which drops off to release the numerous seeds. It is the
only British representative of the genus, which is said to get its
name from two Greek words, _Us_, a hog, and _Kuamos_, a bean, but such
etymology cannot be considered at all satisfactory. It flowers from
June to August.
[Illustration: =Henbane.=
Hyoscyamus niger.
--SOLANACEÆ.--]
[Illustration: =Quake-grass.=
Briza media.
=Foxtail-grass.=
Alopecurus pratensis.
--GRAMINEÆ.--]
=Quake or Totter-grass= (_Briza media_), and
=Meadow Foxtail= (_Alopecurus pratensis_).
The Totter-grass differs so strongly in appearance from other grasses
that minute description is unnecessary except as an aid in making out
the structure. Every child that plays in the meadow singles this out as
the most desirable acquisition among grasses, because of its constant
tremblings. The inflorescence is a very loose pyramidal panicle, due to
the extremely long and hair-like stalks upon which the shining purple
spikelets are swung. The empty glumes are two; flowering glumes six to
eight. The stem creeps below the surface, and the leaves are flat. The
plant is perennial; but there is another species, the Small Quake-grass
(_B. minor_), that is annual. This is not so common a plant, and is
found chiefly between Cornwall and Hampshire. It is much smaller than
_B. media_, and has tufted stems; it flowers in July, _media_ a month
earlier. The name _Briza_ is Greek, and was anciently applied to some
kind of corn.
The Meadow Foxtail (_Alopecurus pratensis_) bears a general resemblance
to Timothy (page 25), to which it is not distantly allied; but from
which it differs in having no _pale_ or scales. Its cylindrical panicle
is yellowish-green, with silvery hairs, the branches bearing three to
six spikelets. It is a perennial plant, and produces runners. It forms
a valuable portion of all good pastures, the herbage being exceedingly
nutritive. It flowers in May and June. The name is Greek, signifying
Foxtail. There are three other native species in the genus:--
I. Slender Foxtail (_A. agrestis_). _Annual._ Panicle slender,
often purplish, branches hairy, with two spikelets. A wayside weed.
May to October.
II. Alpine Foxtail (_A. alpinus_). Perennial. Panicle ovate, short,
¾ inch, branches with four to six spikelets. Anthers yellow. Rare,
near alpine streams, from 2,100 to 3,600 feet. Scotland. July and
August.
III. Floating Foxtail (_A. geniculatus_). Perennial. Stems,
procumbent and rooting. Panicle dense, slender. Branches with one
spikelet. Anthers purplish. Pools and wet places. May to August.
=Dog-rose= (_Rosa canina_).
Probably most non-botanical ramblers feel able to distinguish at
once between the Dog-rose and the Field-rose, and a few may be
learned enough to separate either or both from the Burnet-rose and
the Sweet-briar--and they may do it. But the scientific botanist has
difficulties, and he is not quite sure where one species leaves off and
another begins. Many workers have so split up our six or seven British
roses into a vast multitude of species, sub-species, and varieties
that it is difficult to follow them. In this work we shall not attempt
it. The Dog-rose is the largest of the British roses. It forms a bush
of considerable size, with long arching branches, covered with broad
hooks. The leaves are broken up into five leaflets, each of which is
sharply toothed. The sepals are five in number, pinnate, and turned
back towards the stem when the flower is open. The petals are five,
pink and notched. Stamens many. Styles free, hairy. The ovary is sunk
in the calyx, which changes to the pitcher-shaped scarlet fruits--the
“hips” of the schoolboy--in which are the hairy achenes. Flowers mostly
solitary. Generally common in hedges and copses, flowering from June to
August.
I. The Field-rose (_R. arvensis_) is very similar to _R. canina_,
but the flowers are generally in clusters, the petals white. Sepals
falling off. In similar places. June and July. Easily distinguished
by its trailing habit.
II. The Burnet- or Scotch-rose (_R. spinosissima_) is a
much-branched shrub, with the leaves divided into seven or nine
leaflets. Stem crowded with nearly straight prickles, showing every
stage in the transition from thorns to stiff bristles and glandular
hairs. Petals white or pink. Fruit nearly globular. Heaths and open
places chiefly, on sand and chalk, especially near the sea. May and
June.
III. Sweet Briar (_R. rubiginosa_). A small bush with erect or
arching branches, set with hooked prickles mixed with glandular
hairs and bristles. Leaflets densely glandular and aromatic.
Flowers small, pink. Fruit globose. Bushy places, chiefly in South
of England. June and July.
[Illustration: =Dog-rose.=
Rosa canina.
--ROSACEÆ.--]
[Illustration: =Rock-rose.=
Helianthemum vulgare.
--CISTINEÆ.--]
=Rock-rose= (_Helianthemum vulgare_).
On our chalk-downs, and on banks in gravelly soils, from June to
September the pale yellow flowers of the Rock-rose are abundant. In
spite of its plentifulness, however, it is not among those flowers
that are generally known, except to the botanist. The rest of the
world probably includes it among the buttercups, with which it has
no relationship. The plant is shrubby, with a creeping rootstock;
its branches trail on the ground among grass and low herbage. It
is therefore by no means a conspicuous plant, though it occurs in
considerable masses, and is perennial. The leaves are small, oblong,
with an even margin; the upper surface hairy, the lower downy. They are
arranged in pairs on the stem, and provided with stipules.
The flower-bud is protected by only three sepals, but there are two
others reduced to the size and shape of stipules; and so their number
really corresponds with the five somewhat flabby petals, which have
the softness of the poppy rather than the stiffness of the buttercup.
The stamens that surround the pistil are a multitude; they are also
irritable, and on being touched fall back from the pistil. The plant is
common throughout the country, except in Cornwall and West Scotland, in
which districts it is rare. The name is Greek, and signifies sunflower.
There are three other British species:--
I. White Rock-rose (_H. polifolium_). Similar, but more shrubby;
margins of leaves curled back. _Flowers white._ Very rare. Stony
places in Somerset and South Devon. May to July.
II. Spotted Annual Rock-rose (_H. guttatum_). An Annual, of erect
habit; the lower leaves opposite, without stipules, the upper
alternate, with stipules. Petals wedge-shaped, _yellow_, with
a _red spot_ at the base of each. Stony places, Anglesea and
Holyhead; very rare. More freely near Cork and in the Channel
Islands. June to August.
III. Dwarf Rock-rose (_H. canum_). More woody than the others;
stems trailing. The whole plant _hoary_, and much branched. Leaves
opposite, without stipules. Flowers yellow, not numerous. May to
July, from Glamorgan to Westmoreland.
=Bird’s-foot Trefoil= (_Lotus corniculatus_).
From June to October our commons, pastures, downs and railway banks are
bright with the flowers of Bird’s-foot Trefoil, or as it is termed in
some districts, Lady’s Slipper, a name which properly belongs to the
rare orchis _Cypripedium_.
The plant belongs to the same Natural Order (_Leguminosæ_) as the Broom
(_see_ page 7 _ante_), and its flowers are of similar construction,
though much smaller. There is a short, woody, perennial rootstock, from
which originate several trailing branches, which are themselves much
branched. The leaves are not trefoils, as the name would lead us to
suppose, for the apparent stipules at the base of the leaf-stalk are in
this genus leaflets. The flowers, which are in spreading heads of from
three to ten flowers, are of a pretty yellow, tinted with red. They are
succeeded by little cylindrical pods about an inch in length, which,
when three or four are in a cluster, present the appearance of a bird’s
claws. The plant is a valued ingredient in the formation of pastures
and meadows. The name was given to the genus because this was believed
to be one of the plants to which the ancient Greeks applied the name
Lotus.
There are three other species natives of Britain:--
I. Greater Bird’s-foot Trefoil (_L. uliginosus_). More or less
erect in habit. The calyx-teeth _spreading_ in bud (in _L.
corniculatus_ they are _erect_ in bud). Moist meadows and swampy
places. July and August.
II. Hairy Bird’s-foot Trefoil (_L. hispidus_). Annual, trailing
stems, long and slender, covered with lax hairs. Pods twice the
length of calyx. Banks near the sea from Hants to Cornwall. July
and August. Rare.
III. Slender Bird’s-foot Trefoil (_L. angustissimus_). Similar to
_L. hispidus_, but stems shorter and more slender. Pod four times
the length of calyx. Similar situations as last, but extending as
far eastward as Kent. Very rare.
=Common Vetch= (_Vicia sativa_). Plate 44.
The Vetches are Leguminous plants, and the structure of the flowers
is therefore very similar to those just described. The Vetches are
chiefly climbing plants, and have pinnate leaves. The leaflets are
numerous, and the leaf-stalk is continued for some distance beyond the
leafy portion, where it becomes a clasping tendril, often divided into
three or four branches. The Common Vetch is to be found in hedges and
roadsides near cornfields, flowering from April to June. The flowers
are pale purple in colour, and are produced singly or in pairs from the
axils of the leaves. By some authorities this is not considered a true
species, but merely a cultivated form of the Narrow-leaved Vetch (_V.
angustifolia_). The seed-pods are slightly hairy, and from two to three
inches in length. The name _Vicia_ is the term by which the plants were
known to the ancients and appears to have the same origin as _Vinca_
(_see_ page 5).
[Illustration: =Bird’s foot Trefoil.=
Lotus corniculatus.
--LEGUMINOSÆ.--]
[Illustration: =Common Vetch.=
Vicia sativa.
--LEGUMINOSÆ.--]
There are no less than ten British species of Vicia, but as some of
these are very rare, we shall refer only to some of the commoner kinds.
I. Slender Tare (_V. tetrasperma_). Stem very slender, about 2 feet
in height. Flowers singly or in pairs, pale blue. Pods with three
or four seeds. Hedges and cornfields. May to August.
II. Common Tare (_V. hirsuta_). Similar to foregoing species, but
hairy. Flowers smaller, pods shorter, hairy, and containing two
seeds only. In similar situations. These are both annuals.
III. Tufted Vetch (_V. cracca_). With creeping rootstock and angled
stem, climbing or spreading; somewhat silky. The bright blue
flowers are borne in a _dense_ one-sided raceme, to the number of
twenty or thirty. The pod is beaked, about an inch in length, and
contains a large number of seeds. Hedges and bushy places. June to
August. Perennial.
IV. Bitter Vetch (_V. orobus_). Leaves in seven to ten pairs of
leaflets, _without tendrils_. Stem erect, branched, hairy. The
flowers purplish-white, ten to twenty, in loose one-sided racemes.
Pod pointed at each end, containing four or five seeds. Rocky and
mountainous woods on the western side of Britain. May to September.
V. Wood Vetch (_V. sylvatica_). Perennial creeping rootstock.
Stems, 3 to 6 feet, scrambling and trailing over bushes and
undergrowth. Tendrils branched. Leaves beautifully divided into six
or eight pairs of leaflets. Flowers white, streaked and veined with
purple, and borne loosely in a one-sided raceme, to the number of
eight to eighteen. A beautiful species, found only locally in woods
at high elevation.
VI. Bush Vetch (_V. sepium_). Creeping perennial rootstock, giving
off runners. Leaflets, six to eight pairs. Flowers, dull purple,
four to six in a cluster, not on a long stalk as in the Wood Vetch,
but from the axils of the leaves, as in the Common Vetch. May to
September. In hedges and bushy places.
=The Duckweeds= (_Lemna_).