simultaneous presence there of so many of the Apostle's personal
friends. Aquila and Priscilla, who are saluted (xvi. 3), were a short
time before (1 Cor. xvi. 19) in Ephesus.(1) It may, moreover, be
remarked as a suggestive fact that when, according to the Acts (xxviii.
14 ff.), Paul very soon afterwards arrived in Rome, most of these
friends seem to have disappeared,(2) and the chief men of the Jews
called together by Paul do not seem to be aware of the existence of
a christian body at Rome.(3) Another point is connected with the very
passage which has led to this discussion, xv. 18, 19 read: 18. "For
I will not dare to speak of any of those things which Christ hath not
wrought by me, in order to [------] the obedience of the Gentiles, by
word and deed, 19. in the power of signs and wonders [------] in the
power of the Spirit [------]; so that from Jerusalem and round about
unto Illyricum, I have fully preached the Gospel of Christ;" &c. The
statement that "from Jerusalem" he had "fully preached" the Gospel is
scarcely in agreement with the statement in the Epistle to the Galatians
i. 17-23, ii. 1 ff Moreover, there is no confirmation anywhere of the
Apostle's having preached as far as Illyricum, which was then almost
beyond the limits of civilization. Baur suggests that in making his
ministry commence at Jerusalem, there is too evident a concession made
to the Jewish Christians, according to whom every preacher of the Gospel
must naturally commence his career at the holy city. It would detain us
much too long to enter upon an analysis of these two
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chapters, and to show the repetition in them of what has already
been said in the earlier part of the Epistle; the singular analogies
presented with the Epistles to the Corinthians, not of the nature of
uniformity of style, but of imitation; the peculiarity of the mention of
a journey to Spain as the justification of a passing visit to Rome, and
perhaps a further apology for even writing a letter to the Church there
which another had founded; the suspicious character of the names which
are mentioned in the various clauses of salutation; and to state
many other still more important objections which various critics have
advanced, but which would require more elaborate explanation than can
possibly be given here. It will suffice for us to mention that the
phenomena presented by the two chapters are so marked and curious that
for a century they have largely occupied the attention of writers of all
shades of opinion, and called forth very elaborate theories to account
for them; the apparent necessity for which in itself shows the insecure
position of the passage. Semler,(1) without denying the Pauline
authorship of the two chapters, considered they did not properly belong
to the Epistle to the Romans. He supposed xvi. 3-16 to have been merely
for the messenger who carried the Epistle, as a list of the persons
to whom salutations were to be given, and to these, ch. xv. was to be
specially delivered and considered ch. xv. to be a separate letter,
addressed to the leaders of the Roman Church, as an Epistle to the
community in general, being sealed up and ready for any opportunity of
transmission, but none presenting itself before
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his arrival in Corinth, the apostle there, upon an additional sheet,
wrote xvi. and entrusted it with the letter to Phoebe. Eichhorn(1)
supposed that the parchment upon which the Epistle was written was
finished at xiv. 23; and, as Paul and his scribe had only a small sheet
at hand, the doxology only, xvi. 25-27, was written upon the one side of
it, and on the other the greetings and the apostolic benediction,
xvi. 21-24, and thus the letter was completed; but, as it could not
immediately be forwarded, the apostle added a fly-leaf with ch. xv.
Bertholdt(2) Guericke(3) and others adopted similar views more or less
modified, representing the close of the Epistle to have been formed by
successive postscripts. More recently, Renan(4) has affirmed the epistle
to be a circular letter addressed to churches in Rome, Ephesus, and
other places, to each of which only certain portions were transmitted
with appropriate salutations and endings, which have all been collected
into the one Epistle in the form in which we have it. David Schulz
conjectured that xvi. 1-20 was an epistle written from Rome to the
church at Ephesus; and this theory was substantially adopted by
Ewald,--who held that xvi. 3-20 was part of a lost epistle to
Ephesus,--and by many other critics.(5) Of course the virtual
authenticity of the xv.-xvi. chapters, nearly or exactly as they are,
is affirmed by many writers. Baur, however, after careful investigation,
pronounced the two chapters inauthentic, and in this he is followed by
able critics.(6) Under all these circumstances it is obvious
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that we need not occupy ourselves much with the passage in Rom. xv. 18,
19, but our argument will equally apply to it. In order to complete this
view of the materials we may simply mention, as we pass on, that the
authenticity of 2 Cor. xii. 12 has likewise been impugned by a few
critics, and the verse, or at least the words [------], as well as Rom.
xv. 19, declared an interpolation.(1) This cannot, however, so far as
existing evidence goes, be demonstrated; and, beyond the mere record of
the fact, this conjecture does not here require further notice.
It may be well, before proceeding to the Epistles to the Corinthians,
which furnish the real matter for discussion, first to deal with the
passage cited from Gal iii. 5, which is as follows:--"He then that
supplieth to you the Spirit and worketh powers [------] within you
[------], (doeth he it) from works of law or from hearing of faith?"(2)
The authorised version reads: "and worketh miracles among you;" but this
cannot be maintained, and [------] must be rendered "within you," the
[------] certainly retaining its natural signification when used with
[------], the primary meaning of which is itself to in-work. The vast
majority of critics of all schools agree in this view.(3) There is an
evident reference to iii 2,
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and to the reception of the Spirit, here further characterised as
producing such effects within the minds of those who receive it,(1) the
worker who gives the Spirit being God. The opinion most commonly held is
that reference is here made to the "gifts" [------], regarding which the
Apostle elsewhere speaks,(2) and which we shall presently discuss, but
this is by no means certain and cannot be determined. It is equally
probable that he may refer to the spiritual effect produced upon the
souls of the Galatians by the Gospel which he so frequently represents
as a "power" of God. In any case, it is clear that there is no external
miracle referred to here, and even if allusion to Charismata be
understood we have yet to ascertain precisely what these were. We shall
endeavour to discover whether there was anything in the least degree
miraculous in these "gifts," but there is no affirmation in this passage
which demands special attention, and whatever general significance it
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may have will be met when considering the others which are indicated.
the first passage in the Epistles to the Corinthians, which is pointed
out as containing the testimony of Paul both to the reality of miracles
in general and to the fact that he himself performed them, is the
following, 2 Cor. xii. 12: "Truly the signs [------] of the Apostle were
wrought in you [------] in all patience, both in signs and wonders and
powers [------]"(1) We have to justify two departures in this rendering
from that generally received. The first of these is the adoption of
"wrought in you," instead of "wrought among you" and the second the
simple use of "powers" for [------], instead of "mighty works." We shall
take the second first We have referred to every passage except 1 Cor.
xii. 10, 28, 29, in which Paul makes use of the word [------], and
fortunately they are sufficiently numerous to afford us a good insight
into his practice. It need not be said that the natural sense of
[------] is in no case "mighty works" or miracles, and that such an
application of the Greek word is peculiar to the New Testament and,
subsequently, to Patristic literature. There is, however, no ground
for attributing this use of the word to Paul. It is not so used in the
Septuagint, and it is quite evident that the Apostle does not employ
it to express external effects or works, but spiritual phenomena or
potentiality. In the passage, Gal. iii. 5, which we have just discussed,
where the word occurs in the plural, as here, it is understood to
express "powers." We may quote the rendering of that passage by the
Bishop of Gloucester:
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"He then, _I say_, that ministereth to you the Spirit and worketh
_mighty_ powers within you, _doeth he it_ by the works of the law or by
the report of faith?"(1) Why "mighty" should be inserted it is difficult
to understand, but the word is rightly printed in italics to show that
it is not actually expressed in the Greek. "What was the exact nature
of these 'powers'... it is impossible to determine," observes another
scholar quoted above,(2) on the same passage.3 In 1 Cor. xii. 10, 28,
29, where the plural [------] again occurs, the intention to express
"powers"(4) and not external results--miracles--is perfectly clear, the
word being in the last two verses used alone to represent the "gifts."
In all of these passages the word is the representative of the "powers"
and not of the "effects."(5) This interpretation is rendered more clear
by, and at the same time confirms, the preceding phrase, "were wrought
in you "[------]. 'Powers' [------], as in Gal. iii. 5, are worked
"within you," and the rendering of that passage being so settled, it
becomes authoritative for this. If, however, direct confirmation of
Paul's meaning be required we have it in Rom. vii. 8, where we find the
same verb used with [------] in this sense: "But sin.... wrought in
me [------] all manner of coveting," &c.; and with this may also
be compared 2 Cor. vii. 11.... "what earnestness it wrought in you"
[------](6)
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[------]. It was thus Paul's habit to speak of spiritual effects wrought
"within," and as he referred to the "powers" [------] worked "within"
the souls of the Galatians, so he speaks of them here as "wrought in"
the Corinthians. It will become clear as we proceed that the addition
to [------] of "signs and wonders" does not in the least affect this
interpretation. In 1 Cor. xiv. 22, the Apostle speaks of the gift of
"tongues" as "a sign" [------].
Upon the supposition that Paul was affirming the actual performance of
miracles by himself, how extraordinary becomes the statement that
they "were wrought in all patience," for it is manifest that "in all
patience" [------] does not form part of the signs, as some have argued,
but must be joined to the verb [------].(1) It may be instructive to
quote a few words of Olshausen upon the point:--"The [------] is not
altogether easy. It certainly cannot be doubtful that it is to be joined
to [------] and not to what follows; but for what reason does Paul here
make it directly prominent that he wrought his signs in all patience?
It seems to me probable that in this there may be a reproof to the
Corinthians, who, in spite of such signs, still showed themselves
wavering regarding the authority of the Apostle. In such a position,
Paul would say, he had, patiently waiting, allowed his light to shine
amongst them, certain of ultimate triumph."(3) This will hardly be
accepted by any one as a satisfactory solution of the difficulty, which
is a real one if it be assumed that Paul, claiming to have performed
{341}
miracles, wrought them "in all patience." Besides the matter is
complicated, and the claim to have himself performed a miracle still
more completely vanishes, when we consider the fact that the passive
construction of the sentence does not actually represent Paul as the
active agent by whom the signs were wrought. "Truly the signs of the
apostle were wrought," but how wrought? Clearly he means by the Spirit,
as he distinctly states to the Gala- tians. To them "Jesus Christ (the
Messiah) was fully set forth crucified," and he asks them: Was it from
works of the Law or from hearing in faith the Gospel thus preached
to them that they "received the Spirit"? and that he who supplies the
Spirit "and worketh powers" in them does so? From faith, of course.(1)
The meaning of Paul, therefore, was this: His Gospel was preached among
them "in all patience," which being received by the hearing of faith,
the Spirit was given to them, and the signs of the apostle were thus
wrought among them. The representation is made throughout the Acts that
the apostles lay their hands on those who believe, and they receive the
Holy Spirit and speak with tongues. If any special "sign of the apostle"
can be indicated at all, it is this; and in illustration we may point to
one statement made in the Acts. Philip, the evangelist, who was not an
apostle, is represented as going into Samaria and preaching the Messiah
to the Samaritans, who give heed to the things spoken by him, and
multitudes are baptized (viii. 5, 6, 12), but there was not the
outpouring of the Holy Spirit which usually accompanied the apostolic
baptism. "And the Apostles in Jerusalem, having heard that Samaria had
received the word of God, sent unto them Peter and John; who
{342}
when they came down prayed for them that they might receive the Holy
Spirit--for as yet he had fallen upon none of them, but they had only
been baptized into the name of the Lord Jesus. Then laid they (the
Apostles) their hands on them and they received the Holy Spirit."(1) We
may further refer to the episode at Ephesus (Acts xix. Iff.) where
Paul finds certain disciples who, having only been baptized into John's
baptism, had not received the Holy Spirit, nor even heard whether there
was a Holy Spirit, (xix. 6.) "And Paul having laid his hands upon them,
the Holy Spirit came on them, and they were speaking with tongues and
prophesying."
When we examine Paul's Epistles to the Corinthians we find ample
assurance that the interpretation here given of this passage is correct,
and that he does not refer, as apologists have maintained, to miracles
wrought by himself, but to the Charismata, which were supposed to have
been bestowed upon the Corinthians who believed, and which thus were the
signs of his apostleship. The very next verse to that which is before us
shows this: "Truly the signs of the Apostle were wrought in you in all
patience.... 13. For [------] what is there wherein ye were inferior
to the other Churches, except it be that I myself was not burdensome to
you?" The mere performance of signs and wonders did not constitute their
equality; but in the possession of the Charismata,--regarding which
so much is said in the first epistle, and which were the result of
his preaching,--they were not inferior to the other Churches, and only
inferior, Paul says with his fine irony, in not having, like the other
Churches with their apostles, been called upon to acquire the merit of
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bearing his charges. What could be more distinct than the Apostle's
opening address in the first Epistle: "I thank my God always, on your
behalf, for the grace of God which was given you in Christ Jesus;
that in everything ye were enriched by him (at the time of their
conversion(1), in all utterance and in all knowledge: even as the
testimony of Christ was confirmed in you: _so that ye come behind in no
gift_ [------]," &c. For this reason they were not inferior to the other
Churches, and those were the signs of the Apostle which were wrought in
them. Paul very distinctly declares the nature of his ministry amongst
the Corinthians and the absence of other "signs": 1 Cor. i. 22 f. "Since
both Jews demand signs [------] and Greeks seek after wisdom, but we
[------] preach Christ crucified, unto Jews a stumbling-block and unto
Gentiles foolishness, but unto those who are called, both Jews and
Greeks, Christ the power [------] of God and the wisdom of God." The
contrast is here clearly drawn between the requirement of Jews (signs)
and of Greeks (wisdom) and Paul's actual ministry: no signs, but a
scandal [------] to the Jew, and no wisdom, but foolishness to the
Greek, but this word of the cross [------] "to us who are being saved
is the power [------] of God" (i. 18).(2) The Apostle tells us what
he considers the "sign of the Apostle," when, more directly defending
himself against the opponents who evidently denied his apostolic claims,
he says vehemently: 1 Cor. ix. 1 flf. "Am I not free? Am I not an
Apostle? have I not seen Jesus our Lord? _are not ye my work in the
Lord?_ If I be not an Apostle unto others, yet doubtless I am to you:
_for the seal
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[------] of my Apostleship are ye in the Lord_."(1) It cannot, we think,
be doubted, when the passage 2 Cor. xii. 12 is attentively considered,
that Paul does not refer to external miracles performed by him, but to
the Charismata which he supposed to be conferred upon the Corinthian
Christians on their acceptance of the Gospel which the Apostle preached.
These Charismata, however, are advanced as miraculous, and the passages
1 Cor. xii. 10, 28, 29 are quoted in support of the statement we are
discussing, and these now demand our attention.
It may be well at once to give the verses which are referred to, and
in which it is said that Paul "goes somewhat elaborately into the exact
place in the Christian economy that is to be assigned to the working of
miracles and gifts of healing" (1 Cor. xii. 10, 28, 29). It is necessary
for the full comprehension of the case that we should quote the context:
xii. 4. "Now there are diversities of gifts [------], but the same
Spirit; 5. and there are diversities of ministries [------], and the
same Lord; 6. and there are diversities of workings [------], but it
is the same God who worketh the all in all [------]: 7. But to each is
given the manifestation of the Spirit [------] for profit; 8. For to one
is given by the Spirit a word of wisdom [------]; to another a word of
knowledge [------] according to the same Spirit; 9. to another faith
[------] in the same Spirit, to another gifts of healings [------] in
the one Spirit; 10. to another (inward) workings of powers [------]
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[------]; to another prophecy [------]; to another discerning of
spirits [------]; to another kinds of tongues [------]; to another
interpretation of tongues [------]; 11. but all these worketh [------]
the one and the same Spirit, dividing to each severally as he wills."
After illustrating this by showing the mutual dependence of the
different members and senses of the body, the Apostle proceeds: v. 28.
"And God set some in the Church, first apostles, secondly prophets,
thirdly teachers, after that powers [------], after that gifts of
healings [------], helpings [------], governings [------], kinds of
tongues [------]. 29. Are all apostles? are all prophets? are all
teachers? are all powers [------]? 30. have all gifts of healings
[------]? do all speak with tongues [------]? do all interpret
[------]?"
Before we commence an examination of this interesting and important
passage, it is essential that we should endeavour to disabuse our
minds of preconceived ideas. Commentators are too prone to apply to the
Apostle's remarks a system of interpretation based upon statements made
by later and less informed writers, and warped by belief in the reality
of a miraculous element pervading all apostolic times, which have been
derived mainly from post-apostolic narratives. What do we really know
of the phenomena supposed to have characterized the Apostolic age,
and which were later, and are now, described as miraculous? With the
exception of what we glean from the writings of Paul, we know absolutely
nothing from any contemporary writer and eye-witness. In the Gospels and
in the Acts of the Apostles, we have detailed accounts of many miracles
said
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to have been performed by the Apostles and others; but these narratives
were all written at a much later period, and by persons who are unknown,
and most of whom are not even affirmed to have been eye-witnesses.(1)
In the Acts of the Apostles, we have an account of some of the very
Charismata referred to by Paul in the passage above quoted, and we shall
thus have the advantage of presently comparing the two accounts. We
must, however, altogether resist any attempt to insert between the lines
of the apostle's writing ideas and explanations derived from the Author
of the Acts and from patristic literature, and endeavour to understand
what it is he himself says and intends to say. It must not be supposed
that we in the slightest degree question the fact that the Apostle Paul
believed in the reality of supernatural intervention in mundane affairs,
or that he asserted the actual occurrence of certain miracles. Our
desire is as far as possible to ascertain what Paul himself has to say
upon specific phenomena, now generally explained as miraculous, and
thus, descending from vague generalities to more distinct statements,
to ascertain the value of his opinion regarding the character of such
phenomena. It cannot fail to be instructive to determine something of
the nature of Charismata from an eye-witness who believed them to have
been supernatural. His account, as we have seen, is the most precious
evidence of the Church to the reality of the miraculous.
The first point which must be observed in connection with the Charismata
referred to by Paul in the passage before us is that, whilst there are
diversities amongst them, all the phenomena described are ascribed to
1 It is suggestive that the curious passage Mk. xvi. 17--18
is not even by the author of the second Gospel, but a later
addition.
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"one and the same Spirit dividing to each severally as he wills;" and,
consequently, that, although there may be differences in their form
and value, a supernatural origin is equally assigned to all the "gifts"
enumerated. What then are these Charismata? "A word of wisdom," "a
word of knowledge," and "faith" are the first three mentioned. What
the precise difference was, in Paul's meaning, between the utterance
of wisdom [------] and of knowledge [------] it is impossible now with
certainty to say, nor is it very essential for us to inquire. The two
words are combined in Rom. xi. 33: "O the depths of the riches and
wisdom [------] and knowledge [------] of God!" and in this very epistle
some varying use is made of both words. Paul tells the Corinthians (1,
i. 17) that Christ did not send him "in wisdom of word "[------] or
utterance: and (ii. 1) "not with excellency of word or wisdom" [------],
cf. ii. 4); and further on he says (i. 30) that Christ Jesus "was made
unto us wisdom [------] from God." The most suggestive expressions,(1)
however, are the following, we think: 1 Cor. ii. 6. "But we speak wisdom
[------] among the perfect, yet not the wisdom [------] of this age, nor
of the rulers of this age, that come to nought, 7. but we speak God's
wisdom [------] in mystery, the hidden wisdom, which God ordained before
the ages unto our glory, 8. which none of the rulers of this age has
known, for had they known it, they would not have crucified the Lord of
Glory. 9. But as it is written, 'What eye saw not/ &c. &c. 10. But unto
us God revealed them through the Spirit....... 11....
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even so also the things of God knoweth no one but the Spirit of God. 12.
But we received, not the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which is
from God, that we might know the things that are freely given us by God;
13. which things also we speak, not in words taught by human wisdom,
but in words taught by the Spirit, interpreting spiritual things to
the spiritual"(1) [------]. It is quite clear from all the antecedent
context that Paul's preaching was specially the Messiah crucified,
"Christ the power of God and the wisdom [------] of God," and we may
conclude reasonably that the [------] of our passage was simply the
eloquent utterance of this doctrine. In like manner, we may get some
insight into the meaning which Paul attached to the word "knowledge"
[------]. It will be remembered that at the very opening of the first
Epistle to the Corinthians Paul expresses his thankfulness that in
everything they were enriched in Christ Jesus: i. 5. "in all utterance
[------] and in all knowledge [------], 6. even as the testimony of the
Christ was confirmed in you;" that is to say, according to commentators,
by these very Charismata. Later, speaking of "tongues," he says (1
Cor. xiv. 6): "... What shall I profit you, except I shall speak to you
either in revelation or in knowledge [------], or in prophecy, or in
teaching?" We obtain a clearer insight into his meaning in the second
Epistle, in the passage 2 Cor. ii. 14-16, and still more in iv. 3-6 and
x. 5, where he describes metaphorically his weapons as not carnal, but
strong through God, "casting down reasonings and every high thing that
exalteth itself against the knowledge of God, and bringing into
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_captivity_ every thought to the obedience of the Christ;" and if we ventured
to offer an opinion, it would be that Paul means by [------] simply
Christian theology. We merely offer this as a passing suggestion.
Little need be said with regard to the gift of "faith" (marts), which is
perfectly intelligible.
Apologists argue that by these three gifts" some supernatural form of
wisdom, knowledge, and faith is expressed, and we shall have something
more to say on the point presently; but here we merely point out that
there is no ground whatever for such an assertion except the fact
that the Apostle ascribes to them a supernatural origin, or, in
fact, believes in the inspiration of such qualities. All that can be
maintained is that Paul accounts for the possession of characteristics
which we now know to be natural, by asserting that they are the direct
gift of the Holy Spirit. There is not the faintest evidence to show
that these natural capabilities did not antecedently exist in the
Corinthians, and were not merely stimulated into action in Christian
channels by the religious enthusiasm and zeal accompanying their
conversion; but, on the contrary, every reason to believe this to
be the case, as we shall further see.(1) In fact, according to the
Apostolic Church, every quality was a supernatural gift, and all ability
or excellence in practical life directly emanated from the action of the
Holy Spirit. We may now proceed to "gifts of healings" [------](2) which
it will be noted are doubly in the plural,
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indicating, as is supposed, a variety of special gifts, each having
reference probably to special diseases. What is there to show that
there was anything more miraculous in "gifts of healings" than in the
possession of an utterance of wisdom, an utterance of knowledge, or
faith? Nothing whatever. On the contrary, everything, from the unvarying
experience of the world, to the inferences which we shall be able to
draw from the whole of this information regarding the Charismata,
shows that there was no miraculous power of healing either possessed or
exercised. Reference is frequently made to the passage in the so-called
Epistle of James as an illustration of this, v. 14: "Is any sick among
you? let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over
him, having anointed him with oil in the name of the Lord: 15. And the
prayer of faith shall save the afflicted, and the Lord shall raise
him up; and if he have committed sins, it shall be forgiven him." The
context, however, not only shows that in this there is no allusion
to any gift of healing or miraculous power, but seems to ignore the
existence of any such gift. The epistle continues: v. 16. "Confess
therefore your sins one to another, and pray for one another that ye may
be healed. The supplication of a righteous man availeth much when it is
working." And then the successful instance of the prayer of Elijah that
it might not rain and again that it might rain is given. The passage
is merely an assertion of the efficacy of prayer, and if, as is not
unfrequently done, it be argued that the gifts of healings were probably
applied by means of earnest prayer for the sick, it may be said that
this is the only "gift" which is supposed to have descended to our
times. It does not require much argument, however, to show that the
reality of a miraculous gift cannot be demonstrated
{351}
by appealing to the objective efficacy of prayer. We may, in passing,
refer apologists who hold the authenticity of the Epistles to the
Philippians and to Timothy to indications which do not quite confirm the
supposition that a power of miraculous healing actually existed in the
apostolic Church. In the Epistle to the Philippians, ii. 25 ff., Paul
is represented as sending Epaphroditus to them (v. 26) "Since he was
longing after you all and was distressed because ye heard that he was
sick. 27. For, indeed, he was sick nigh unto death; but God had mercy on
him; and not on him only, but on me also, that I might not have sorrow
upon sorrow. I sent him, therefore, the more anxiously, that, when ye
see him, ye may rejoice again, and that I may be the less sorrowful."
The anxiety felt by the Philippians, and the whole language of the
writer, in this passage, are rather inconsistent with the knowledge that
miraculous power of healing was possessed by the Church, and of course
by Paul, which would naturally have been exerted for one in whom so
many were keenly interested. Then, in 2 Tim. iv. 20, the writer says:
"Trophimus I left at Miletus sick." If miraculous powers of healing
existed, why were they not exerted in this case? If they were exerted
and failed for special reasons, why are these not mentioned? It is
unfortunate that there is so little evidence of the application of
these gifts. On the other hand, we may suggest that medical art scarcely
existed at that period in such communities, and that the remedies
practised admirably lent themselves to the theory of "gifts" of
healings, rather than to any recognition of the fact that the accurate
diagnosis of disease and successful treatment of it can only be the
result of special study and experience. The next gift mentioned is (v.
10) "workings of powers"
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[------] very unwarrantably rendered in our "authorized" version "the
working of miracles." We have already said enough regarding Paul's use
of [------]. The phrase before us would be even better rendered in-or
inward-workings of powers(1) and the use made of [------] by Paul
throughout his epistles would confirm this. It may be pointed out that
as the gifts just referred to are for "healings" it is difficult to
imagine any class of "miracles" which could well be classed under a
separate head as the special "working of miracles" contemplated by
apologists. Infinitely the greater number of miracles related in the
Gospels and Acts are "healings" of disease. Is it possible to suppose
that Paul really indicated by this expression a distinct order
of "miracles" properly so called? Certainly not Neither the words
themselves used by Paul, properly understood, nor the context permit us
to suppose that he referred to the working of miracles at all. We have
no intention of conjecturing what these "powers" were supposed to be;
it is sufficient that we show they cannot rightly be exaggerated into
an assertion of the power of working miracles. It is much more probable
that, in the expression, no external working by the gifted person is
implied at all, and that the gift referred to "in-workings of powers"
within his own mind, producing the ecstatic state, with its usual
manifestations, or those visions and supposed revelations to which Paul
himself was subject. Demonaics, or persons supposed to be possessed of
evil spirits, were called [------] and it is easy to conceive how anyone
under strong religious
{353}
impressions, at that epoch of most intense religious emotion, might,
when convulsed by nervous or mental excitement, be supposed the subject
of inward workings of powers supernaturally imparted. Every period of
religious zeal has been marked by such phenomena.(1) These conclusions
are further corroborated by the next gifts enumerated. The first
of these is "prophecy" [------], by which is not intended the
mere foretelling of events, but speaking "unto men edification and
exhortation and comfort," as the Apostle himself says (xiv. 3); and an
illustration of this may be pointed out in Acts iv. 36 where the name
Barnabas = "Son of prophecy," being interpreted is said to be "Son of
Exhortation" [------].
To this follows the "discerning (or judging) of spirits" [------], a
gift which, if we are to judge by Paul's expressions elsewhere, was
simply the exercise of natural intelligence and discernment. In an
earlier part of the first Epistle, rebuking the Corinthians for carrying
their disputes before legal tribunals, he says, vi. 5: "Is it so that
there is not even one wise man among you who shall be able to discern
[------] between his brethren?" Again, in xi. 31, "But if we discerned
[------] we should not be judged [------]" (cf vv. 28, 29), and in
xiv. 29, "Let Prophets speak two or three, and let the others discern"
[------].
We reserve the "kinds of tongues" and "interpretation of tongues"
for separate treatment, and proceed to vv. 28ff. in which, after
illustrating his meaning by the analogy of the body, the Apostle resumes
his
{354}
observations upon the Charismata, and it is instructive to consider
the rank he ascribes to the various gifts. He classes them: "First,
apostles, secondly prophets, thirdly teachers, after that powers, after
that gifts of healings, helpings, governings, kinds of tongues." These
so-called miraculous gifts are here placed in a lower class than those
of exhortation and teaching, which is suggestive; for it is difficult to
suppose that even a man like Paul could have regarded the possession of
such palpable and stupendous power as the instantaneous and miraculous
healing of disease, or the performance of other miracles, below the
gift of teaching or exhortation. It is perfectly intelligible that the
practice of medicine as it was then understood, and the skill
which might have been attained in particular branches of disease by
individuals, not to speak of those who may have been supposed to be
performing miracles when they dealt with cases of hysteria or mental
excitement, might appear to the apostle much inferior to a gift
for imparting spiritual instruction and admonition; but the actual
possession of supernatural power, the actual exercise of what was
believed to be the personal attribute of God, must have been considered
a distinction more awful and elevated than any gift of teaching. It
will be noticed also that other Charismata are here introduced, whilst
"discerning of spirits" is omitted. The new gifts, "helpings" and
"governings," have as little a miraculous character about them as any
that have preceded them. Is it not obvious that all special ability, all
official capacity, is simply represented as a divine gift, and regarded
as a "manifestation of the Spirit?"
It is important in the highest degree to remember that the supposed
miraculous Charismata are not merely conferred upon a few persons, but
are bestowed upon all
{355}
the members of the Apostolic Church.(1) "The extraordinary Charismata
which the Apostles conferred through their imposition of hands," writes
Dr. von Dollinger, "were so diffused and distributed, that nearly every
one, or at any rate many, temporarily at least, had a share in one gift
or another. This was a solitary case in history, which has never since
repeated itself, and which, in default of experience, we can only
approximately picture to ourselves. One might say: the metal of the
Church was still glowing, molten, formless, and presented altogether
another aspect than, since then, in the condition of the cold and
hardened casting."(2) The apologetic representation of the case is
certainly unique in history and, therefore, in its departure from
all experience might, one might have thought, have excited suspicion.
Difficult as it is to picture such a state, it is worth while to
endeavour to do so to a small extent. Let us imagine communities of
Christians, often of considerable importance, in all the larger cities
as well as in smaller towns, all or most of the members of which were
endowed with supernatural
{356}
gifts, and, amongst others, with power to heal diseases and to perform
miracles; all the intellectual and religious qualities requisite for
the guidance, edification, and government of the communities supplied
abundantly and specially by the Holy Spirit; the ordinary dependence of
society on the natural capacity and power of its leaders dispensed with,
and every possible branch of moral culture and physical comfort provided
with inspired and miraculously-gifted ministries; the utterance of
wisdom and knowledge, exhortation and teaching, workings of healings,
discernment of spirits, helpings, governings, kinds of tongues
supernaturally diffused throughout the community by God himself. As a
general rule, communities have to do as well as they can without such
help, and eloquent instructors and able administrators do not generally
fail them. The question, therefore, intrudes itself: Why were ordinary
and natural means so completely set aside, and the qualifications which
are generally found adequate for the conduct and regulation of
life supplanted by divine Charismata? At least, we may suppose that
communities endowed with such supernatural advantages, and guided by the
direct inspiration of the Holy Spirit, must have been distinguished in
every way from the rest of humanity, and must have presented a spectacle
of the noblest life, free from the weakness and inconsistency of the
world, and betraying none of the moral and intellectual frailties
of ordinary society. At the very least, and without exaggeration,
communities in every member of which there existed some supernatural
manifestation of the Holy Spirit might be expected to show very marked
superiority and nobility of character. When we examine the Epistles of
Paul and other ancient documents, we find anything but supernatural
{357}
qualities in the Churches supposed to be endowed with such miraculous
gifts. On the contrary, it is scarcely possible to exaggerate the
intensely human character of the conduct of such communities, their
fickleness, the weakness of their fidelity to the Gospel of Paul,
their wavering faith, and the ease and rapidity with which they are
led astray, their petty strifes and discords; their party spirit,
their almost indecent abuse of some of their supposed gifts, such as
"tongues," for which Paul rebukes them so severely. The very
Epistles, in fact, in which we read of the supernatural endowments and
organization of the Church are full of evidence that there was nothing
supernatural in them. The primary cause, apparently, for which the first
letter was written to the Corinthians was the occurrence of divisions
and contentions amongst them (i. 10 ff.), parties of Paul, of Apollos,
of Cephas, of Christ, which make the Apostle give thanks (i. 14) that
he had baptized but few of them, that no one might say that they were
baptized into his name. Paul had not been able to speak to them as
spiritual but as carnal, mere babes in Christ (iii. 1 f.); he fed them
with milk, not meat, for they were not yet able, "nor even now are ye
able," he says, "for ye are yet carnal. For whereas there is among you
envying and strife; are ye not carnal?" He continues in the same strain
throughout the letter, admonishing them in no flattering terms. Speaking
of his sending Timothy to them, he says (iv. 18 f.): "But some of you
were puffed up, as though I were not coming to you; but I will come to
you shortly, if it be the Lord's will, and will know, not the speech
of them who are puffed up, but the power." There is serious sin amongst
them, which they show no readiness to purge
{368}
away. Moreover these Corinthians have lawsuits with each other (vi. 1
ff.), and, instead of taking advantage of those supernatural Charismata,
they actually take their causes for decision before the uninspired
tribunals of the heathen rather than submit them to the judgment of the
saints. Their own members, who have gifts of wisdom and of knowledge,
discerning of spirits and governings, have apparently so little light to
throw upon the regulation of social life, that the Apostle has to enter
into minute details for their admonition and guidance. He has even to
lay down rules regarding the head-dresses of women in the Churches (xi.
3 ff.). Even in their very Church assemblies there are divisions of a
serious character amongst them (xi. 18 ff.). They misconduct themselves
in the celebration of the Lord's supper, for they make it, as it were,
their own supper, "and one is hungry and another is drunken." "What!"
he indignantly exclaims, "have ye not houses to eat and to drink in? or
despise ye the Church of God?" To the Galatians Paul writes, marvelling
that they are so soon removing from him that called them in the grace
of Christ unto a different Gospel (i. 6). "O foolish Galatians," he says
(iii. 1), "who bewitched you?" In that community also, opposition to
Paul and denial of his authority had become powerful.
If we turn to other ancient documents, the Epistles to the seven
Churches do not present us with a picture of supernatural perfection in
those communities, though doubtless, like the rest, they had received
these gifts. The other Epistles of the New Testament depict a state of
things which by no means denotes any extraordinary or abnormal condition
of the members. We may quote a short passage to show that we do not
strain
{359}
this representation unduly. "But certainly," says Dr. von Dollinger,
"in spite of a rich outpouring of spiritual gifts vouchsafed to it,
a community could fall into wanton error. Paul had in Corinth,
contemporaneously with his description of the charismatic state of
the church there, to denounce sad abuses. In the Galatian community,
Judaistic seduction, and the darkening of Christian doctrine through the
delusion as to the necessity of the observance of the law, had so much
increased that the Apostle called them fools and senseless, but at the
same time he appealed to the proof which was presented by the spiritual
gifts and miraculous powers, in which they had participated not through
the observance of the law, but through faith in Christ (Gal. iii. 2, 5).
Now at that time the Charismata of teaching and knowledge must already
have been weakened or extinguished in these communities, otherwise so
strong an aberration would not be explicable. Nowhere, however, in this
Epistle is there any trace of an established ministry; on the contrary,
at the close, the 'spiritual' among them are instructed to administer
the office of commination.
But, generally, from that time forward, the charismatic state in
the Church more and more disappeared, though single Charismata, and
individuals endowed with the same, remained. In the first Epistle to the
believers in Thessalonica, Paul had made it specially prominent that his
Gospel had worked there, not as mere word, but with demonstration of the
power of the Holy Spirit (i. 5). In the Epistles to the Philippians and
Colossians, there is no longer the slightest intimation of, or reference
to, the Charismata, although in both communities the occasion for
such an allusion was very appropriate--in Philippi through the Jewish
opponents,
{360}
and in Colossae on account of the heretical dangers and the threatening
Gnostic asceticism. On the other hand, in the Epistle to the
Philippians, bishops and deacons are already mentioned as ministers
of the community. Then, in the Pastoral Epistles, not only is there no
mention of the Charismata, but a state of the community is set forth
which is wholly different from the charismatic. The communities in
Asia Minor, the Ephesian first of all, are partly threatened, partly
unsettled by Gnostic heresies, strifes of words, foolish controversies,
empty babbling about matters of faith, of doctrines of demons, of an
advancing godlessness corroding like a gangrene (1 Tim. iv. 1-3, vi.
3 ff. 20, 2 Tim. ii. 14 ff.). All the counsels which are here given to
Timothy, the conduct in regard to these evils which is recommended to
him, all is of a nature as though Charismata no longer existed to any
extent, as though, in lieu of the first spiritual soaring and of the
fulness of extraordinary powers manifesting itself in the community, the
bare prose of the life of the Church had already set in."(1) Regarding
this it is not necessary for us to say more than that the representation
which is everywhere made, in the Acts and elsewhere, and which seems
to be confirmed by Paul, is that all the members of these Christian
communities received the Holy Spirit, and the divine Charismata, but
that nowhere have we evidence of any supernatural results produced by
them. If, however, the view above expressed be accepted, the difficulty
is increased; for, except in the allusions of the Apostle to Charismata,
it is impossible to discover any difference between communities which
had received miraculous spiritual "gifts" and those which had not done
so. On the contrary, it
{361}
might possibly be shown that a church which had not been so endowed,
perhaps on the whole exhibited higher spiritual qualities than another
which was supposed to possess the Charismata. In none are we able
to perceive any supernatural characteristics, or more than the very
ordinary marks of a new religious life. It seems scarcely necessary to
depart from the natural order of nature, and introduce the supernatural
working of a Holy Spirit to produce such common-place results. We
venture to say that there is nothing whatever to justify the assertion
of supernatural agency here, and that the special divine Charismata
existed only in the pious imagination of the Apostle, who referred every
good quality in man to divine grace.
We have reserved the gift of "Tongues" for special discussion, because
Paul enters into it with a fulness with which he does not treat any of
the other Charismata, and a valuable opportunity is thus afforded us of
ascertaining something definite with regard to the nature of the gift;
and also because we have a narrative in the Acts of the Apostles of the
first descent of the Holy Spirit, manifesting itself in "Tongues," with
which it may be instructive to compare the Apostle's remarks. We may
mention that, in the opinion of many, the cause which induced the
Apostle to say so much regarding Charismata in his first letter to
the Corinthians was the circumstance, that many maintained the gift of
tongues to be the only form of "the manifestation of the Spirit." This
view is certainly favoured by the narrative in the Acts, in which not
only at the first famous day of Pentecost, but on almost every occasion
of the imposition of the Apostle's hands, this is the only gift
mentioned as accompanying the reception of the Holy
{362}
Spirit. In any case, it is apparent from the whole of the Apostle's
homily on the subject, that the gift of tongues was especially valued
in the Church of Corinth.(1) It is difficult to conceive, on the
supposition that amongst the Charismata there were comprised miraculous
gifts of healings, and further power of working miracles, that these
could have been held so cheap in comparison with the gift of Tongues;
but in any case, a better comprehension of what this "gift" really was
cannot fail to assist us in understanding the true nature of the whole
of the Charismata. It is evident that the Apostle Paul himself does not
rank the gift of tongues very highly, and indeed, that he seems to value
prophecy more than all the other Charismata (xiv. 1 ff.); but the simple
yet truly noble eloquence with which (xiii. 1 ff.) he elevates above all
these gifts the possession of spiritual love is a subtle indication of
their real character. Probably Paul would have termed christian Charity
a gift of the Spirit as much as
{363}
he does "gifts of healings" or "workings of powers;" but, however rare
may be the virtue, it is not now recognized as miraculous, although it
is here shown to be more desirable and precious than all the miraculous
gifts. Even Apostolic conceptions of the Supernatural cannot soar above
the range of natural morality.
The real nature of the "gift of Tongues" has given rise to an almost
interminable controversy, and innumerable treatises have been written
upon the subject. It would have been impossible for us to have
exhaustively entered upon such a discussion in this work, for which it
only possesses an incidental and passing interest; but fortunately such
a course is rendered unnecessary by the fact that, so far as we
are concerned, the miraculous nature of the "gift" alone comes into
question, and may be disposed of without any elaborate analysis of past
controversy or minute reference to disputed points. Those who desire to
follow the course of the voluminous discussion will find ample materials
in the treatises which we shall at least indicate in the course of our
remarks, and we shall adhere as closely as possible to our own point of
view.
In 1 Cor. xii. 10, the Apostle mentions, amongst the other Charismata,
"kinds of tongues" [------] and "interpretation of tongues" [------], as
two distinct gifts. In v. 28 he again uses the expression [------],
and in a following verse he inquires: "do all speak with tongues"
[------](1) "do all interpret" [------]? He says shortly after, xiii. 1:
"If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels [------] and have not
love," &c. In the following chapter the expressions used in discussing
the gift vary.
{364}
In xiv. 2 he says: "he that speaketh with a tongue"(1) [------](2) using
the singular; and again (v. 22), of "the tongues" [------], being a
sign; and in v. 26, each "hath a tongue" [------]. The word [------]
or [------] has several significations in Greek. The first and primary
meaning "the tongue": as a mere member of the body, the organ of speech;
next, a tongue, or language; and further, an obsolete or foreign word
not in ordinary use. If we inquire into the use of [------] in the New
Testament, we find that, setting aside the passages in Acts, Mark, and
1 Cor. xii.-xiv., in which the phenomenon we are discussing is referred
to, the word is invariably used in the first sense, "the tongue,"(3)
except in the Apocalypse, where the word as "language" typifies
different nations.(4) Any one who attentively considers all the
passages in which the Charisma is discussed will observe that no uniform
application of any one signification throughout is possible. We may
briefly say that all the attempts which have been made philologically to
determine the true nature of the phenomenon which the Apostle discusses
have failed to produce any really satisfactory result, or to secure the
general adhesion of critics. It is we think obvious that Paul does not
apply the word, either in the plural or in the singular, in its ordinary
senses, but makes use of [------] to describe phenomena connected with
speech, without intending strictly to apply it either to the tongue or
to a definite language. We
{365}
merely refer to this in passing, for it is certain that no philological
discussion of the word can materially affect the case; and the argument
is of no interest for our inquiry. Each meaning has been adopted by
critics and been made the basis for a different explanation of the
phenomenon. Philology is incapable of finally solving such a problem.
From the time of Irenaeus,(1) or at least of Origen, the favourite theory
of the Fathers, based chiefly upon the narrative in Acts of the descent
of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, was that the disciples
suddenly became super-naturally endowed with power to speak other
languages which they had not previously learned, and that this gift was
more especially conferred to facilitate the promulgation of the Gospel
throughout the world. Augustine went so far as to believe that each of
the Apostles was thus enabled to speak all languages.(2) The opinion
that the "gift of tongues" consisted of the power, miraculously
conferred by the Holy Ghost, to speak in a language or languages
previously unknown to the speaker long continued to prevail, and it is
still the popular, as well as the orthodox, view of the subject.(3) As
soon as
{366}
the attention of critics was seriously directed to the question,
however, this interpretation became rapidly modified, or was altogether
abandoned. It is unnecessary for us to refer in detail to the numerous
explanations which have been given of the phenomenon, or to enumerate
the extraordinary views which have been expressed regarding it; it will
be sufficient if, without reference to minor differences of opinion
respecting the exact form in which it exhibited itself, we broadly state
that a great majority of critics, rejecting the theory that [------]
means to speak languages previously unknown to the speakers, pronounce
it to be the speech of persons in a state of ecstatic excitement,
chiefly of the nature of prayer or praise, and unintelligible to
ordinary hearers.(1) Whether
{367}
this speech consisted of mere inarticulate tones, of excited
ejaculations, of obsolete or uncommon expressions and provincialisms, of
highly poetical rhapsodies, of prayer in slow scarcely audible accents,
or of chaunted mysterious phrases, fragmentary and full of rapturous
intensity, as these critics variously suppose, we shall not pause
to inquire. It is clear that, whatever may have been the form of the
speech, if instead of being speech in unlearnt languages supernaturally
communicated, [------] was only the expression of religious excitement,
however that may be supposed to have originated, the pretentions of the
gift to a miraculous character shrink at once into exceedingly small
proportions.
Every unprejudiced mind must admit that the representation that the
gift of "tongues," of which the Apostle speaks in his Epistle to the
Corinthians, conferred upon the recipient the power to speak foreign
languages before unknown to him, may in great part be traced to the
narrative in Acts of the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of
Pentecost. Although a few apologists advance the plea that there may
have been differences in the manifestation, it is generally recognized
on both sides that, however differently described by the two writers,
the [------] of Paul and of the Acts is, in reality, one and the same
phenomenon. The impression conveyed by the narrative has been applied to
the didactic remarks of Paul, and a meaning forced upon them which
they cannot possibly bear. It is not too much to say that, but for the
mythical account in the Acts, no one would ever have supposed that the
[------] of Paul was the gift of speaking foreign languages without
previous study or practice. In the interminable controversy regarding
the phenomenon, moreover, it seems to us to have been a
{368}
fundamental error, on both sides too often, to have considered it
necessary to the acceptance of any explanation that it should equally
suit both the remarks of Paul and the account in Acts.(1) The only
right course is to test the narrative by the distinct and authoritative
statements of the Apostle; but to adopt the contrary course is much the
same procedure as altering the natural interpretation of an original
historical document in order to make it agree with the romance of some
unknown writer of a later day. The Apostle Paul writes as a contemporary
and eye-witness of phenomena which affected himself, and regarding which
he gives the most valuable direct and indirect information. The
unknown author of the Acts was not an eye-witness of the scene which he
describes, and his narrative bears upon its very surface the clearest
marks of traditional and legendary treatment. The ablest apologists
freely declare that the evidence of Paul is of infinitely greater value
than that of the unknown and later writer, and must be preferred
before it. The majority of those who profess to regard the narrative
as historical explain away its clearest statements with startling
ingenuity, or conceal them beneath a cloud of words. The references to
the phenomenon in later portions of the Acts are in themselves quite
inconsistent with the earlier narrative in ch. ii. The detailed
criticism of Paul is the only contemporary, and it is certainly the only
trustworthy, account we possess regarding the gift of "tongues."(2) We
must, therefore, dismiss from our minds, if possible, the bias which the
narrative in the Acts has unfortunately
{369}
created, and attend solely to the words of the Apostle. If his report of
the phenomenon discredit that of the unknown and later writer, so much
the worse for the latter. In any case it is the testimony of Paul which
is referred to and which we are called upon to consider, and later
writers must not be allowed to invest it with impossible meanings. Even
if we had not such undeniable reasons for preferring the statements of
Paul to the later and untrustworthy narrative of an unknown writer, the
very contents of the latter, contrasted with the more sober remarks of
the Apostle, would consign it to a very subordinate place.
Discussing the miracle of Pentecost in Acts, which he, of course,
regards as the instantaneous communication of ability to speak in
foreign languages, Zeller makes the following remarks: "The supposition
of such a miracle is opposed to a right view of divine agency, and of
the relation of God to the world, and, in this case in particular, to
a right view of the constitution of the human mind. The composition and
the properties of a body may be altered through external influence, but
mental acquirements are attained only through personal activity, through
practice; and it is just in this that spirit distinguishes itself from
matter: that it is free, that there is nothing in it which it has
not itself spontaneously introduced. The external and instantaneous
in-pouring of a mental acquirement is a representation which refutes
itself." In reply to those who object to this reasoning he retorts: "The
assertion that such a miracle actually occurred contradicts the analogy
of all attested experience, that it is invented by an individual or by
tradition corresponds with it; when, therefore, the historical writer
has only the choice between these two
{370}
alternatives, he must according to the laws of historical probability,
under all the circumstances, unconditionally decide for the second. He
must do this even if an eyewitness of the pretended miracle stood before
him; he must all the more do so if he has to do with a statement which,
beyond doubt not proceeding from an eye-witness, is more possibly
separated by some generations from the event in question."(1)
These objections are not confined to rationalistic critics and do not
merely represent the arguments of scepticism. Neander expresses similar
sentiments,(2) and after careful examination pronounces the narrative
in Acts untrustworthy, and, adhering to the representations of Paul,
rejects the theory that [------] was speech in foreign languages
supernaturally imparted. Meyer, who arrives at much the same result as
Neander, speaks still more emphatically. He says: "_This_ supposed gift
of tongues (all languages), however, was in the apostolic age, partly
_unnecessary_ for the preaching of the Gospel, as the preachers
thereof only required to be able to speak Hebrew and Greek; partly _too
general_, as amongst the assembly there were certainly many who were not
called to be teachers. And, on the other hand, again, it would also have
been _premature_, as, before all, Paul the apostle of the Gentiles would
have required it, in whom nevertheless there is as little trace of
any _subsequent_ reception of it as that he preached otherwise than in
Hebrew and Greek. _But now, how is the event to be historically judged?_
Regarding this the following is to be observed: As the instantaneous
bestowal of facility in a foreign language is neither logically possible
nor psychologically
{371}
and morally conceivable, and as not the slightest intimation of such a
thing in the Apostles is perceptible in their Epistles and elsewhere (on
the contrary, comp. xiv. 11); as, further, if it was only momentary,
the impossibility increases, and as Peter himself in his speech does
not once make the slightest reference to the foreign languages:
therefore,--whether, without any intimation in the text, one consider
that Pentecost assembly as a representation of all future Christianity,
or not--the occurrence, as Luke relates it, cannot be transmitted in its
actual historical circumstance."(1)
Let us a little examine the particulars of the narrative in Acts ii.
All the brethren were assembled in one place, a house [------], on the
morning of the day of Pentecost. In the preceding chapter (i. 15) we
learn that the number of disciples was then about 120, and the crowd
which came together when the miraculous occurrence took place must have
been great, seeing that it is stated that 3,000 souls were baptized
and added to the Church upon the occasion (ii. 41). Passing over the
statement as to the numbers of the disciples, which might well surprise
us after the information given by the Gospels,2 we may ask in what house
in Jerusalem could such a multitude have assembled? Apologists have
exhausted their ingenuity in replying to the question, but whether
placing the scene in one of the halls or courts of the Temple, or in
an imaginary house in one of the streets leading to the Temple, the
explanation is equally vague and unsatisfactory. How did the multitude
so rapidly know of what was passing in a private house? We shall say
nothing at present of the sound of the
{372}
"rushing mighty wind" which filled all the house, nor of the descent of
the "tongues as of fire," nor of the various interpretations of these
phenomena by apologetic writers. These incidents do not add to the
historical character of the narrative, nor can it be pronounced either
clear or consistent. The brethren assembled "were all filled with the
Holy Spirit and began to speak with other tongues [------], as the
Spirit gave them utterance."(1) Apologists, in order somewhat to
save the historical credit of the account and reconcile it with the
statements of Paul, have variously argued that there is no affirmation
made in the narrative that speech in foreign languages previously
unknown was imparted. The members of the fifteen nations who hear the
Galilaeans speaking "in our own language wherein we were born" [------]
are disposed of with painful ingenuity; but, passing over all this, it
is recognized by unprejudiced critics on both sides that at least the
author of Acts, in writing this account, intended to represent the
brethren as instantaneously speaking those previously unknown foreign
languages. A few writers represent the miracle to have been one of
hearing rather than of speaking, the brethren merely praising God in
their own tongue, the Aramaic, but the spectators understanding in their
various languages.(2) This only shifts the difficulty from the speakers
to the hearers, and the explanation is generally repudiated. It is,
however, freely granted by all that history does not exhibit a single
instance of such a gift of tongues having ever been made useful for the
purpose of
{373}
preaching the gospel.(1) Paul, who claimed the possession of the gift
of tongues in a superlative degree (1 Cor. xiv. 18), does not appear
to have spoken more languages than Aramaic and Greek. He writes to the
Romans in the latter tongue and not in Latin, and to the Galatians
in the same language instead of their own. Peter, who appears to have
addressed the assembled nations in Greek on this very occasion, does
not in his speech either refer to foreign languages or claim the gift
himself, for in v. 15 he speaks only of others: "For _these_ [------]
are not drunken." Every one remembers the ancient tradition recorded
by Papias, and generally believed by the Fathers, that Mark accompanied
Peter as his "interpreter" [------].(2) The first Epistle bearing the
name of Peter, and addressed to some of the very nations mentioned
in Acts, to sojourners "in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and
Bithynia," is written in Greek; and so is the "Epistle to the Hebrews"
and the other works of the New Testament. Few will be inclined to deny
that, to take only one language for instance, the Greek of the writings
of the New Testament leaves something to be desired, and that, if the
writers possessed such a supernatural gift, they evidently did not speak
even so important and current a language with absolute purity. "Le style
des ecrivains sacred," writes a modern
{374}
apologist, "montre clairement qu'ils ont appris la langue grecque et
qu'ils ne la possedent pas de droit divin et par inspiration, car
ils l'ecrivent sans correction, en la surchargeant de locutions
hebraiques."(1) In fact, as most critics point out, there never was
a period at which a gift of foreign tongues was less necessary for
intercourse with the civilized world, Greek being almost everywhere
current. As regards the fifteen nations who are supposed to have been
represented on this great occasion, Neander says: "It is certain that
amongst the inhabitants of towns in Cappadocia, in Pontus, in Asia
Minor, Phrygia, Pamphylia, Cyrene, and in the parts of Libya and Egypt
peopled by Greek and Jewish colonies, the Greek language was in great
part more current than the old national tongue. There remain, out of
the whole catalogue of languages, at most the Persian, Syriac, Arabic,
Greek, and Latin. The more rhetorical than historical stamp of the
narrative is evident."(2)
This rhetorical character, as contradistinguished from sober history, is
indeed painfully apparent throughout. The presence in Jerusalem of Jews,
devout men "from every nation under heaven" is dramatically opportune,
and thus representatives of the fifteen nations are prepared to appear
in the house and hear their own languages in which they were born spoken
in so supernatural, though useless, a manner by the brethren. They are
all said to have been "confounded" at the phenomenon, and the writer
adds, ii. 7f: "And they were all amazed and marvelled, saying, Behold,
are not all these which speak Galilaeans? And how hear we every man in
our own
{375}
language wherein we were born?" &c. Did all the multitude say this?
Or is not this the writer ascribing, according to his view, probable
sentiments to them? How again did they know that the hundred and twenty
or more brethren were Galilaean? Further on, the writer adds more of
the same kind, v. 12, 13: "And they were all amazed and were in doubt,
saying one to another: What may this mean? But others mocking said, They
are full of sweet wine." Is it not a strange manner of accounting
for such a phenomenon as (v. 11) hearing people speaking in their own
tongues the great works of God to suppose that they are drunken? People
speaking with tongues, in Paul's sense (1 Cor. xiv. 23, 24, 33), and
creating an unintelligible tumult, might well lead strangers to say
that they were either mad or drunken, but the praise of God in foreign
language, understood by so many, could not convey such an impression.
Peter does not, in explanation, simply state that they are speaking
foreign languages which have just been supernaturally imparted to them,
but argues (v. 15) that "these are not drunken, as ye suppose, for it is
the third hour of the day,"--too early to be "full of sweet wine," and
proceeds to assert that the phenomenon is, on the contrary, a fulfilment
of a prophecy of Joel in which, although the pouring out of God's Spirit
upon all flesh is promised "in the last days," and as a result that:
"your sons and your daughters shall prophesy and your young men shall
see visions and your old men shall dream dreams," not a single word
is said of any gift of "tongues," foreign or otherwise. The miraculous
phenomenon in question is not mentioned in the prophecy of which it
is supposed to be the accomplishment. It does not much help matters to
argue that the miracle, although not for future use, was intended as a
{376}
sign. We shall see what Paul says regarding [------] as a sign, but we
may here merely point out that the effect produced in the Corinthian
Church is rather an impression of madness, whilst here it leads to a
mocking accusation of drunkenness. The conversion of the 3,000 is by no
means referred to the speaking with tongues, but simply to the speech
of Peter (ii. 37L 41). From every point of view, there is no cohesion
between the different parts of the narrative; it is devoid of
verisimilitude. It is not surprising that so many critics of all shades
of opinion recognize unhistorical elements in the narrative in Acts,(1)
not to use a stronger term. To allow such an account to influence our
interpretation of Paul's statements regarding the gift of tongues is
quite out of the question; and no one who appreciates the nature of the
case and who carefully examines the narrative of the unknown writer can,
we think, hesitate to reject his theory of a supernatural bestowal of
power to speak foreign languages, before unknown.
It is not difficult to trace the origin of the account in Acts and,
although we cannot here pause to do so with any minuteness, we may at
least indicate the lines upon which the narrative is based. There is no
doubt that then, as now, the Jews commemorated at the feast of Pentecost
the giving of the law on Sinai.(2) It seemed
{377}
good to the author of Acts that the prophet like unto Moses,(1) who was
to abrogate that law and replace it by a dispensation of grace, should
inaugurate the new law of love and liberty(2) with signs equally
significant and miraculous. It is related in Exodus xix. 18 that the
Lord descended upon Sinai "in fire," and that the whole mount quaked
greatly. The voice of God pronounced the decalogue and, as the
Septuagint version renders our Ex. xx. 18: "All the people saw the
voice, and the lightnings and the voice of the trumpet and the mountain
smoking."(3) According to Rabbinical tradition, however, when God came
down to give the law to the Israelites, he appeared not to Israel alone,
but to all the other nations, and the voice in which the law was given
went to the ends of the earth and was heard of ail peoples.(4) It will
be remembered that the number of the nations was supposed to be seventy,
each speaking a different language, and the law was given in the one
sacred Hebrew tongue. The Rabbins explained, however: "The voice from
Sinai was divided into 70 voices and 70 languages, so that all nations
of the earth heard (the law), and each heard it actually in its own
language."(5) And again: "Although the ten commandments were promulgated
with one single tone, yet it is said (Exod. xx. 15), 'All people heard
the voices' (in the plural and not the voice in the singular); "the
reason is: As the voice went forth it was divided into seven voices,
{378}
and then into seventy tongues, and every people heard the Law in its own
mother-tongue."(1) The same explanation is given of Ps. lxviii. 11, and
the separation of the voice into seven voices and seventy tongues
is likened to the sparks beaten by a hammer from molten metal on the
anvil.(2) Philo expresses the same ideas in several places. We can
only extract one passage in which, speaking of the giving of the law on
Sinai, and discussing the manner in which God proclaimed the decalogue,
he says: "For God is not like a man in need of a voice and of a
tongue... but it seems to me that at that time he performed a most holy
and beseeming wonder, commanding an invisible voice to be created in
air, more wonderful than all instruments,.... not lifeless, but neither
a form of living creature composed of body and soul, but a reasonable
soul full of clearness and distinctness, which formed and excited the
air and transformed it into flaming fire, and sounded forth such an
articulated voice, like breath through a trumpet, that it seemed to
be equally heard by those who were near and those furthest off."(3) A
little further on he says: "But from the midst of the fire streaming
from heaven, a most awful voice sounded forth, the flame being
articulated to language familiar to the hearers, which made that which
was said so vividly clear, as to seem rather seeing than
{379}
hearing it."(1) It requires no elaborate explanation to show how this
grew into the miracle at Pentecost at the inauguration of the Christian
dispensation, when suddenly there came a sound from heaven as of a
rushing mighty wind which filled all the house where the disciples were,
and there appeared to them tongues as of fire parting asunder which sat
upon each of them, and they were all filled with the Holy Spirit
and began to speak with other tongues, even as the Spirit gave them
utterance, so that devout men from every nation under heaven heard them
speaking, everyone in his own language wherein he was born, the great
works of God.(2)
When we turn to the other passages in the Acts where the gift of tongues
is mentioned, we find that the interpretation of foreign languages
supernaturally imparted is quite out of place. When Peter is sent to
Cornelius, as he is addressing the centurion and his household, and even
before they are baptized (x. 44), "the Holy Spirit fell on all them
who hear the word;" and the sign of it is (v. 46) that they are heard
"speaking with tongues and magnifying God" [------], precisely like the
disciples at Pentecost (cf ii. 11, xi. 15f.). Now as this gift fell on
all who heard the word (x. 44), it could not be a sign to unbelievers;
and the idea that Cornelius and his house immediately began to speak in
foreign languages, which, as in the case
{380}
of the Corinthians, probably no one understood, instead of simply
"magnifying God" in their own tongue, which everyone understood, is
almost ludicrous, if without offence we may venture to say so. The same
remarks apply to xix. 6. We must again allow an eminent apologist,
who will not be accused of irreverence, to characterise such a
representation. "Now in such positions and such company, speech in
foreign tongues would be something altogether without object and without
meaning. Where the consciousness of the grace of salvation, and of a
heavenly life springing from it, is first aroused in man, his own mother
tongue verily, not a foreign language, will be the natural expression
of his feelings. Or we must imagine a magical power which, taking
possession of men, like instruments without volition, forces them to
utter strange tones--a thing contradicting all analogy in the operations
of Christianity."(1) The good sense of the critic revolts against the
natural submission of the apologist.
We have diverged so far in order prominently to bring before the reader
the nature and source of the hypothesis that the gift of "tongues"
signifies instantaneous power to speak unlearnt foreign languages. Such
an interpretation is derived almost entirely from the mythical narrative
in the Acts of the Apostles. We shall now proceed to consider the
statements of the Apostle Paul, and endeavour to ascertain what the
supposed miraculous Charisma really is. That it is something very
different from what the unknown writer represents it in the episode
of Pentecost cannot be doubted. "Whoever has, even once, read with
attention what Paul writes of the speaking with tongues in the
Corinthian community," writes Thiersch, "knows that the difference
between that gift of tongues
{381}
and this (of Acts ii.) could scarcely be greater. There, a speech
which no mortal can understand without interpretation, and also no
philologist, but the Holy Spirit alone can interpret; here, a speech
which requires no interpretation. That gift serves only for the
edification of the speaker, this clearly also for that of the hearer.
The one is of no avail for the instruction of the ignorant; the other,
clearly, is imparted wholly for that purpose."(1)
It may be well that we should state a few reasons which show that Paul,
in his first letter to the Corinthians, does not intend, in speaking of
[------], to represent speech in foreign languages. In the very outset
of his dissertation on the subject (xiv. 2), Paul very distinctly
declares as the principal reason for preferring prophecy to the gift of
tongues: "For he that speaketh with a tongue [------] speaketh not unto
men but unto God: for no one understandeth(2) [------]." How could
this be said if [------] meant merely speaking a foreign language? The
presence of a single person versed in the language spoken would in
such a case vitiate the whole of Paul's argument. The statement made
is general, it will be observed, and not limited, to one community, but
applied to a place like Corinth, one of the greatest commercial cities,
in which merchants, seamen, and visitors of all countries were to be
found, it would have been unreasonable to have characterized a foreign
tongue as absolutely unintelligible. In xiv. 9, Paul says: "So likewise
ye, unless ye utter by the tongue [------] words
{382}
easy to be understood, how shall it be known what is spoken? for ye will
be speaking into air." How could Paul use the expression "by the tongue"
if he meant a foreign language in v. 2 and elsewhere? He is comparing
[------] in the preceding verses with the sounds of musical instruments,
and the point reached in v. 9 clearly brings home the application of
his argument: the [------] is unintelligible, like the pipe or harp, and
unless the tongue utter words which have an understood meaning, it is
mere speaking into air. Is it possible that Paul would call speech in a
language, foreign to him, perhaps, but which nevertheless was the mother
tongue of some nation, "speaking into air"? In such a case, he must have
qualified his statement by obvious explanations, of which not a word
appears throughout his remarks. That he does not speak of foreign
languages is made still more clear by the next two verses, v. 10:
in which, continuing his argument from analogy, he actually compares
[------] with speech in foreign languages, and ends, v. 11: "If,
therefore, I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be unto him
that speaketh a barbarian (foreigner) and he that speaketh a barbarian
(foreigner) in my judgment."' Paul's logic is certainly not always
beyond reproach, but he cannot be accused of perpetrating such an
antithesis as contrasting a thing with itself. He, therefore, explicitly
distinguishes (v. 10) [------] "kinds of languages"(2) from (xii. 10,
28, &c.) [------] "kinds of tongues." In xiv. 6, Paul says: "If I come
unto you speaking with tongues [------] what shall I profit you, unless
I shall
{383}
speak to you either in revelation, or in knowledge, or in prophecy,
or in teaching?" [------]; and then he goes on to compare such
unintelligible speech with musical instruments. Now it is obvious that
revelation, knowledge, prophecy and teaching might equally be expressed
in foreign languages, and, therefore, in "speaking with tongues" it is
no mere difficulty of expression which makes it unprofitable, but that
general unintelligibility which is the ground of the whole of Paul's
objections. Paul exclaims (v. 18): "I thank God I speak with a tongue
[------](1) more than ye all, (19) but in a church I would rather speak
five words with my understanding, that I may teach others also, than
ten thousand words in a tongue [------]."(2) We have already pointed out
that there is no evidence whatever that Paul could speak many languages.
So far as we have any information, he only made use of Greek and
Aramaic, and never even preached where those languages were not current.
He always employed the former in his Epistles, whether addressed to
Corinth, Galatia, or Rome, and his knowledge even of that language was
certainly not perfect. Speaking "with a tongue" cannot, for reasons
previously given, mean a foreign language; and this is still
more obvious from what he says in v. 19, just quoted, in which
he distinguishes speaking with a tongue from speaking with his
understanding. Five words so spoken are better than ten thousand in a
tongue, because he speaks
{384}
with the understanding in the one case and without it in the second.
It is clear that a man speaks with his understanding as much in one
language as another, but it is the main characteristic of the speech we
are discussing that it is throughout opposed to understanding: cf. vv.
14, 15. It would be inconceivable that, if this gift really signified
power to speak foreign languages, Paul could on the one hand use the
expressions in this letter with regard to it, and on the other that he
could have failed to add remarks consistent with such an interpretation.
For instance is it possible that the Apostle in repressing the exercise
of the Charisma, as he does, could have neglected to point out some
other use for it than mere personal edification? Could he have omitted
to tell some of these speakers with tongues that, instead of wasting
their languages in a church where no one understood them, it would be
well for them to employ them in the instruction of the nations whose
tongues had been supernaturally imparted to them? As it is, Paul checks
the use of a gift bestowed by the Holy Spirit, and reduces its operation
to the smallest limits, without once indicating so obvious a sphere of
usefulness for the miraculous power. We need not, however, proceed to
further arguments upon this branch of the subject; although, in treating
other points, additional evidence will constantly present itself. For
the reasons we have stated, and many others, the great majority of
critics are agreed that the gift of tongues, according to Paul, was not
the power of speaking foreign languages previously unknown.(1) But for
the narrative in Acts ii. no one would ever have thought of such an
interpretation.
{385}
Coming now to consider the two Charismata, "kinds of tongues" and "the
interpretation of tongues," more immediately in connection with our
inquiry, as so-called miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit, we shall
first endeavour to ascertain some of their principal characteristics.
The theory of foreign languages supernaturally imparted without previous
study may be definitively laid aside. The interpretation of tongues may
go with it, but requires a few observations. It is clear from Paul's
words throughout this dissertation that the interpretation of tongues
not only was not invariably attached to the gift of tongues(1) (1 Cor.
xiv. 13, 27, 28), but was at least often a separate gift possessed
without the kinds of tongues (cf. xii. 10, 28, xiv. 26, 28). Nothing can
be more specific than xii. 10"... to another kinds of tongues; and to
another interpretation of tongues;" and again, v. 30: "do all speak with
tongues? do all interpret?" This is indeed presaged by the "diversities
of gifts," &c, of xii. 4 ff. Upon the hypothesis of foreign languages,
this would presuppose that some spoke languages which they could not
interpret, and consequently could not understand, and that others
understood languages which they could not speak. The latter point is
common enough in ordinary life; but, in this instance, the miracle of
supernaturally receiving a perfect knowledge of
{386}
languages, instantaneously and without previous study, is as great as to
receive the power to speak them. The anomaly in the miracle, merely to
point out a suggestive discrepancy where all is anomalous, is that
the gift of tongues should ever have been separated from the gift of
interpretation. If a man understand the foreign language he speaks he
can interpret it; if he cannot interpret it, he cannot understand it;
and if he cannot understand it, can he possibly speak it? Certainly not,
without his having been made a perfectly mechanical instrument
through which, apart from the understanding and the will, sounds are
involuntarily produced, which is not to be entertained. Still pursuing
the same hypothesis,--the one gift is to speak languages which no one
understands, the other to understand languages which no one speaks.
Paul never even assumes the probability that the "tongue" spoken is
understood by any one except the interpreter. The interpretation of such
obscure tongues must have been a gift very little used,--never, indeed,
except as the complement to the gift of tongues. The natural and useful
facility in languages is apparently divided into two supernatural and
useless halves. The idea is irresistibly suggested, as apparently it was
to the Apostle himself, whether it would not have been more for the good
of mankind and for the honour of Christianity, if, instead of these two
miraculously incomplete gifts, a little natural good sense, five
words even, to be spoken in the vernacular tongue and requiring no
interpretation had been imparted. If, instead of foreign languages, we
substitute the utterance of ecstatic religious excitement, the anomaly
of speaking a language without understanding it or being understood
becomes intelligible; and equally so the interpretation,
{387}
unaccompanied by the power of speaking. It is obvious in both cases
that, as no one understands the tongue, no one can determine whether the
interpretation of it be accurate or not. But it is easily conceivable
that a sympathetic nervous listener might suppose that he understood the
broken and incoherent speech of ecstasy and might interpret it according
to his own stimulated imagination. The mysterious and unknown are
suggestive texts, and there is nothing more infectious than religious
excitement. In all this, however, is there anything miraculous?
We need not further demonstrate that the chief and general
characteristic of "kinds of tongues" was that they were unintelligible
(cf. 1 Cor. xiv. 2, 6-11, 13-19). Speaking with the spirit [------] is
opposed to speaking with the understanding [------] (cf. vv. 14-16, &c).
They were not only unintelligible to others, but the speaker himself
did not understand what he uttered: v. 14. "For if I pray with a tongue
[------] my spirit [------] prayeth, but my understanding [------] is
unfruitful" (cf. 15 f. 19). We have already pointed out that Paul speaks
of these Charismata in general, and not as affecting the Corinthians
only; and we must now add that he obviously does not even insinuate
that the "kinds of tongues" possessed by that community was a spurious
Charisma, or that any attempt had been made to simulate the gift; for
nothing could have been more simple than for the Apostle to denounce
such phenomena as false, and to distinguish the genuine from the
imitated speech with tongues. The most convincing proof that his remarks
refer to the genuine Charisma is that the Apostle applies to himself the
very same restrictions in the use of "tongues" as he enforces upon the
Corinthians
{388}
(vv. 18-19, 6, &c), and characterises his own gift precisely as he does
theirs (vv. 6, 11, 14, 15, 19).
Now what was the actual operation of this singular miraculous gift, and
its utility whether as regards the community or the gifted individual?
Paul restricts the speaking of "tongues" in church because, being
unintelligible, it is not for edification (xiv. 2 ff. 18 f. 23, 27, 28).
He himself does not make use of his gift for the assemblies of believers
(vv. 6, 18). Another ground upon which he objects to the use of "kinds
of tongues" in public is that all the gifted apparently speak at once
(vv. 23, 27 f. 33). It will be remembered that all the Charismata and
their operations are described as due to the direct agency of the Holy
Spirit (xii. 4 ff.); and immediately following their enumeration, ending
with "kinds of tongues" and "interpretation of tongues," the Apostle
resumes: v. 11. "but all these worketh the one and the same Spirit,
dividing to each severally as he wills;" and in Acts ii. 4 the brethren
are represented as speaking with tongues "as the Spirit gave them
utterance." Now the first thought which presents itself is: How can a
gift which is due to the direct working of the Holy Spirit possibly be
abused? We must remember clearly that the speech is not expressive
of the understanding of the speaker. The [------] spoke under the
inspiration of the supernatural Agent, what neither they nor others
understood. Is it permissible to suppose that the Holy Spirit could
inspire speech with tongues at an unfitting time? Can we imagine that
this Spirit can actually have prompted many people to speak at one and
the same time to the utter disturbance of order? Is not such a gift of
tongues more like the confusion of tongues in Babel(1)
{389}
than a christian Charisma? "And the Lord said:...Go to, let us go down
and there confound their language, that they may not understand one
another's speech."(1) In spite of his abstract belief in the divine
origin of the Charisma, Paul's language unconsciously betrays practical
doubt as to its character. Does not such sarcasm as the following seem
extremely indecorous when criticising a result produced directly by the
Holy Spirit? (xiv. 23) "If, therefore, the whole church be come into
one place and all speak with tongues, and there come in unlearned and
unbelieving persons will they not say that ye are mad?" At Pentecost
such an assembly was supposed to be drunken.(2) The whole of the counsel
of the Apostle upon this occasion really amounts to an injunction to
quench the Spirit. It is quite what might be expected in the case of
the excitement of ecstatic religion, that the strong emotion should
principally find vent in the form of prayer and praise (vv. 15 ff.),
equally so that it should be unintelligible and that no one should know
when to say "Amen" (v. 16), and that all should speak at once, and still
more so that the practical result should be tumult (vv. 23, 33). All
this, it might appear, could be produced without the intervention of the
Holy Spirit. So far, is there and utility in the miracle?
But we are told that it is "for a sign." Paul argues upon this point in
a highly eccentric manner. He quotes (v. 21) Isaiah xxviii. 11, 12, in a
form neither agreeing with the Septuagint nor with the Hebrew, a passage
which has merely a superficial and verbal analogy with the gift of
tongues, but whose real
{390}
historical meaning has no reference to it whatever: "In the Law it is
written, that with men of other tongues and with the lips of others will
I speak unto this people; and yet for all that they will not hear me,
saith the Lord." The Apostle continues with singular logic: "So that
[------] the tongues are for a sign [------] not to those who believe
but to the unbelieving; but prophecy is not for the unbelieving but
for those who believe. If, therefore, the whole church be come into
one place, and all speak with tongues, and there come in unlearned
or unbelieving persons, will they not say that ye are mad? But if all
prophesy and there come in an unbeliever... he is convicted by all...
and so falling on his face he will worship God, reporting that God is
indeed in you." The Apostle himself shows that the tongues cannot be
considered a sign by unbelievers, upon whom, apparently, they produce
no other impression than that the speakers are mad or drunken. Under
any circumstances, the "kinds of tongues" described by the Apostle are
a very sorry specimen of the "signs and wonders and powers" of which
we have heard so much. It is not surprising that the Apostle prefers
exhortation in a familiar tongue. In an ecstatic state, men are
incapable of edifying others: we shall presently see how far they can
edify themselves. Paul utters the pith of the whole matter at the very
outset of his homily, when he prefers exhortation to kinds of tongues:
v. 2. "For he that speaketh with a tongue speaketh not unto men but unto
God: for no one under-standeth, but in Spirit he speaketh mysteries"
[------]. It is not possible to read his words without the impression
that the Apostle treats the whole subject with suppressed impatience.
His mind was too prone to believe in spiritual mysteries, and his
nervous
{391}
nature too susceptible to religious emotion and enthusiasm to permit him
clearly to recognize the true character of the gift of "tongues;" but
his good sense asserted itself and, after protesting that he would
rather speak five words with his understanding than ten thousand words
in a tongue, he breaks off with the characteristic exclamation (v. 20):
"Brethren, become not children in your minds" [------]. The advice is
not yet out of place.
What was the private utility or advantage of the supernatural gift?
How did he who spoke with a tongue edify himself? (v. 4.) Paul clearly
states that he does not edify the church (vv. 2 ff.). In the passage
just quoted the Apostle, however, says that the speaker "with a tongue"
"speaketh to God"; and further on (vv. 18, 19) he implies that, although
he himself does not use the gift in public, he does so in private.
He admonishes (v. 28) any one gifted with tongues, if there be no
interpreter present, to "keep silence in a church, but let him speak to
himself and to God." But in what does the personal edification of the
individual consist? In employing language, which he does not comprehend,
in private prayer and praise? In addressing God in some unintelligible
jargon, in the utterance of which his understanding has no part? Many
strange purposes and proceedings have been attributed to the Supreme
Being, but probably none has been imagined more incongruous than a
gift of tongues unsuitable for the edification of others, and not
intelligible to the recipient, but considered an edifying substitute in
private devotion for his own language. This was certainly not the form
of prayer which Jesus taught his disciples.(1) And this gift was valued
{392}
more highly in the Corinthian Church than all the rest! Do we not get
an instructive insight into the nature of the other Charismata from
this suggestive fact? The reality of miracles does not seem to be
demonstrated by these chapters.(1)
We have already stated that the vast majority of critics explain
[------] as speech in an ecstatic condition;(2) and all the phenomena
described by Paul closely correspond with the utterance of persons in
a state of extreme religious enthusiasm, and excitement, of which many
illustrations might be given from other religions before and since the
commencement of our era, as well as in the history of Christianity
in early and recent times. Every one knows of the proceedings of the
heathen oracles, the wild writhings and cries of the Pythoness and the
mystic utterances of the Sibyl. In the Old Testament there is allusion
to the ecstatic emotion of the prophets in the account of Saul, 1 Sara.
xix. 24; cf. Isaiah viii. 19, xxix. 4. The Montanists exhibited similar
phenomena, and Tertullian has recorded several instances of such
religious excitement, to which we have elsewhere referred. Chrysostora
had to repress paroxysms of pious excitement closely resembling these
in the fourth century;(3) and even down to our own times instances have
never been wanting of this form of hysterical religion. Into none of
this can we enter here. Enough, we trust, has been said to show the true
character of the supposed supernatural Charismata of Paul from his own
account of them, and the information contained in his epistles.
{393}
Although we have been forced to examine in considerable detail the
passages in the writings of Paul cited by apologists in support of
miracles, the study is one of great value to our inquiry. These are the
only passages which we possess in which a contemporary and eye-witness
describes what he considers supernatural phenomena, and conveys to us
his impression of miraculous agency. Instead of traditional reports of
miracles narrated by writers who are unknown, and who did not witness
the occurrences in question, we have here a trustworthy witness dealing
with matters in which he was personally interested, and writing a
didactic homily upon the nature and operation of Charismata, which he
believed to be miraculous and conferred upon the Church by the immediate
agency of the Holy Spirit. The nineteenth century here comes into direct
contact with the age of miracles, but at the touch the miracles vanish,
and that which, seen through the golden mist of pious tradition, seems
to possess unearthly power and beauty, on closer examination dwindles
into the prose of every day life. The more minutely reported miracles
are scanned, the more unreal they are recognized to be. The point to
which we now desire to call attention, however, is the belief and the
mental constitution of Paul. We have seen something of the nature and
operation of the gift of tongues. That the phenomena described proceeded
from an ecstatic state, into which persons of highly excitable nervous
organization are very liable to fall under the operation of strong
religious impressions, can scarcely be doubted. Eminent apologists(1)
have gravely illustrated the phenomena by the analogy of mesmerism,
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somnambulism and the effects of magnetism. Paul asserts that he was
subject to the influence, whatever it was, more than anyone, and
there is nothing which is more credible than the statement, or more
characteristic of the Apostle. We desire to speak of him with the
profoundest respect and admiration. We know more, from his epistles, of
the intimate life and feelings of the great Apostle of the Gentiles than
of any other man of the apostolic age, and it is impossible not to feel
warm sympathy with his noble and generous character. The history of
Christianity, after the death of its Founder, would sink almost into
common-place if the grand figure of Paul were blotted from its pages.
But it is no detraction to recognize that his nervous temperament
rendered him peculiarly susceptible of those religious impressions which
result in conditions of ecstatic trance, to which, as we actually
learn from himself, he was exceptionally subject. The effects of this
temperament probably first made him a Christian; and to his enthusiastic
imagination we owe most of the supernatural dogmas of the religion which
he adopted and transformed.
One of these trances the Apostle himself recounts,(1) always with the
cautious reserve: "whether in the body or out of the body I know not,
God knoweth," how he was caught up to the third heaven, and in Paradise
heard unutterable words which it is not lawful for a man to speak; in
immediate connection with which he continues: "And lest I should be
exalted above measure by the excess of the revelations, there was given
to me a stake [------] in the flesh, an angel of Satan to buffet me"(2)
This was one of
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the "visions [------] and revelations [------] of the Lord" of which he
speaks, and of which he had such an excess to boast. Can any one doubt
that this was nearly akin to the state of ecstatic trance in which he
spoke with tongues more than all the Corinthians? Does any one suppose
that Paul, "whether in the body or out of the body," was ever actually
caught up into "the third heaven," wherever that may be? or doubt that
this was simply one of the pious hallucinations which visit those who
are in such a state? If we are seriously to discuss the point,--it is
clear that evidence of such a thing is out of the question; that Paul
himself admits that he cannot definitely describe what happened; that we
have no other ground for considering the matter than the Apostle's own
mysterious utterance; that it is impossible for a person subject to such
visions and hallucinations to distinguish between reality and seeming;
that this narrative has not only all the character of hallucination, but
no feature of sober fact; and finally that, whilst it accords with all
experiences of visionary hallucination, it contradicts all experience of
practical life. We have seen that Paul believes in the genuineness and
supernatural origin of the divine Charismata, and he in like manner
believes in the reality of his visions and revelations. He has equal
reason, or want of reason, in both cases.
What, however, was the nature of the "stake in the flesh" which, upon
the theory of the diabolical origin of disease, he calls "an angel of
Satan to buffet me"? There have been many conjectures offered, but one
explanation which has been advanced by able critics has special force
and probability. It is suggested that this "stake in the flesh," which
almost all now at
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least recognise to have been some physical malady, and very many suppose
to have been headache or some other similar periodical and painful
affection, was in reality a form of epilepsy.(1) It has been ably argued
that the representation of the malady as "an angel of Satan" to buffet
him, directly connects it with nervous disorders like epilepsy, which
the Jews especially ascribed to diabolical influence; and the mention of
this [------] in immediate continuation of his remarks on "visions" and
"revelations," which a tendency to this very malady would so materially
assist in producing, further confirms the conjecture.(2) No one can
deny, and medical and psychological annals prove, that many men have
been subject to visions and hallucinations which have never been
seriously attributed to supernatural causes. There is not one single
valid reason removing the ecstatic visions and trances of the Apostle
Paul from this class.
We do not yet discuss the supposed vision in which he saw the risen
Jesus, though it is no exception to the rest, but reserve it for the
next chapter. At present, it suffices that we point out the bearing of
our examination of Paul's general testimony to miracles upon our future
consideration of his evidence for the Resurrection. If it be admitted
that his judgment as to the miraculous character of the Charismata is
fallacious, and that what he considered miraculous were simply natural
phenomena, the theory of the reality of miracles
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becomes less tenable than ever. And if, further, it be recognized, as we
think it necessarily must be, that Paul was subject to natural ecstatic
trances, with all their accompanying forms of nervous excitement: "kinds
of tongues," visions, and religious hallucinations, a strong and clear
light will fall upon his further testimony for miraculous occurrences
which we shall shortly have before us.
PART VI. THE RESURRECTION AND ASCENSION