INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS--LITERATURE, ORATORY,
ART, AND MUSIC
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON JOSÉ ROSENDO GUTIERREZ.]
Cradled in revolution and nurtured with difficulty under the most
adverse conditions, the intellectual life of Bolivia has, in spite of
all obstacles, developed in both strength and beauty. In literature,
oratory, art, and music the nation has given proof of surprising
activity. Under Spanish rule, books were almost an unknown luxury,
and with the exception of the few that were brought into the country
surreptitiously from time to time, prayer books and the lives of the
saints constituted all the literature to be obtained. One of the
earliest influences in bringing about the War of Independence in South
America was the secret distribution among the educated classes, and
particularly among the students of the University of Chuquisaca, of
the books written by Voltaire and the Encyclopædists, and brought over
to America by wealthy people of Chuquisaca and Potosí, who, while
visiting the French capital,--then, as now, the Mecca of wealthy South
Americans,--had imbibed the liberal ideas so popular in France in the
latter half of the eighteenth century, ideas which lighted the first
spark in the mighty social conflagration that wrecked the aristocratic
institutions of France, and illumined the political skies of two
continents in the reflection of its blaze. But the majority of the
people had little opportunity and less training for the appreciation of
literature, and all efforts toward literary expression were confined to
religious writers. Then, for half a century after the establishment of
the republic, the unsettled political and social conditions were not
favorable to intellectual development, so that it is only within a
quarter of a century, or less, that Bolivian literature, art, and music
have received uninterrupted encouragement.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DR. NICOLÁS ARMENTIA, BISHOP OF LA PAZ.]
But at every period of the nation’s history there have been writers of
talent, orators who have thrilled by the grace and fluency of their
magnetic speech, and earnest students of art and music. Poets have sung
their sweet carols amid the smoke of the battlefield and under the
harsh discipline of poverty and neglect. Indeed it seems that adversity
is often the friend of poetic inspiration, and that the poet was right
who said:
“Great souls are cradled into poetry through wrong,
They learn in suffering what they teach in song.”
If art and letters flourish best among the nations which enjoy peace
and prosperity, the genius that inspires them does not always develop
under the same conditions in the individual. The muse is oftener
wooed by the sorrowful than the gay, and her kindest smile is not for
the palace of pleasure and mirth, but for the soul that is lonely.
The merriest stanzas are written with heartache or in bitterness of
spirit, and the world is charmed by epigrams that have blossomed out
of mental and moral anguish. Probably the time of peace and plenty is
more propitious for poetry, because it comes after a period filled with
events and marked by conditions that make poets and philosophers out of
all available mentality.
Don Ricardo Bustamente, who, according to a distinguished Spanish
critic, was the chief of Bolivian poets, wrote the best of his
inspired verses just after the most unsettled period of the republic.
He wrote only as a pastime or a distraction from the duties of a
busy statesman and diplomat, for he filled important offices of the
government, both at home and abroad, at one time occupying the office
of Cabinet minister. One of his later poems, regarded by some as his
masterpiece, is an epic entitled _Hispano-America Libertada_,
which he published in 1883, on the occasion of the centenary of
Bolivar, in homage to the memory of the great liberator. Don Mariano
Ricardo Terrazas, author of _The Siege of Paris_ and _Mysteries
of the Heart_, and Manuel José Cortés, contemporaries of Bustamente,
wrote better prose than poetry, but the unhappy poet Galindo, the
poet Tovar, and Luis Vila are remembered among the noted writers of
verse. The same period gave to posterity the poet Don Mariano Ramallo,
who like Bustamente, wrote only in rare intervals of leisure, his
duties as minister of the Supreme Court occupying most of his time.
He was devoted to literature and founded a society, La Colmena, to
which the aspirants to literary fame were proud to belong. He was
a journalist of considerable talent, the editor of the _Official
Gazette_ during the administration of General Ballivian, and later
editor-in-chief of _La Epoca_, the first and one of the most
important dailies of Bolivia. Don Felix Reyes Ortiz, a contemporary of
Bustamente and Ramallo, was not only a graceful writer of poetry, but a
brilliant orator, a journalist, and a literary critic of distinguished
ability, and one of the ablest jurists of his time. His versatility
was remarkable. Like Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, of Chile, he seemed
to possess the gift of prolific genius, and his writings include
political essays, poetical compositions, and books on religion, law,
and education, besides editorial articles on an infinite variety of
subjects published in numerous newspapers of which he was the founder
and editor. He also published several statistical works, and was
president of the Circulo Literario of La Paz, one of the many societies
organized by the littérateurs of Bolivia. Don Serapio Reyes Ortiz, a
brother of Don Felix, is also to be counted among the intellectual
leaders of his country, though noted more particularly as a diplomatist
and jurist than as a writer. Few Bolivians have contributed in a
greater degree to the intellectual advancement of their country, and
none has been more constantly identified with its history in the past
thirty years, during which he has held office as minister of foreign
affairs, president of the council of state, minister plenipotentiary to
Peru, and vice-president of the republic.
[Illustration: THE VISION OF SAN CAYETANO. OLD PAINTING ON
COPPER, CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE.]
Prominent among those who have rendered important services to the state
as well as to literature, Don José Rosendo Gutierrez is remembered as a
lawyer of great talent, a diplomat and one of the best known Bolivian
writers. Having acquired a large fortune in the practice of law, Señor
Gutierrez was able, in his later years, to gratify a long-cherished
desire to collect a library of Bolivian literature, and at his death
he left as a bequest to his daughter, Señora Doña Hortensia Gutierrez
de Pinilla, one of the most complete collections extant of books on
Bolivia. The work to which he devoted the last years of his life was
the compilation of a Bolivian bibliography, for which he secured a
list of two thousand books and pamphlets, about seventy-five per cent
being pamphlets, nearly all of them written by Bolivians. Political
literature predominates, then follow, in the order of production,
novels, legends, and miscellany, there being comparatively little of a
historical or scientific character. The immense service rendered to the
intellectual interests of the country by this collection and tabulation
of the national literature can hardly be estimated. The plan of the
work is divided into three parts, the first of which embraces all
books and pamphlets published in Bolivia, or on subjects relating to
Bolivia from the year 1825 to the present day; the second comprises all
periodicals, with notices as to their duration, objects, contributions,
etc.; and the third includes all South American publications written
by South Americans which require to be consulted in a study of the
races, customs, and institutions of the country. During a career of
unusual activity, Señor Gutierrez still found time to write verse, and
his _Songs at the Foot of Illimani_ are gems of sentiment. He
was senator for La Paz during the last years of his life. He had the
honor to receive more foreign decorations and titles than any other
Bolivian, being Commendador of the Order of the Rose, Chevalier of the
Order of Leopold, Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, and a member of
many historic and geographic societies. He was a self-made man, having
begun life amid the most adverse circumstances, and achieving by his
own efforts the highest honors paid to intellect and moral character.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON EVARISTO VALLE.]
Another noted bibliophilist, Don Vicente Ballivian y Rojas, has
rendered invaluable service to his country by the collection and
publication of manuscripts written on the history of colonial times
and of the earlier years of the republic. Owing to blindness, the
enthusiastic scholar was obliged to give up his work after finishing
the first volume of the _Archivo Boliviano_, which was published
in Paris in 1872. Señor Ballivian y Rojas was the first of his
countrymen to undertake this kind of work, in which he has been
succeeded by many others. The present minister of colonization and
agriculture, Don Manuel Vicente Ballivian, is, like his illustrious
father, a bibliophilist. He has collected everything written on the
subject of his country that is of value for reference and general
reading, and the Geographic Society of La Paz, of which he is
president, has a complete library of information on Bolivia, whose most
important works are those written by himself.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON NATANIEL AGUIRRE.]
Don Gabriel Réné Moreno, a native of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, who
has been for many years a resident of Santiago, Chile, where he is
librarian of the Instituto Nacional, and Don Samuel Velasco Flor, of
Potosí, who resided in Sucre for a long time before his death, each
in his own way collected books on Bolivia or of Bolivian authorship,
and accumulated large and useful libraries. Señor Velasco Flor was not
only a bibliophilist, but a linguist, and had a perfect knowledge of
the Quichua language, a rare accomplishment even in Peru and Bolivia.
Few scholars have devoted special attention to the primitive languages
of the country, and those who have undertaken this task deserve great
credit. The illustrious Bishop of La Paz, Dr. Nicolás Armentia,
possesses probably a more extensive knowledge of the languages and
dialects of the various Indian tribes in Bolivia than any of his fellow
countrymen. He has travelled through the wilds of the interior, between
the Beni and the Madre de Dios rivers, having made the navigation of
the Beni to its source, “with his bundle of clothes, his food, and
his sextant strapped on his shoulders, his breviary in one hand and
compass in the other,” says his biographer, Carlos Bravo. The many
years which he devoted to missionary work in the Acre region, and to
establishing missions in the most remote districts, also afforded great
opportunity for study. As the fruit of his journeys he has written
several important books, of which _Lenguas Americanas_ is one of
especial value to students of philology and ethnology. The Church has
among her most illustrious dignitaries several writers and orators
of extraordinary talent. The late Archbishop of La Plata, Dr. Miguel
Taborga, was a classical scholar and a member of the Spanish Royal
Academy; he was a noted polemist, and had no rival in the press or in
public debate. As Archbishop of La Plata and senator for the department
of Potosí, he was a power in ecclesiastical and political circles;
and when his learned predecessor, Archbishop Puch, who, like himself,
was a native of Sucre and one of the brilliant orators and writers of
Bolivia, was called to Rome to attend the Council of the Vatican in
1869, the then Canon Taborga accompanied him, receiving many honors in
Italy, Spain, and France, where his intellectual talent had become
known. He wrote articles for the chief Catholic reviews of Europe,
in addition to editing _El Cruzado_, the principal organ of the
Church in his own country.
[Illustration: OLD PAINTING IN THE MINT OF POTOSÍ, PRESENTED
BY CARLOS IV. OF SPAIN.]
Potosí has the honor of giving to the nation several of her most gifted
writers, orators, and politicians, among them Don Tomás Frias, the
Jefferson of Bolivian democracy, whose memory is treasured with great
affection by his countrymen. Twice he was called to the office of
chief executive, though he never coveted the honor; he was noted for
his integrity and industry, as well as for his intellectual genius.
A contemporary of the grand-marshal of Ayacucho, having been born
in 1804, he lived to battle for the best principles of republican
government through a long lifetime, closing his distinguished career
in exile, after the _coup d’état_ of General Daza, which, as
previously stated, deprived Bolivia’s “Grand Old Man” of the supreme
magistracy in 1876, his death following, in Florence, Italy, in 1884.
As soldier, financier, diplomatist, minister of state, and president
of the republic, his arduous duties afforded him little leisure. Yet
he constantly wrote articles and pamphlets on political subjects, his
style being clear and concise, as it was in speaking. He was an orator
who convinced as much by the force of his logic as by the vigor of his
diction.
It is often said of the Latin-American that he is a born orator, to
whom the demand for a speech is as easily complied with as a request
for the time of day; given the inspiration of an attentive audience,
whether on the floor of Congress, in the balcony overlooking the plaza,
or at the much-favored _banquete_, his native gift of language
leads him away into realms of oratorical imagery, far beyond the “ken”
of the stuttering Saxon, through which admiring listeners follow until
a particularly well-rounded period brings a picturesque or startling
climax and the spell is broken by an enthusiastic _Viva!_ or a
more dramatic demonstration. The middle of the last century produced
in Bolivia some of the most brilliant diplomats and orators in the
history of Spanish America. Casimiro Olañeta, who is regarded as having
been among the best public speakers of his day, and Evaristo Valle,
whose eloquence was the pride of his friends and the despair of his
enemies, were but two of a brilliant galaxy of polemists who made the
forum largely responsible for the kaleidoscopic changes which affected
Bolivian politics during the first twenty-five or thirty years of the
republic.
Not less distinguished as an orator, and regarded by many of his
countrymen as entitled to the highest place among the statesmen and
diplomats of the republic, Don Rafael Bustillo belonged to the group
of leaders in politics who contributed to the strength and stability
of the government during the most trying period of its history. First
appointed minister in the cabinet of President Belzu, he was afterward
minister in the cabinets of Presidents Achá and Adolfo Ballivian, his
place in Ballivian’s cabinet being filled after his death, in 1873,
by Pantaleón Dalence, Bolivia’s most famous finance minister, who
was later made president of the Supreme Court. Rafael Bustillo was
not only an orator of remarkable talent, but a writer also, as were
many of the public men of his time. Don Lucas Mendoza de La Tapia,
also an orator, was, like Bustillo, a prominent participant in the
events of the troublous period preceding the government of President
Adolfo Ballivian; he was associated with the revolutionary movement
which finally overthrew President Melgarejo, and later he advocated
in Congress, with the eloquent oratory of which he was master, the
system of federal government for Bolivia. He was opposed by Evaristo
Valle, and the clash of these two brilliant wits made the sessions
particularly interesting. It would be impossible to indicate, among
many really gifted orators, those to whom the nation is most indebted
for political reforms. Eloquence is confined to no party or clique,
and in every administration there have been leaders, both in the
government and in the opposition, who have held their audiences in
thrall. Julio Mendez, Juan Crisostomo Carillo, Jorge Oblitas, Casimiro
Corral, Mariano Reyes Cardona, Antonio Quijarro, and others, through
the force of brilliant intellect and patriotic sentiment, have rendered
invaluable services to their country. Julio Mendez, not only as an
orator, but as a diplomat of superior talent and a skilful journalist,
has contributed to bring about notable political reforms.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DR. JOSÉ MARIA SANTIVÁÑEZ.]
Conspicuous among these fiery controversialists, but rather because of
the contrast which marked his style in debate, Don Mariano Baptista
has been compared to Castelar as an orator, brilliant, calm, and
persuasive. Beginning his career in the early fifties, he has lived
to see the development of a sound political system out of the warring
elements, which at one time threatened the stability of the republic.
A statesman and diplomat, he has served his country as a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, as senator, minister plenipotentiary, member of
the Cabinet, vice-president and president of the republic. A staunch
conservative in politics, he became the leader of his party and has
never wavered from the principles adopted at the outset of his career,
when, as the political supporter and faithful friend of the dictator
Linares, he accompanied his beloved chief into exile and closed his
eyes in the last sleep. One of the most distinguished figures among the
intellectual leaders of his country, he possesses rare gifts of mind
and heart, and is noted for decision of character and loyalty to his
principles. He has visited most of the countries of the Old and New
World, where he had an opportunity of studying society and politics
under all forms.
[Illustration: GENERAL DON ELIODORO CAMACHO.]
Don Nataniel Aguirre was one of the leading statesmen and orators of
his day, and quite the greatest historical novelist of Bolivia. He
was born in Cochabamba in 1843, and, like his father, Miguel Maria
de Aguirre, who was a famous political leader, he began his public
career at an early age. While still in his teens he took his degree in
the university and began the practice of law. Ten years later he was
elected a deputy to the national Congress, where he became a central
figure in the debates, his advanced ideas, enthusiasm, and eloquence
distinguishing him as a man of mark. He belonged to the federalist
party of which La Tapia was the chief, and which found its strongest
supporters in Cochabamba and La Paz. When the War of the Pacific began
he was called from the prefecture of Cochabamba to the ministry of war,
and he directed the organization of the army sent to repel the Chilean
invasion. He was president of the national convention of 1880, which
proclaimed the national constitution as it now stands. After a career
of extraordinary brilliancy, he died at the early age of forty-five,
while on his way to Brazil to represent his government at the imperial
court of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. As a writer, and particularly as a
novelist, Nataniel Aguirre ranks among the best, not only in Bolivia,
but throughout South America, and the celebrated Argentine statesman
and critic, Bartolomé Mitre wrote of his novel _Juan de la Rosa_, a
romance of the Independence, that it is “the most beautiful production
of talent and good taste in romance that South America can claim.”
It is remarkable that no copy of this novel can be found in the book
stores of Bolivia, so pronounced is the preference here as in all South
American countries for French literature before even the best Spanish
productions. The “prophet without honor in his own country” seems a
universal example of at least one shortcoming of humanity. Nataniel
Aguirre is the author of other charming books, chiefly histories and
historical novels, all of which are out of print, only a few copies
remaining in the possession of friends and literary admirers. One
feels tempted to make a severe criticism of this failure to popularize
the works of native authors; but it must be remembered that the best
North American writers received their first recognition in England, and
one of the most popular of English novels, _Trilby_, won fame for the
author in America before it was counted among the successes in London
book shops. Another temptation to criticism is excited by the fact that
although there are many able and entertaining writers on historical
subjects, no adequate history of Bolivia has yet been written. In
some cases the modesty of the author has forbidden him to claim even
as much honor for his work as it deserves; and excellent histories
of certain periods have been published as _Studies_, _Compendiums_,
_Essays_, and merely _Notes_. Apparently, however, few have been
able to write without strong prejudices. Nearly all the principal
historical works give evidence of marked talent for description. J. M.
Cortés, the author of an _Essay on the History of Bolivia_, and L. M.
Guzmán, author of an _Elementary History of Bolivia_, are among the
most important writers on general events. José Maria Camacho and José
Macedonio Urquidi have written school histories of considerable value.
The government is trying to stimulate ambition in this direction by
offering an important premium for the best history of Bolivia. Several
historical writers have devoted their attention to some particular
period and have produced biographical and political essays of real
merit.
Dr. José Maria Santiváñez, in common with most of the noted writers
of his country, was a politician and a diplomat, as well as a
historian of distinction. Born in 1815, he belonged to the “turbulent
period” of Bolivian politics. He was a deputy to Congress during the
administration of General José Ballivian and, later, during that of
President Córdova. President Linares appointed him Prefect of Sucre
and, later, Prefect of La Paz. Recognizing his gifts as a diplomatist,
President Linares soon afterward sent him as chargé d’affaires to
Chile, where he remained only until the downfall of Linares and the
election of General Achá to the presidency. He opposed the tyrannical
government of Melgarejo, and, being defeated, left the country, and
remained away two years. He was a candidate for the presidency at the
close of Tomás Frias’s term, and would have been elected but for the
revolution which gave its leader, General Daza, the opportunity to
seize the executive power. In the celebrated convention of 1880 he
was a leading participant, as the representative from Cochabamba. His
biographies of General José Ballivian and Don Adolfo Ballivian are
among the most important historical works of his time. He wrote also on
boundary questions, public instruction, finance, and other subjects. He
died in Cochabamba in 1898, aged eighty-three years.
Belisario Salinas, a contemporary of Dr. Santiváñez, and a candidate
at the same time for the presidency, is another brilliant statesman
who has contributed to the national literature. Although defeated by
Daza, he was vice-president, and acting president for a time, during
General Campero’s administration. The government of General Daza
allowed little freedom of opinion to writers, and two authors, Jenaro
Sanjinés and Nicolás Acosta, were imprisoned for ardently defending
municipal rights. Don Jenaro Sanjinés, a statesman of distinction,
like José Maria Santiváñez, has also written important biographies.
His most valuable works are _Notes on the History of Bolivia during
the Administration of General Agustin Morales_ and _Notes on
the History of Bolivia during the Administrations of Don Adolfo
Ballivian and Don Tomás Frias_. The Sanjinés family, of which
there are branches in Sucre, Cochabamba, and La Paz, is one of the
most gifted in Bolivia. Ignacio de Sanjinés wrote the words of the
national hymn during the administration of General Santa Cruz; General
Ildefonso Sanjinés was minister of war under President Morales, and
a leading politician; Saturnino Sanjinés, who died in Sucre in 1893,
was president of the Supreme Court of the republic, and a learned
writer on jurisprudence; Bernardo Sanjinés has written important
works on industrial development; Victor Sanjinés, postmaster-general,
and Abigail Sanjinés, eldest son of the historian, the Bolivian
consul-general in New York since May, 1906, are among the leading
politicians and journalists. The government of the dictator Linares
is the subject of an interesting biography by Antonio Quijarro, a
Potosino. Quijarro belonged to the period of the great Olañeta, with
whom he was associated in the publication of _El Siglo_, in
company with the poets Daniel Calvo and Ricardo Mujia, to whom Bolivia
owes many inspired verses; Ricardo Mujia is held by some critics as the
best Bolivian poet.
[Illustration: THE BEHEADING OF SAINT PAUL. AN OLD PAINTING
IN THE CATHEDRAL OF SUCRE.]
The city of Potosí has been the centre of numerous important political
events, from the time when the Vascongados and the Vicuñas fought their
battles there until the present day. A history of the city has been
written in charming style by J. L. Jaimes, who, as “Brocha Gorda,”
contributes to the best literary periodicals of South America. His work
on Potosí contains historical anecdotes, traditions, and legends of the
Imperial City, and is a valuable acquisition to the bibliography of
the country. Potosí furnishes a fertile field for romance and legend,
and many important writings of this character have been collected and
published by Modesto Omiste, of Potosí, himself a clever author.
With the title of _Cronicas Potosinas_, he has put into four
volumes the best stories of the Villa Imperial, written by South
Americans. Ricardo Palma, the Peruvian writer, the most celebrated of
Latin-Americans in this class of literature, contributes more than
a dozen traditions. Vicente G. Quesada, Nataniel Aguirre, Benjamin
and Fidel Rivas, Benjamin Blanco, Manuel J. Cortés, J. M. Camacho,
Julio César Valdez, “Brocha Gorda,” Luis Manzano, José David Berrios,
Pedro Calderón, Emilio Fernandez, Angel Diez de Medina, have written
gems for the collection. José Manuel Aponte, in addition to writing
several of the Potosí legends, has devoted his talent to historical
description, and published recently an interesting account of the Acre
revolution. Juan W. Chacon, a Potosino who knows his Cerro as the
Londoner knows his Strand, adds greatly to the value of the _Cronicas
Potosinas_, by numerous contributions, sentimental and satirical,
among them a clever commentary on feminine vanity and its punishment in
the tradition _Lo que puede una mujer_--“What a woman can do.” La
Paz, as well as Potosí, has been the subject of historical and romantic
essays and sketches, the best of these being the _Monografia de la
Ciudad de La Paz_, by Luis Crespo, who gives an entertaining history
of the chief events which have occurred in the city from the conquest
to the present day. Nicolás Acosta’s _Guide to La Paz_ is a useful
book of reference. Eufronio Viscarra is the author of an interesting
history of Cochabamba.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON JUAN CARILLO.]
The history of Sucre has been entertainingly and carefully written
by Dr. Valentin Abecia, the second vice-president of the republic,
with the title of _Historia de Chuquisaca_, under which it
first appeared in the bulletin of the Geographical Society of Sucre,
preparatory to publication in book form. It is a complete and authentic
history of the capital of the Audiencia of Charcas, and as such is
probably the most important historical work published on Bolivia in
recent years. Dr. Abecia is a leader in the intellectual progress of
his country, and has contributed to its advancement in science as well
as in literature and politics. He is a medical authority of the first
rank and has written important treatises on this subject; other noted
writers on medical science are Drs. Julio La Faye, Andrés Muñoz, Isaac
Aranibar, Cuellar, Quiroga, and Julio Rodriguez. The study of medical
science has been greatly stimulated within recent years, though it
shows less progress than might be expected. Dr. Rodriguez, who is now
senator for the department of Cochabamba, has been conspicuous not only
in medical but political circles for the past thirty years or more.
He was recently named minister plenipotentiary to Argentina, but was
obliged to return and resign his post on account of illness. He was
educated in the Medical College of Sucre, and has been professor of
pathology and a member of the University Council of Cochabamba for many
years.
A study of the biographies of Bolivia’s leading men in all branches
of learning reveals the fact that they have at some period of their
careers filled government positions. Politics may be regarded as the
great highway of intellectual progress, into which have thronged
poets, orators, journalists, historians, scientists, and lawyers, in
search of fame and fortune. Patriotism has been the keynote of poetry,
oratory, and journalism; the historian has written for his party
rather than for posterity; science has made slow progress chiefly
because it is not easily associated with party politics, except in an
impersonal way; though it is true that some of the best literature
of Bolivia is that which relates to the science of government. Law,
philosophy, and political economy have been treated by the best
scholars of Bolivia, and of these a few may be named who rank as high
in their profession as the best of their South American colleagues.
The late Don Samuel Oropeza, by whose recent death in Sucre the
nation lost one of her greatest jurists and most devoted patriots,
was the author of important works, of which _Studies of Modern
Science_ and _Political Economy_ are the best known. He wrote
also on _Bolivian Finances_ and a multitude of other subjects,
and possessed that rare gift of versatility which always affords a
wide range for the expression of intellectual genius. Federico Diez
de Medina has written a work, _International Law_, which the
best European critics commend; and Agustin Aspiazu is the author of
_Dogmas of International Law_, a production of considerable
importance, published in New York in 1872. José S. Quinteros, the
present minister of war, is one of the best writers on jurisprudence,
and his _Administrative Law_ is regarded as a work of great merit.
José Manuel Gutierrez, author and journalist, wrote _Public Law_.
Macario Pinilla, one of the foremost leaders of the government, and a
lawyer of distinguished talents, who has the honor to be a member of
the Royal Academy of Jurisprudence, of Madrid, is the author of several
works on jurisprudence. Angel Moscoso is the author of a dictionary
of jurisprudence; and Bautista Saavedra has published, among other
scientific books, an interesting study of criminology. Melchor Urquidi
writes on penal law, and Daniel Sanchez Bustamente, on _Principles
of Law_. Antonio Loaiza, Rafael Canedo, Luis Arce, and others have
contributed meritorious works on jurisprudence. Nearly all of the best
works on scientific subjects have been written within the past twenty
years, and the younger lawyers and politicians appear ambitious to
raise the standard of national literature pertaining to law.
The vital question of boundaries, which has been an insistent and
sometimes absorbing one in the history of Bolivia, has been the means
of calling out especial talent, not only among the country’s diplomatic
representatives, but among the writers as well. The “literature of
limits” is almost a complete library in itself, touching upon law,
history, geography, science, and a multitude of kindred subjects. It
serves as a valuable reference library for posterity. Some of the
most noted explorers have been the leading statesmen of the republic.
Ex-President General José Manuel Pando has written an extremely
entertaining and instructive description of his voyage to the rubber
region, and is the author of many works of interest on the geography
of the Territorio de Colonias, of which he is the present chief
authority. Manuel Vicente Ballivian, the minister of immigration and
agriculture, has written extensive reports of his journey to the Acre
region. Don Felix Avelino Aramayo, Bolivia’s most noted “captain of
industry,” and one of the leading diplomats, is the author of several
works on Bolivian industries. For six years Señor Aramayo represented
his country at the Court of Saint James, from 1897 to 1903, rendering
important services to his government during that period. Previously he
had been identified with politics as deputy to Congress; and in the
famous Congress of 1880, which was convened by President Campero to
reconstitute the Bolivian government in the face of the war with Chile,
he took an active part in framing the new constitution. While minister
in London, Señor Aramayo had on his staff as secretaries and attachés
the brilliant and promising young diplomats, Ignacio Gutierrez Ponce,
Chevalier of the Legion of Honor; Adolfo Ballivian, the son of the late
president; Pedro Suarez, a plucky explorer of the Amazon tributaries;
and Ramon Pando, the son of ex-President Pando. There is probably no
writer on industrial conditions in Bolivia who has contributed valuable
and comprehensive information in a more readable style.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DON AVELINO ARAMAYO.]
Federico Blanco has written a charming book, which gives the
biographies of the various naturalists and other explorers who have
visited the Amazon region. The Blanco family have been identified
with Bolivian literature, geography, and history from the time of
the Independence, contributing greatly to intellectual advancement.
Federico, Pedro, Benjamin, and Cleómedes will be held in honored
remembrance for their superior gifts. Among the native explorers who
have written on boundary questions, Francisco Iraizós is a recognized
authority, as well as Daniel Campos, who in 1883 led an expedition
to the Gran Chaco and founded colonies on the banks of the Paraguay
River. Ernesto O. Ruck, the author of a general guide to Bolivia, has
accumulated and compiled valuable material for general reference. Pedro
Kramer, a clever author and scientist who lost his life while exploring
the Amazon region, left the first volume of a work on _Industry in
Bolivia_, and the first volume of a history of Bolivia, which it
is lamented that he did not live to complete. Octavio Moscoso is the
author of a geography of Bolivia, and J. A. Palacios has given to
posterity a most entertaining description of explorations made sixty
years ago in the territory of the Beni, Mamoré, and Madeira Rivers.
The latest edition of his works contains also those of his grandson,
Abel Iturralde, with a scientific study of the waterways of northwest
Bolivia. Santiago Vaca-Guzmán, the author of many books on a variety of
subjects, writes also of the _Chaco Oriental_. Don José Aguirre
Achá, who accompanied General Pando on his expedition to the Acre,
is the author of a description of the journey in a book entitled
_From the Andes to the Amazon_. He is not only a rising young
politician, being _oficial mayor_ in the _ministerio_ of
government and promotion, and a prose writer of distinguished talent,
but is also a poet of great promise, inheriting the versatile genius
of his father, the immortal Nataniel Aguirre. Nearly all Bolivian
writers have contributed verse to the national literature, and have
also been identified with political life. That politics and letters go
nearly always hand in hand is not to be wondered at in a country of
limited population, with only a small leisure class to encourage the
development of purely intellectual talent. The pursuit of literature,
even in the more remunerative highways, is a precarious career, unless
supported by ample fortune or an assured income from some other source.
This is true not only of Bolivia, but, more or less, of all countries.
[Illustration: PAINTING PRESENTED BY CARLOS IV. OF SPAIN TO
THE MINT OF POTOSÍ.]
Journalism has been, and still is, a popular stepping-stone to young
politicians, and the most brilliant statesmen and diplomats of Bolivia
have, with few exceptions, been connected with newspaper work at some
period of their career. The Bolivian newspaper is still a political
organ rather than a purveyor of news, in this respect resembling the
majority of South American journals. On the other hand, it is free
from the abhorrent features of a press over zealous to give to the
public the minute details of every occurrence in society, however
loathsome they may be. On the whole, the Bolivian newspaper with its
brief paragraphs of cable news, its more or less limited account of the
day’s events at home, and its predominating political features, with,
perhaps, a poem or two to give it literary flavor, is to be preferred
by the normal mind to the sensational columns, glaring headlines,
inartistic and altogether absurd illustrations, and bulky advertising
pages of the extreme type of metropolitan dailies in North America.
Although the printing press was prohibited in the colonies during
Spanish rule, except for the use of the Church in promoting Christian
propaganda, the patriots succeeded in establishing a periodical during
the War of the Independence, _El Telégrafo_ being founded in 1822. The
first daily paper published in the republic was _La Epoca_, of La Paz,
which was founded soon after the war, and counted among its editors at
one time the brilliant Argentine writer Bartolomé Mitre. During the
administration of General José Ballivian it was edited by A. Quintela,
Domingo Oro, and Mitre. Later, the famous journalist and diplomat Felix
Reyes Ortiz took the editorial management. This gifted writer was the
founder and editor of at least half a dozen newspapers, among others,
_El Constitucional_, _La Voz de Bolivia_, _El Consejero del Pueblo_,
and a humorous journal, _El Padre Cobo_. He edited _La Reforma_, of
La Paz, and was president of the Circulo Literario, a society founded
in La Paz for the promotion of literature. The leading writers of
Sucre had also their literary society, called La Colmena, meaning “the
beehive,” to which the poets and journalists of the day belonged. It
was organized in the house of the poet Mariano Ramallo, and counted
among its members the most prominent men of the capital. The literary
organ of the society was named _La Colmena de Sucre_, in which the
best prose and poetry was published and reviewed. Among the earliest
periodicals of Bolivia was _La Estrella_, of Sucre, founded during the
first years of the republic, and edited for a long time by Don Domingo
Delgadillo, who began his public career during the administration
of President Sucre, and was a member of President José Ballivian’s
Cabinet, in company with Don Tomás Frias, Don Basilio Cuellar, General
Perez de Urdininea, all prominent in the politics of that time. _El
Siglo_ was the name of another periodical of Sucre, founded in the
early fifties, and in 1863 _La Aurora Literaria_ was added to the
list of Sucre’s literary journals. Don Jorge Delgadillo founded the
last-named journal, and associated with him in its publication were
Don Belisario Loza Santa Cruz, afterward editor of _La Estrella_,
Don Mariano Ramallo, the poet, and Don Luis Pablo Rosquellas, one of
the brilliant writers, who was also a statesman of distinction as
minister of the Supreme Court of the republic. Jorge Delgadillo was
the founder of _La Juventud_, _La Abeja_, and _La Floresta_. In 1857
the _Boletin Republicano_ was founded by Don Daniel Calvo to support
the government of the dictator Linares. Daniel Calvo has been called
the Lamartine of his country. He was not only a poet and journalist,
but a clever statesman, having been a minister in the Cabinet of
President Adolfo Ballivian and his successor, Tomás Frias, a deputy to
several Congresses, a leader in the national convention of 1880. He
was the author of a beautiful legend in verse, _Ana Dorset_, and of
many graceful sonnets. Another poet, Dr. Luis Zalles, president of the
Superior Court of La Paz, was the founder of several periodicals, and
is greatly esteemed as a writer of both prose and verse.
_La Revista_ and _La Razon_, of Cochabamba, were among the best
periodicals of the day, twenty years ago. Nataniel Aguirre and other
leading writers contributed to their columns. General Camacho founded
_El Cazador_ in the same city. _El Heraldo_, of Cochabamba, founded
in 1877 by Don Juan Francisco Velarde, is still published by him, and
has a general circulation in the department. The founder and editor
is one of the best-known journalists of Bolivia. A native of Santa
Cruz de la Sierra, he has occupied important posts in the service of
his country at home and abroad. He was minister of foreign affairs in
President Pacheco’s Cabinet, and minister to Brazil during President
Arce’s government. He has been to the United States several times in a
diplomatic capacity. _El Tiempo_, of Potosí, founded by Modesto Omiste
some years ago, is still in existence, though most of the newspapers
and periodicals named in the preceding list have given place to others.
_El Cruzado_, the Church paper, which was founded many years ago by Dr.
Miguel Taborga, and edited by him until his death, is among the few
which have survived and increased in circulation and prestige.
The history of Bolivian literature was written some years ago by
Santiago Vaca-Guzmán, one of Bolivia’s best poets and novelists; but
like so many other literary productions of Bolivian authors, the
book is out of print, and not a copy is to be had, unless, by rare
chance, some friend of the author may have preserved one. The greatest
difficulty is experienced in Bolivia in securing copies of even the
best books, as only very limited editions have been printed, and these
seem to have vanished in an amazing manner; it is true that books are
published at the author’s expense, and few authors care to assume the
responsibility of disposing of a large stock.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DR. JULIO RODRIGUEZ.]
New literary societies have succeeded La Colmena, and its journal
no longer exists. Sucre now has a Centro Literario and an excellent
literary review, _Vida Nueva_, printed in colors and handsomely
illustrated, which is one of the most creditable productions of
periodical literature in South America. It is edited by a group of
young poets who have contributed gems of prose and verse to the
national literature. Adolfo Guardia Berdecio, Armando D. Alvarez,
Claudio Peñaranda, and José A. de Jáuregui are the editors, and among
the contributors are writers of note from all parts of the republic.
Chief of these is the poet Tomás O’Connor d’Arlach, senator from
Tarija, who himself founded and edited at least two periodicals; one
of them, _La Estrella de Tarija_, is still in existence, though
the other, _El Independiente_, of Sucre, suspended publication
some years ago. He has been a contributor to the literature of his
country for thirty years or more, during which he has written history,
biography, and poetry with prolific pen. His style is graceful, though
his poetic composition is delicate rather than vigorous, and is
suggestive, in its sadness, of “the throne where sorrow sits.”
_Vida Nueva_ is distinctly a modern periodical, and the outlook
is bright for its permanent success. Prominent among the collaborators
is Mariano Enrique Calvo, regarded by many as the best prose writer of
Bolivia. Julio Zamora, deputy from Chuquisaca to the national Congress,
who is also one of the principal collaborators, has written articles
for the best periodicals during the past ten years, and, though a
young man, has made his influence felt in literary circles as well
as in politics. _El Eco Moderno_, _La Revista de Bolivia_,
_La Nacion_, and other journals have published essays and poems
from his pen. Angel Diez de Medina, Andrés Torrico, Jorge Mendieta,
Benjamin Guzmán, C. Guillermo Loaiza, Réné Calvo Arana, José Raña,
Alfredo Jáuregui Rosquellas, Juan Manuel Sainz, and the editors of
_Vida Nueva_, previously mentioned, are among the nation’s writers
of prose and poetry. There are more than fifty writers of verse in
Bolivia, of whose genius a Spanish critic says: “Generally, the
Bolivian muse is incorrect; but she has inspiration and brilliancy, and
is sincerely impassioned.” The most recent novel of note written by a
Bolivian author is _Vida Criolla_, by Alcides Arguedas.
The oldest newspaper now published in La Paz is _El Comercio_, though
there are, in all, twenty-five periodicals issued regularly in that
city, the principal dailies being _El Comercio_, _El Comercio de
Bolivia_, _El Diario_, and _El Estado_. As La Paz is the centre of
political interest, being the seat of government, journalism is even
more flavored with politics here than elsewhere, and the leading
journalists are frequently politicians. Dr. Luis Salinas Vega, a
familiar figure in social and political circles, was the founder of _El
Comercio de Bolivia_, and may be regarded as the Nestor of the Bolivian
press. Don Alfredo Ascarrunz, editor of _El Comercio_, is a diplomatist
and an orator of distinguished ability. Don Carlos Villegas, editor of
_El Comercio de Bolivia_, and Don Abel Alarcon, editor of _El Diario_
and director of the National Library, are prominent in public affairs.
The Circulo Literario no longer exists, and _La Revista_, which ten
years ago was the flourishing organ of the Centro de Estudios, under
the editorial management of Don Hiram Loaiza and Don Juan Mas, has
been suspended; but a clever little _bibelot_ is published, called
_Tentativas_, which keeps alive literary sentiment in the City of
Peace. Oruro has two daily papers, _El Tribuno_ and _La Tarde_;
Cochabamba has several, _El Dia_, edited by Don Bráulio Pinto, being
one of the most important; _La Capital_, _La Industria_ and _La Mañana_
are the chief dailies of Sucre; _El Tiempo_ of Potosí, _La Ley_ of
Santa Cruz, and _La Estrella_ of Tarija, complete the list.
[Illustration: SEÑOR DR. ANDRÉS MUÑOZ.]
The literature of Bolivia has had among its exponents more than one
authoress and poetess, the most famous writer of the _bello sexo_
having been Doña Maria Josefa Mujía, the blind poetess, who, in
addition to original poems, made excellent translations of Victor Hugo
and Lamartine. Doña Mercedes Belzu de Dorado, daughter of President
Belzu, Doña Modesta Sanjinés, and Señorita Adela Zamudio have also
written gems in both prose and verse. Señorita Zamudio, whose pseudonym
is “Soledad,” has not only produced exquisite poetry, but she has
painted very beautiful pictures, and may be considered one of Bolivia’s
best artists.
[Illustration: INDIANS OF POTOSÍ. A PAINTING BY THE BOLIVIAN
ARTIST, DON ANICETO VALDEZ.]
The history of art in Bolivia is brief, but not without interest.
During colonial times, when the capital of the Audiencia of Charcas was
one of the principal centres of Spanish culture in the New World, it
was not unusual for the wealthy residents of Chuquisaca and Potosí to
possess paintings by the best masters of Europe. A few of these rare
productions have been kept by families of the capital for generations,
though the greater number have been disposed of. Some curious specimens
of art of the Flemish school adorn the walls of several old public
buildings; and in the mint of Potosí is a collection of paintings,
presented to the Imperial City by the Emperor Charles IV. of Spain, and
said to have been painted by Velasquez. In the cathedral of Sucre hangs
_The Vision of San Cayetano_, an oil painting on copper, which was
brought over from Spain by one of the bishops of Charcas and presented
to the cathedral. It is well preserved, and one of the best art critics
of New York has judged it to be a work of great value. _The Beheading
of Saint Paul_ is the subject of another painting, also on copper,
signed “Wolfaert,” which is wonderfully preserved. Five beautiful old
paintings hang in the church of Santa Teresa, of Cochabamba.
Sucre and Cochabamba have, perhaps, given to Bolivia her best artists.
Don Avelino Nogales, who was born in Sucre in 1871, is one of the
greatest painters of Bolivia. He studied art in Buenos Aires, and early
showed signs of a remarkable gift in portrait painting, in which he
excels. A full-length portrait of ex-President Baptista is among his
most successful works. José García Mesa, of Cochabamba, is probably
the best known of Bolivian artists, and by his death, a year ago,
the nation lost one of its most gifted sons. His life was devoted to
studying and teaching his beloved art. His initial attempts were
exhibited in Sucre and Buenos Aires, and later he went to Europe.
At Rome he succeeded in gaining an honorable place among the best
artists, and two of his paintings, _La Ciociarra_ and _Los
Pescadores en el Tiber_, were hung in the Salon. The last-named was
awarded Honorable Mention, and the artist was elected to membership
in the International Artistic Association of Rome. He had the honor,
while at Rome, of painting a portrait of Queen Margharita; and one
of his paintings, a Saint Louis, was hung in the church of Yassy,
after receiving the blessing of Pope Leo XIII. In 1885 he went to
Paris and devoted his talent to portrait painting, in which lay his
forte. His portrait of President Schenk, of Switzerland, now hangs
in the Legislative Hall of Berne. He painted portraits of several
distinguished Europeans, achieving considerable success in his chosen
field. Returning to Bolivia, he founded an academy of painting in
the capital, under the protection of the government, but later he
transferred it to Cochabamba, where it was established under favorable
auspices, and was maintained until his death. He is the author of
two historical paintings, _Murillo on the Gallows_ and _The
Martyrdom of San Sebastian_.
Among the artists who have recently achieved distinction are Aniceto
Valdez, author of _Indians of Potosí_ and other paintings of
note, Carlos Berdecio, Saturnino Salamanca, Porcel, Sainz, Teodomiro
Beltrán, and David García. The pupils of José García Mesa have, with
few exceptions, done excellent work, Señorita Zamudio being one of
the most talented of his class. Doña Eliza Rocha de Ballivian, who
studied in Santiago, Chile, has produced several paintings of merit;
and Don José Alvarez, caricaturist, Don Zenón Iturralde, Felix Jordan,
Diego Carpio, Cristóbal García, Pompilio Barberí, and Tomás Morales
have shown artistic talent of a high order. Sucre is the home of a
most extraordinary genius in the person of an Indian, who, with no
instruction whatever, has proved himself an excellent amateur sculptor,
and whose statues adorn many private gardens and some of the public
parks of the capital.
In music the Bolivian has shown the possession of much natural
talent, though little instruction has been afforded, owing to the
remote situation of the country and its limited relations with the
great musical centres of the world. There are several musicians and
composers of note, though the soul of the nation seems to find its
best expression in oratory and poetry, influenced, as Mantegazza says,
by “the grandeur of nature around, the sublime spectacle of which
exercises immense power over heart and brain, stimulating the culture
of philosophy and poetry.” Bolivia has produced talent of widely
varying character, but the opportunity for development, especially
in the study of art and music, has been restricted. The late Samuel
Oropeza, when minister of public instruction, presented to Congress a
plan for the establishment of an academy of music and the pensioning
of Bolivian students of art and music to enable them to pursue their
studies in the best schools of Europe; and the disposition is marked,
on the part of the present government, to encourage talent in every
field by the most judicious method. Of the composers who have dedicated
their genius to music, Don Teofilo Vargas has achieved the greatest
fame. His first successful composition was a brilliant waltz, in
two parts, called the _Proceso Sejas_, which was written to
commemorate a _cause célèbre_. It was published in Paris in
1890. A funeral march, written for the occasion of the obsequies of
Bishop Granado, of Cochabamba, and published in 1902, is regarded as
one of the author’s best compositions. _Suspiros_, a mazurka
published in Buenos Aires in 1902, and numerous other recent pieces,
are very popular. He has composed religious music also, and is an
expert violinist, interpreting the masters with great sympathy and
intuition. Among other musicians of note are several who have also
achieved success in politics and diplomacy, and who belong to the
best-known families of the republic. Adolfo Ballivian is the author
of _Rosy Dreams_. Graceful compositions have been written by
Eloy Salmón, Eduardo and Daniel Nuñez del Prado, José Bravo, Manuel
Luna, and Francisco Suárez, author of the waltzes _Forests of the
Beni_, _Glories of the Acre_, and other veritable gems. In
patriotic music, the _Viva Bolivia!_ written by Samuel Arce, and
_Combat and Victory_, a military march by Francisco J. Molina,
are among the best. Eduardo Berdecio is the author of the popular
waltz _Potosí_, which is in great vogue, and he also wrote _Tus
Ojos_,--“Thine Eyes,”--a very pretty waltz. José Lavadenz, Ercilia
Fernandez, Juan J. Arana, Pedro Butrón, Dorado Belzu, Zenón Espinoza,
G. Matienzo, and E. Ortega are young musicians with a promising future.
The intellectual progress of Bolivia has made most rapid strides within
a very few years. There is much intellectual talent in the nation, and
its expression needs only the encouragement which an interchange of
thought and closer association with the outside world can give. Bolivia
may yet produce Shakespeares, Michael Angelos, and Mozarts.
[Illustration: SEÑORITA ADELA ZAMUDIO, “SOLEDAD.”]
[Illustration: VIEW OF SUCRE FROM THE SUBURBS.]