CANOES AND YACHTS
To speak of canoes is to recall the name of John Macgregor, M.A., the
author of those delightful books _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe
on Rivers and Lakes of Europe_; _The Rob Roy on the Baltic_; _The
Voyage Alone in the Yawl Rob Roy_, and other interesting works. When
the first of these was issued other people built canoes, the Canoe Club
was formed with the then Prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward the
Seventh, as Commodore. Macgregor was enthusiastic about canoes. When
he contemplated his voyage of a thousand miles he concluded that "no
row-boat would serve on a land-water voyage of this sort, for in the
wildest parts of the best rivers the channel is too narrow for oars,
or, if wide enough, it is often too shallow; and the tortuous passages,
the rocks and banks, the weeds and snags, the milldams, barriers,
fallen trees, rapids, whirlpools, and waterfalls that constantly occur
on a river winding among hills, make those very parts where the scenery
is wildest and best to be quite unapproachable in such a boat, for it
would be swamped by the sharp waves, or upset over the sunken rocks,
which cannot be seen by a steersman.
"Now these very things which bother the 'pair oar,' become cheery
excitements to the voyager in a canoe. For now, as he sits in his
little bark, he looks forward, and not backward. He sees all his
course, and the scenery besides. With one sweep of his paddle he can
turn aside when only a foot from destruction. He can steer within an
inch in a narrow place, and can easily pass through reeds and weeds
or branches and grass; can work his sail without changing his seat;
can shove with his paddle when aground, and can jump out in good time
to prevent a bad smash. He can wade and haul his craft over shallows,
or drag it on dry ground, through fields and hedges, over dykes,
barriers, and walls; can carry it by hand up ladders and stairs, and
can transport his canoe over high mountains and broad plains in a cart
drawn by a man, a horse, or a cow.
"Besides all this, the covered canoe is far stronger than an open boat,
and may be fearlessly dropped into a deep pool, a lock, or a millrace,
and when the breakers are high in the open sea or in river rapids, they
can only wash over the deck of a canoe, while it is always dry within.
"The canoe is also safer than a rowing-boat, because you sit so low in
it, and never require to shift your place or lose hold of the paddle;
while for comfort during long hours, for days and weeks of hard work,
the canoe is evidently the best, because you lean all the time against
a swinging backboard, and when the paddle rests on your lap you are at
ease as in an arm-chair; so that, while drifting along with the current
or the wind, you can gaze around, and eat or read, or sketch, or chat
with the starers on the bank, and yet, in a moment of sudden alarm, the
hands are at once on the faithful paddle ready for action.
"Finally, you can lie at full length in the canoe, with a sail as an
awning for the sun, or a shelter for rain, and you can sleep at night
under its cover, or inside it when made for that purpose, with at least
as much room for turning in your bed as sufficed for the great Duke
of Wellington; or, if you are tired of the water for a time, you can
leave your boat at an inn--where it will not be 'eating its head off,'
like a horse; or you can send it home, or sell it, and take to the road
yourself, or sink back again into the lazy cushions of a first-class
carriage, and dream you are seeing the world.
"But it may well be asked from one who thus praises the paddle, 'Has he
travelled in other ways, so as to know their several pleasures? Has he
climbed glaciers and volcanoes, dived into caves and catacombs, trotted
in the Norway carriole, ambled on an Arab, and galloped on the Russian
steppes? Does he know the charms of a Nile boat, or a Trinity Eight,
or a Yankee steamer, or a sail in the Ægean, or a mule in Spain? Has
he swung upon a camel, or glided in a sleigh, or sailed a yacht, or
trundled in a Rantoone?'
"Yes, he has thoroughly enjoyed these and other modes of locomotion,
fast and slow. And now having used the canoe in Europe, Asia, Africa,
and America, he finds the pleasure of the paddle is the best of them
all.
"The Rob Roy Canoe was built of oak, with a deck of cedar. She was
made just short enough to go into the German railway waggons; that is
to say, fifteen feet in length, twenty-eight inches broad, nine inches
wide, and weighed eighty pounds. My baggage for three months was in
a black bag one foot square and six inches deep. A paddle seven feet
long, with a blade at each end, and a lug-sail and jib, were the means
of propulsion; and a pretty blue silk Union Jack was the only ornament."
After the cruise the author had a better canoe constructed, shorter,
and narrower (but with the same name), and in her he voyaged through
Sweden, Norway and Denmark, Holstein, and some German waters. The
account of this voyage is given in _The Rob Roy on the Baltic_, 5th
Edition (Low and Marston). The later improvements of the canoe are
described in that book, with woodcuts. The full description of a third
canoe for sleeping in during a six months' voyage is given in _The
Rob Roy on the Jordan, Nile, Red Sea, and Gennesareth, a canoe cruise
in Palestine and Egypt and the waters of Damascus_, 6th Edition, with
eighty illustrations and maps (Murray). A fourth canoe was used in the
Zuyder Zee and among the isles of Holland and the Friesland coast; and
the latest Rob Roy (Number 7) ran through the Shetland Isles and the
Orkneys, and Scotch lakes.
$The Building Of the Rob Roy.$--John Macgregor has told us that among
the many who are building canoes, there may be some persons who have
undue expectations as to what such boats can do. Now, the three kinds
of canoes, for racing, for sailing, and for travelling, are quite
distinct in their forms and capabilities.
A long, narrow, light racing-canoe, with a long, spooned paddle, will
attain great speed.
A sailing-canoe with flat bearing, and some keel, will sail off the
wind admirably.
The "travelling-canoe" has to sail, to paddle, and to bear portage and
rough handling.
The endeavour to combine these three qualities in suitable proportions,
without sacrificing more of any of them than can be well dispensed
with, has led to the building of the canoe now to be described; and the
new Rob Roy has been a great success.
The old Rob Roy canoe, which made a voyage through France, Germany,
&c., was specially built for the purpose; and it is described in
the book which gives an account of that journey. A more detailed
description was given in the Transactions of the Institute of Naval
Architects, but the numerous improvements suggested during that voyage,
and in careful experiments afterwards, were embodied in the new Rob
Roy, so that this novel, inexpensive, and healthful mode of travelling
might be facilitated.
The Rob Roy was designed to sail steadily, to paddle easily, to float
lightly, to turn readily, and to bear rough usage on stones and banks,
and in carts, railways, and steamers; to be durable and dry, as well
as comfortable and safe. To secure these objects every plank and
timber was carefully considered beforehand, as to its size, shape, and
material, and the result has been most successful.
In the efforts to obtain a suitable canoe for this purpose ready
made, it was soon found that boat-builders might be proficient at
the cabinet-makers' work of their calling, without any knowledge of
the principles required for a new design, especially when sailing,
paddling, and carrying had to be provided for at once, and the
requirements for each were not understood, except by those who had
personally observed them, and had known how to work the paddle as well
as the saw and the plane.
A canoe ought to fit a man like a coat; and to secure this the measure
of the man should be taken for his canoe. The first regulating standard
is the length of the man's foot, which will determine the height of the
canoe from keel to deck; next, the length of his leg, which governs
the size of the "well;" and then the weight of the crew and luggage,
which regulates the displacement to be provided for. The following
description is for a canoe to be used by a man 6 feet high, 12 stone
weight, and with boots 1 foot long in the sole.
The Rob Roy is built of the best oak, except the top streak of
mahogany, and the deck of fine cedar. The weight, without fittings,
is 60 lb., and with all complete, 71 lb. Lightness is not of so much
consequence in this case as good line, for a light boat if crank, will
tire the canoeist far more in a week's cruise than would a heavier but
stiff craft, which does not strain his body at every moment to keep her
poised under the alternate strokes of the paddle or the sudden pressure
of a squall on the sail.
[Illustration: Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 6, Fig. 5, Fig. 10, Fig. 11 _Scale
of Figs 1 & 2. 1/4 of an inch to the foot._]
The illustration on page 89 represents, on a scale a quarter of an
inch to the foot, Fig. 1, a section, with masts and sails; Fig. 2 a
bird's-eye view of the deck. The woodcuts at pages 91, 93 represent,
on a scale of an inch to the foot, Figs. 3 and 4, cross sections at
the beam and at the stretcher; Figs 9, 10, and 11, the backboard and
the apron; the rest of the drawings showing particular portions more
minutely. The principal dimensions are:--Length over all, A S, 14
feet; from stem to beam, B, 7 feet 6 inches; beam, outside (6 inches
abaft midships), 26 inches; depth from top of deck at C, fore end of
the well, to upper surface of keel, 11 inches; keel, depth, outside,
1 inch, with an iron band along its whole length, 3/8 inch wide;
camber, 1 inch; depth at gunwale, 8-1/2 inches. The upper streak is of
mahogany, and quite vertical at the beam, where its depth is 3 inches.
The garboard streaks, and the next on each side are strong, while the
next two on each side are light, as it is found that they are less
exposed than the others, particularly in a canoe where all these lower
streaks are of oak. The stem and stern posts project over deck, the
canoe, if turned over, will rest on the upper edge of the combing,
round the well, 1/8 inch deep, projecting 1/2 inch, of steamed oak,
curved at the corners, and adding, by its angular position, very much
to the strength of the deck about the well. The well is 32 inches from
C to D, and 20 inches from E to F, so placed that D M is 2 feet, and
thus the beam of the boat being aft of the midships the weight of the
luggage G, and of the masts and sails stowed forward, brings the boat
to nearly an even keel. The additional basket of cooking-things at I
(Fig. 2) brings her a little by the stern. For a boat without luggage
the beam should be 1 foot abaft midships to secure an even keel.
[Illustration: FIG. 3, FIG. 5, FIG. 4, FIG. 6]
The deck is supported on four carlines forward and three aft, the
latter portion being thus more strengthened, because, in some cases, it
is required to support the weight of the canoeist sitting on the deck
with his legs in the water. Each carline has a piece cut out of its end
(see Fig. 6), so that the water inside may run along to the beam when
the canoe is canted to sponge it out. The after edge of the carline at
C is bevelled off (Fig. 5 in section), so as not to catch the shins of
your legs. All the carlines are narrow and deep, to economize strength,
and the deck is screwed to them with brass screws, so that it might be
removed for internal repairs. A flat piece is inserted under the deck
at the mast-hole H, which is also furnished with a flanged brass ring.
The deck is so arched as to enable the feet to rest comfortably on the
broad stretcher J (Fig. 4), the centre of it being cut down in a curve
in order that the mast and sails, rolled together, may rest there when
there is no luggage, and be kept under the deck, but above any wet on
the floor. When there is luggage (as in this voyage) I usually put the
mast and sails under the after deck. The cedar deck round the well at E
F is firmly secured by knee-pieces, and the boat may thus be lifted up
_by any part_, and may be sat upon _in any position_, without injury.
The luggage for three months, weighing 9-1/2 lbs., is carried in a
black leather-cloth bag, 1 foot by 1 foot by 5 inches deep (G, Figs. 1
and 2).
A water-tight compartment may be made by an after bulkhead, with a lid
to open, so as to allow the air to circulate when on shore.
The floor-boards, about 2 feet long, rest on the timbers until, at
the part below C (Fig. 2), they end at P P (Fig. 7), in notched
grooves, which fit into short oak pieces M N, 1/4 inch thick, sloping
forwards on each side of the keel O. Their ends rest on the garboard
streaks, and so lower the heels nearly 1 inch below the level of
the floor-board on the top of the timbers. The canoeist sits on the
floor-boards, I prefer this to any cushion or mat whatever; but if
a mat or cushion be used, it should be firmly fixed, especially in
rough water. The canoeist's knees touch the combing and the apron
boards, while his heels touch the keel. Thus the dotted lines in
Fig. 1, from the stretcher to the deck, show how the shin-bones are
supported in comfort, enabling the paddler to sit for hours together
without straining. But comfort is additionally secured by my new
kind of backboard, shown in Figs. 8 and 9, in section and elevation.
This consists of two strips of oak, 18 inches long, 2-1/2 inches
wide, and united by a cross piece at Y, and another at X, the latter
being grooved (Fig. 8) so as to rest on the top of the combing, and
to oscillate with the movement of the canoeist's back, which is thus
supported on both sides along the muscles, while the spine is untouched
between the strips. The dotted line U (Fig. 8) is a strong cord passed
round all (through a hole in the deck or two eyes), and this serves to
keep the backboard in general upright, while it is free to vibrate,
or, when on shore, to be closed down flat on deck or to be removed
entirely in a moment by unloosing the cord. The use of this backboard
is a leading feature of the canoe, and adds very much indeed to the
canoeist's comfort, and, therefore, to his efficiency. The length
and width of the oaken strips, and the width of the interval between
them, ought to be carefully adjusted to the size and "build" of the
canoeist, just as a saddle ought to fit a horse and its rider too.
The paddle is 7 feet long, flat-bladed, with a breadth of 6 inches in
each palm, which is copper-banded, and made of the best spruce fir, the
weight being little over 2 lbs. The spoon-shaped blade is better for
speed, and a longer paddle is suitable for a racing-boat, but for a
travelling canoe, where long paddling, occasional sailing, and frequent
"shoving," require the instrument to combine lightness, straight edge,
handiness, and strength, it is found that a short paddle is best for
the varied work of a protracted voyage. Leather cups have been usually
employed on the wrists of the paddle to catch the dripping water, but
round india-rubber rings look much better and answer every purpose, if
placed just above the points where the paddle dips into the water in
an ordinary stroke. These rings may be had for twopence, and can be
slipped on over the broad blade. If necessary, two are used on each
side, and they bear rough usage well, while if they strike the cedar
deck, no injury is done to it.
[Illustration: FIG. 14, FIG. 9, FIG. 8, FIG. 7, FIG. 11, FIG. 10]
After numerous experiments, the following very simple plan has been
devised for a waterproof apron, and its application at once removes
one of the chief objections to canoes in rough water, as heretofore
constructed. It is necessary to have a covering for the well which
shall effectually exclude the water, and yet be so attached as not to
hamper the canoeist in case of an upset, or when he desires to get
out of the boat in a more legitimate manner. These desiderata are
completely secured by the new apron, which is not permanently attached
in any manner to the boat, but is formed as follows:-A piece of light
wood, of the form in Fig. 10, 2 feet long and 3 inches deep at the
deepest part, is placed along each side of the deck vertically, so as
just to rest against the outside of each knee of the canoeist, and then
a piece of macintosh cloth (drab colour is best) is tightly nailed
along and over these, so as to form an apron, supported at each side
on Z (Fig. 11), and sloping from the highest part forwards down to the
deck in front of the combing, over which its edge projects 1 inch, and
then lies flat. The other or after end is so cut and formed as to fit
the body neatly, and the ends may be tucked in behind, or, when the
waves are very rough, they should be secured _outside_ the backboard
by a string with a knot. When this apron is so applied, and the knees
are in position, their pressure keeps the whole apron steady, and the
splash of small waves is not enough to move it. In rough water I place
a string across the end and round two screw nails on the deck; or an
india-rubber cord run through the hemmed end, but best of all is a
strip of wood bent across the deck with its ends under two screws or
chocks.
A button-hole at the highest point of the apron allows it to be
supported on the waistcoat. When you have to get out on shore, or when
sailing, it is usually best to stow the apron away, so that the legs
may be turned into any desired position of ease. The apron I used in
this tour had been perfectly fitted by myself to me and the boat.
Several others, a little like it (very little!), roughly made for other
canoes, have, as might be expected, failed to give satisfaction.
One important advantage of a canoe is the capacity for sailing without
altering the canoeist's seat; and we shall now describe the mast and
sails found by experience to be most convenient, after three masts had
been broken and eight sets of sails had more or less failed. The mast
is 1-3/4 inches thick (tapering), and 5 feet 6 inches long, of which
the part above deck is 4 feet 9 inches. The lug-sail K (Fig. 1), has
a yard and a boom, each 4 feet 9 inches long, so that when furled the
end of the boom and mast come together. The fore-leach is 2 feet long,
and the after-leach 6 feet 6 inches, giving an area of about 15 square
feet. The yard and boom are of bamboo, and the yard passes into a broad
hem on the sail-head, while the halyard is rove aloft through a small
boxwood block 3/4 inch long, and with a brass sheave, and through
another (a brass blind pulley) well fastened on the side of the mast
near the deck, so that the sail can be lowered and hoisted readily. The
lower joint of a fishing-rod, 4 feet 9 inches long, is a spare boom.
The tack end of the boom is made fast to the mast by a flat piece of
leather, lashed to its upper part and to the mast, and so as to be free
to swing in every direction; after many other plans had failed this was
quite successful, and lasted through the whole voyage. No hole is made
in the mast, and no nail or screw driven into it, for these are causes
of weakness. Two cord loops, about 6 inches apart, near the mast-head,
support the flagstaff, of bamboo-cane 2 feet long, and with a silk
flag 7 inches by 9 inches. When the mast is not used this flagstaff
is detached and placed in the mast-hole, which it fits by a button 2
inches wide, permanently fixed on the staff, the lower end of which
rests in the mast-step. The halyard and sheet should be of woven cord,
which does not untwist, and is soft to handle in the wet. The sheet
when not in hand may be belayed round a cleat on deck on either side
of the apron, where it is highest, and thus these cleats are protected
from the paddle.
For the sake of convenience the mast is stepped so far forward as to
allow the boom to swing past the canoeist's breast when the sail is
jibbed or brought over. This also allows the luggage-bag to be between
the stretcher and the mast. Thus the mast-hole H is at 3 feet 6 inches
distance from the stem. The mast-step is a simple wedge-like piece
of oak (see R, Fig. 14), made fast to the keel, and abutting on the
garboard streak on each side, with a square hole in it for the foot
of the mast. It may be thought that the mast is thus stepped too far
forward, but the importance of having the sail free to swing, without
lying against the canoeist's body, or getting entangled with his
paddle, which is used in steering, is so great, that some sacrifice
must be made to secure this point. However, it is found that the boat
sails very well on a wind with this sail, if the breeze is strong;
and in light breezes it is only expedient to sail with the wind well
aft, when the jib can also be used. A canoe must have a strong, light,
flexible painter, suitable for constant use, because a great deal has
to be done by its means in towing on dull water, guiding the boat while
wading down shallows or beside falls, lowering into lochs, hauling
her over hedges, walls, locks, banks, and even houses; and raising or
lowering her (with luggage in) to and from steamboats. The "Alpine
Club" rope, used in the new Rob Roy, was found to be hard and "kinky"
when wet, and the softer rope used in the old Rob Roy was far better.
Another kind of brown-tanned rope has been recommended. The painter
should not be longer than twice the length of the boat. Each end is
whipped with wax-end, which sort of fine twine is also invaluable for
all the other fastenings, as it never slips. The painter passes through
a hole in the stem, and another in the stern-post, and is drawn tight
to lie on deck in the lines AY and SY, Fig. 2; the slack of about four
feet is belayed round the windward cleat and coiled outside, so that
it may be seized instantly when you go ashore, or have to jump out to
save a smash or an overset in a dangerous place. This mode of fixing
and belaying the painter I adopted after numerous trials of other
plans, and it is found to be far the best.
The jib is a triangle of 3 feet hoist and 3 feet foot, the fore-leach
fast by a loop, passing under the painter and over the stem; the head
is fixed by a loop over the mast-head, and under the flagstaff button.
Thus the jib can be struck while the canoeist remains in the boat,
by pushing off these two loops with his paddle. To set the jib, it
is best to land. This is much more generally convenient than to have
jib-tackle on the mast. (I have now discarded the jib entirely.) The
sails are of calico, without any seam. This lasts quite well enough,
dries speedily, and sets well, too, provided that care is taken to have
it cut out with the selvage along the after-leach, and not along any of
the other sides. Inattention to this last direction simply ruins sails;
and it cannot be too often repeated that the success of the six Rob Roy
voyages could not be expected if great care had not been devoted to all
these details.
A good travelling canoe costing £15 ought to last a long time, for it
is not racked and pulled in pieces at every stroke, as a rowing-boat is.
THE PADDLE.--It has been said that the use of a canoe paddle must
contract the chest, but this is certainly a mistake. If indeed, you
merely dapple each blade of the paddle in the water without taking the
full length of the stroke the shoulders are not thrown back, and the
effect will be injurious; but exactly the same is true if you scull
or row with a short jerky stroke. In a proper use of the paddle the
arms ought to be in turn fully extended, and then brought well back,
so that the elbow grazes the side, and the chest is then well plied in
both directions. In very shallow water the paddle should be clasped
lightly (turning the thumbs upwards then), so that if it strikes the
bottom or a rock the hand will yield and not the blade be broken. The
distance between the hands should be that of the breadth of the chest.
One can tell a _tyro_ in a moment by seeing him with his hands two feet
apart, and therefore with a shortened stroke or too long a paddle.
Great caution should be used when placing the blade in advance to meet
a rock, or even a gravel bank, otherwise it gets jammed in the rock or
gravel, or the boat overrides it. It is better in such a case to retard
the speed rather by dragging the paddle (tenderly), and always with its
flat side downwards, so that the edge does not get nipped.
For long cruises lightness is the first necessity. An ounce more
or less makes a great difference when you have to carry it with
outstretched arms all day. My paddle weighs two pounds. A swivel crutch
on deck on the quarter is used sometimes. In my Shetland cruise I used
a single paddle blade and steered by my feet acting on a light rudder
by two cords. This plan has many advantages for a sailing cruise and
general work, but it is not good for rapids.
RUDDER.--For long sailing this is useful, and foot-lines should be
used, or a rod to the yoke. I used the rod for sailing in the Dutch
cruise always.
LEEBOARDS.--These may be made of wooden triangles one foot each way,
hung at each side by two corners. The lee one is thus pressed against
the gunwale, and acts well.
CENTRE-BOARD.--When the "Rothion" sailed across the English Channel,
the late Hon. James Gordon used a centre-board at my suggestion, and
his Rob Roy thus furnished held her wind admirably. The centre-board
might come up through a slit one foot long in the garboard streak (not
through the keel) into a closed mackintosh bag, so that when raised it
would turn to one side, and lie flat on the bilge within.
THE APRON.--The canoeist soon finds that this is the most difficult
part of the boat to arrange with perfect satisfaction. I have had more
experiments and trouble and thought about the apron than upon any other
part of the canoe's arrangements.
A full wooden hatch does well for common work, but not for rough
cruising. Now and then the legs need "play," and if the hatch is rigid
at the height thus needed, it is much too high in ordinary times; and
it curbs the freedom for the arms near the deck, being also unwieldy
for instant debarking in rapids, and for stowing away.
The detached apron of the Baltic pattern is wet in use. Side pieces on
deck to clutch the wooden cheeks kept out by a cane across the knees,
and a permanent flap on deck, covering the fore end of the mackintosh,
are great improvements. The Jordan Rob Roy had a sheet mackintosh
apron, with only a cane fixed in the combing to keep the apron off the
knees. For her cruise she had under this apron six inches of the after
part of wood. The loose breast flap and side flaps rolled up (usually)
form a curved edging near the body. By lifting this hatch, and laying
it forward, the whole apron is folded forward of the knees, and in one
foot of space fore and aft. This plan is a complete success; and at
last my apron is all right. When a single bladed paddle is used the
apron is needed only in rough water, that is, one day in four.
STRETCHER.--The form described with a cut in the "Rob Roy on the
Jordan," is a very great improvement. Each foot has a light board
abutting on the carline above and the timber below, so that ample
room is given for the luggage bag, and much strength is combined with
extreme lightness.
SAIL.--Many forms have been tried, but the Club sailing matches have
often been won by a lug sail. This rig is also the safest of all, and
the boom can be detached from a hook on the mast to stow away.
PORTABLE CANOES.--A wooden canoe in four pieces is easily made,
although somewhat heavy. The additional expense is soon saved, if
the canoe is taken often by railway as a box. Colonel Bradford's
india-rubber canoe packs up into a parcel five feet long, and one
foot across. In the Eastern trip a canoe in two pieces might have
been readily carried on a horse, but the Rob Roy, undivided, was thus
carried easily. Berthon's Collapsible Boat Company presented to me a
charming collapsible canoe, nine feet long, and which is very cheap,
safe, light, and can easily be carried in one hand. The shortest canoe
in the Club was the Wharbe, 8 feet 6 inches long. But I have paddled
the little "dingy" only eight feet long, which was carried aboard the
Rob Roy yawl. I think 12 feet the best length for a cruising canoe.
I have designed a cork canoe in three pieces, five feet, four feet, and
three feet long; the last to pack in the next, and both in the large
middle one; weight about 30 lbs.
SUN.--When there is a brilliant glare of the sun, and it is low, and
directly in front, and the eyes are dazzled by its reflection on the
water, a good plan is to direct the bow to some point you are to steer
for, and then observe the reflection of the sun on the cedar deck of
the boat. Having done this you may lower the peak of your hat so as
to cut off the direct rays of the sun, and its reflected rays on the
water, while you steer simply by the light on the deck.
CAUTION.--When a great current moves across a river to a point where
it seems very unlikely to have an exit, you may be certain that some
unusual conformation of the banks or of the river bed will be found
there, and caution should be used in approaching the place. This,
however, is less necessary when the river is deep.
WEEDS.--The ripple and bubbles among weeds are so totally different
from those on free water that their appearance at a distance as a
criterion of the depth, current, and direction of the channel must be
learned separately. In general, where weeds are under water, and can
sway or wave about, there will be water enough to pass--the requisite
three inches. Backing up stream against long weeds is so troublesome,
and so sure to sway the stern round athwart stream, that it is best to
force the boat forward instead, even if you have to get out and pull
her through. Paddling through rushes, or flags, or other plants, so as
to cut off a corner, is a mistake. Much more "way" is lost then by the
friction than might be supposed.
STORES ON THE ROB ROY.--Paddle, painter (31 feet at first, but cut down
to 20 feet), sponge, waterproof cover, 5 feet by 2 feet 3 inches, silk
blue union jack, 10 inches by 8 inches, on a staff two feet long. Mast,
boom, and yard. Lug sail, jib, and spare jib (used as a sun shawl).
Stretcher, two back boards, floor-boards, basket holding a mackintosh
coat. For repairs--iron and brass screws, sheet copper and copper
nails, putty and whitelead, a gimlet, cord, string, and thread, one
spare button, needle, pins, canvas wading shoes (wooden clogs would be
better); all the above should be left with the boat. Black bag for 3
months' luggage, size, 12 inches by 12 inches, by 5 inches deep (just
right), closed by three buttons, and with shoulder-strap. Flannel
Norfolk jacket (flaps not too long, else they dip in the water, or the
pockets are inverted in getting out and in); wide flannel trousers,
gathered by a broad back buckle belt, second trousers for shore should
have braces, but in the boat the back buttons are in the way. Flannel
shirt on, and another for shore. Before me while writing this there
are 21 various head covers used in different tours, but for boating
the straw hat is best of all. Thin alpaca black Sunday coat, thick
waistcoat, black leather light-soled shoes (should be strong for rocks
and village pavements), cloth cap (only used as a bag), 2 collars, 3
pocket handkerchiefs, ribbon tie, 2 pairs of cotton socks (easily got
off for sudden wading, and drying quickly on deck). Brush, comb, and
tooth-brush. Testament, passport (scarcely needed now), leather purse,
large (and _full_), circular notes, small change in silver and copper
for frequent use, blue spectacles in strong case, book for journal and
sketches, black, blue, and red chalk, and steel pen. Maps, cutting
off a six inch square at a time for pocket reference. Guide-books and
pleasant evening reading book. Cut off covers and useless pages, and
every page as read; no needless weight should be carried hundreds of
miles; even a fly settling on the boat must be refused a free passage.
Medicine (rhubarb and court plaster), small knife, and pencil.
$Rocks and Currents.$--Even if a set of rules could be laid down for
the management of a boat in the difficult parts of a river, it would
not be made easier until practice has given the boatman that quick
judgment as to their application which has to be patiently acquired in
all athletic exercises.
But the canoeist, who passes many hours daily in the consideration of
the river problems always set before him, will feel some interest in
this attempt to classify those that occur most frequently.
Steering a boat in a current among rocks is like walking on a crowded
pavement, where the other passengers are going in various directions,
and at various speeds. A great deal of practice, and lessons enforced
by collisions, are needed to make a pedestrian _au fait_ in a crowd.
But years of walking produce a certain power, which insensibly directs
a man in his course and his speed.
After this capacity becomes, as it were, instinctive, a man can walk
briskly along Fleet-street at four P.M., and, without any distinct
thought about other people, or about his own progress, he can get safe
to the end. Indeed, if he does begin to think of rules or how to apply
them, he is almost sure to knock up against somebody. Nay, if two men
meet as they walk through a crowd, and each of them "catches the eye"
of the other, they will probably cease to move instinctively, and, with
uncertain data to reason from, a collision is often the result.
The importance of this subject of "boating instinct" will be considered
sufficient to justify these remarks when the canoeist has by much
practice at last attained to that desirable proficiency which enables
him to steer without thinking about it, and therefore to enjoy the
conversation of other people on the bank, or the scenery, while he is
rapidly speeding through rocks, eddies, and currents.
As the descent of a current among rocks resembles a walk along the
pavement through a crowd, so the passage _across_ a rapid is even
more strictly in resemblance with the course of a man who has to
cross a street where vehicles are passing at uncertain intervals and
at various speeds, though all in the same direction. For it is plain
that the thing to be done is nearly the same, whether the obstacles
(as breakers) are fixed and the current carries you towards them, or
the obstacles (as cabs and carts) are moving, while you have to walk
through them on _terra firma_. To cross Park-lane in the afternoon
requires the very same sort of calculation as the passage across the
stream in a rapid on the Rhine.
We may divide the rocks thus encountered in fast water into two
classes--(1) Those that are _sunk_, so that the boat may possibly
float over them, and which do not deflect the direction of the surface
current. (2) Those that are _breakers_, and so deflect the current,
and do not allow the boat to float over them. The currents may be
divided into--(1) Those that are equable in force, and in the same
direction through the course to be steered. (2) Those that alter their
direction in a part of that course.
In the problems before the canoeist will be found the combinations
of every degree and variety of these rocks and currents, but the
actual circumstances he has to deal with at any specified moment may
be generally ranged under one or other of the six cases depicted in
the accompanying woodcut. In each of the figures in the diagram the
current is supposed to run towards the top of the page, and the general
course of the canoe is supposed to be with the current. The particular
direction of the current is indicated by the dotted lines. The rocks
when shaded are supposed to be _sunk_, and when not shaded they are
_breakers_. Thus the current is uniform in Figs. 1, 2, 3; and it is
otherwise in Figs. 4, 5, 6. The rocks are all sunk in Figs. 1, 2, 3,
and 5; whereas in Figs. 4 and 6 there are breakers. The black line in
all the figures shows the proper course of the centre of the boat, and
it is well to habituate oneself to make the course such as that this
line shall never be nearer to the rock than one-half of the boat's
length.
The simplest case that can occur is when the canoe is merely floating
without "way" through a current, and the current bears it near a rock.
If this be a breaker, the current, being deflected, will generally
carry the boat to one side. The steering in such cases is so easy, and
its frequent occurrence gives so much practice, that no more need be
said about it. But if the rock be a sunk rock, and if it be not quite
plain from the appearance of the water that there is depth enough over
the rock to float the boat, then it is necessary to pass either above
the rock, as in Fig. 1, or below it, as in Fig. 2.
A few days' practice is not thrown away if the canoeist seizes every
opportunity of performing under easy circumstances feats which may at
other times have to be done under necessity, and which would not be so
well done then if attempted for the first time. Let him, therefore, as
soon as possible, become adept in crossing above or below a single
sunk rock with his _boat's bow pointed to any angle of the semi-circle
before him_.
[Illustration]
Next we have to consider the cases in which more than one rock will
have to be avoided. Now, however great the number of the rocks may be,
they can be divided into sets of three, and in each of the figures 3,
4, 5, 6 it is supposed that (for reasons which may be different in each
case, but always sufficient) the canoe has to pass between rocks A and
B, and then between B and C, but must not pass otherwise between A and
C.
In Fig. 3 the course is below B, and above C, being a combination of
the instance in Fig. 2 with that in Fig. 1. The precise angle to the
line of the course which the boat's longer axis ought to have will
depend upon what is to be done next after passing between B and C, and
hence the importance of being able to effect the passages in Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2, with the axis at any required angle.
We may next suppose that one of the three rocks, say B, as in Fig. 4,
is a breaker which will deflect the current (as indicated by the dotted
stream lines), and it will then be necessary to modify the angle of the
boat's axis, though the boat's centre has to be kept in the same course
as before. It will be seen at once that if A were a breaker the angle
would be influenced in another manner, and that if C were a breaker the
angle at which the boat should emerge from the group of rocks would
be influenced by the stream from C also; but it is only necessary
to remind the reader that all the combinations and permutations of
breakers and sunk rocks need not be separately discussed,--they
may be met by the experience obtained in one case of each class of
circumstances.
Fig. 5 represents a _circular current_ over the group of three rocks.
This is a very deceptive case, for it looks so easy that at first it
is likely to be treated carelessly. If the boat were supposed to be a
substance floating, but without weight, it would have its direction
of motion instantly altered by that of the current. But the boat has
weight, and as it has velocity (that of the current even if the boat is
not urged also by the paddle so as to have "way" through the water),
therefore it will have _momentum_, and the tendency will be to continue
the motion in a straight line, instead of a curve guided solely by the
current. In all these cases, therefore, it will be found that the boat
_insists_ upon passing between A and C, where it must not be allowed
to go (on the hypothesis we have started with), and if it effects a
compromise by running upon C, that will be by no means satisfactory.
This class of cases includes all those in which the river makes a
quick turn round a rock or a tongue B, where the boundary formed by the
rock A on the outer bend of the stream is a solid bank, or a fringe of
growing trees, or of faggots artificially built as a protection against
the erosion of the water. This case occurs, therefore, very frequently
in some fast rivers, say, at least, a hundred times in a day's work,
and perhaps no test of a man's experience and capacity as a canoeist
is more decisive than his manner of steering round a fast, sharp bend.
The tendency of the canoeist in such cases is always to bring the boat
round by paddling _forward_ with the outer hand, thereby adding to
the "way," and making the force of the current in its circular turn
less powerful relatively. Whereas, the proper plan is to _back_ with
the inner hand, and so to stop all way in the direction of the boat's
length, and to give the current its full force on the boat. Repeated
lessons are needed before this is learned thoroughly.
The case we have last remarked upon is made easier if either A or C is
a breaker, but it is very much increased in difficulty if the rock B is
a breaker or is a strong tongue of bank, and so deflects the current
outwards at this critical point. The difficulty is often increased by
the fact that the water inside of the curve of the stream may be shoal,
and so the paddle on that side strikes the bottom or grinds along it in
backing.
When the curve is all in deep water, and there is a pool after B, the
boat ought not to be turned too quickly in endeavouring to avoid the
rock C, else it will sometimes then enter the eddy below B, which runs
up stream sometimes for fifty yards. In such a case the absurd position
you are thereby thrown into naturally causes you to struggle to resist
or stem this current; but I have found, after repeated trials of every
plan I could think of, that if once the back current has taken the
canoe it is best to let the boat swing with the eddy so as to make an
entire circuit, until the bow can come back towards B (and below it),
when the nose of the boat may be again thrust into the main stream,
which will now turn the boat round again to its proper course. Much
time and labour may be spent uselessly in a wrong and obstinate contest
with an eddy.
In Fig. 6, where the three rocks are in a straight line, and the
middle one is a breaker, an instance is given when the proper course
must be kept by _backing_ during the first part of it. We must suppose
that the canoeist has attained the power of backing with perfect
ease, for this will be quite necessary if he intends to take his
boat safely through several hundred combinations of sunk rocks and
breakers. Presuming this, the case in Fig. 6 will be easy enough,
though a little reflection will show that it might be very difficult,
or almost impossible, if the canoeist could give only a forward motion
to the boat. To pass most artistically, then, through the group of
rocks in Fig. 6 the stern should be turned towards A, as shown in the
diagram, and the passage across the current, between A and B, is to
be effected solely by backing (and chiefly in this case with the left
hand) until the furthest point of the right of the curve is reached,
with the boat's length still as before in the position represented in
the figure. Then the forward action of both hands will take the canoe
speedily through the passage between B and C.
Cases of this sort are rendered more difficult by the distance of
C from the point above A, where you are situated when the instant
decision has to be made as to what to do, and it would usually be
imprudent to rise in the boat in such a place to survey the rock C. If
it is evident that the plan described above will not be applicable,
because other and future circumstances will require the boat's bow to
emerge in the opposite direction (pointing to the right), then you must
enter forwards, and must back between B and C, so as to be ready, after
passing C, to drive forward, and to the right. It is plain that this is
very much more difficult than the former case, for your backing now has
to be done against the full stream from the breaker B.
In all these instances the action of the wind has been entirely
omitted from consideration, but it must not be forgotten that a strong
breeze materially complicates the problem before the canoeist. This is
especially so when the wind is aft; when it is ahead you are not likely
to forget its presence. A strong fair wind (that has scarcely been felt
with your back to it) and the swift stream and the boat's speed from
paddling being all in one direction, the breeze will suddenly become a
new element in the case when you try to cross above a rock as in Fig.
1, and find that the wind carries you broadside on against all your
calculations.
As for sailing among rocks in a current, if the rapid is long the canoe
must be directed solely by the paddle, and in short groups of rocks
the course to be steered by a boat sailing is the same as if it were
paddled, though the action of the wind has to be carefully taken into
consideration.
In all these things free boldness and skill come best after lessons of
experience, and the canoeist will find himself ready and able, at the
end of his voyage, to sail down a rapid which he would have approached
very timidly, at the beginning, even with the paddle.
But perhaps enough has been said for the experienced paddler, while
surely more than enough has been said to show the tyro aspirant what
varied work he has to do, and how interesting are the circumstances
that will occupy his attention on a delightful river cruise.
$The Boy as Yacht Owner.$--Boys who live near a sheet of water may like
to know how to make--or to have made for them by a carpenter--a homely
rough-hewn yacht. They may not be able to win the American cup with it,
but they may have much fun on board, and it will be difficult to wreck.
Indeed, it is said to be impossible to upset a yacht of this pattern.
The natives of South America use yachts of this build, and even go to
sea in this kind of craft. We do not advise our readers to round Cape
Horn or to cross the Bay of Biscay in a yacht like this, but on a lake
or river they are not likely to come to grief. All the same, skill in
swimming should precede boating of all kinds.
A, B, C, D represent six pine logs, each one fourteen feet long and
eight inches in diameter. The six joined together make a deck four
feet wide. Both ends of each log are roughly trimmed with an adze and
underneath each log is bevelled along three feet of its length at each
end. The middle eight feet of each log is thus left in its natural
state, round and still bearing its bark; but three feet at each end of
each log is trimmed to slope and taper towards its termination. E is
four feet seven inches from the bow and represents a hole down to the
water two inches wide and eighteen inches long. It is formed by cutting
an inch away from each of the two centre logs to make two inches, and
making the length of the indentation eighteen inches on each of these
two logs. The purpose of the hole is to hold a centre-board, which is
passed through it to act instead of a keel. It is a piece of two-inch
plank eighteen inches wide. Next the bow ends of the logs are fastened
together by what joiners call rabbeting and bolting. Fig. 2 represents
a rabbet, and gives the dimensions. One of these rabbets is cut upon
the upper side of each log, one foot six inches from the bow, so that
when all the logs have been served exactly alike, and they have been
placed in position side by side, these indentations form an unbroken
channel across the boat. Now a piece of the toughest dry wood--the
bolt--shaped like Fig. 3, should be made to fit this groove, and should
then be placed therein. At H, I, in Fig. 1 bore with an auger holes
three-quarters of an inch in diameter through the bolt, and right on
through the log. Into these holes fit pegs of hard, very dry wood.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
If these pegs and the bolt fit tightly when they are quite dry they
will swell and fit very much tighter when they become wet. Two and
a half feet further back at J, K, the logs are rabbeted again in
precisely the same way, and again at L M, N O, and P Q. The mast
should be as long as the boat, and at its base four and a half inches
in diameter. Generally it consists of a small tree, a spruce fir, or
something of that kind. The boom, seen in the completed picture, is
almost as long as the mast, though more slender, and it must have a
fork at its thickest end. A lighter bough, with a fork, three feet
six-inches long, is needed as a rest for the boom.
[Illustration]
The mast is fixed at R in Fig. 1, and is secured as in Fig. 4. It
stands in a hole four inches in diameter and four inches deep. A and
B in Fig. 4 stand a foot away from the mast in holes three inches in
diameter and three inches deep. A and B are each eighteen inches long,
and C is a piece of two-inch plank eighteen inches wide, and it has a
hole bored in it four inches in diameter to admit the mast. At S, T, U,
V, in Fig. 1 holes are bored three inches in diameter exactly upon the
middle of the next to the outermost log on each side of the boat. These
are fitted with forked uprights, those at S and T are eight inches
long; those at U and V are twelve inches long. At W, X, Y and Z in
Fig. 1 bore holes three inches in diameter and three inches deep, W and
X being one foot away from N, O. Two feet from W and X should be Y Z.
a and b are holes of the same size over the middle logs of the boat.
In W, X, Y and Z should be forked uprights fourteen inches long. In a
and b are uprights sixteen inches long with a cross piece upon which
to rest the oar of the steersman. Fig. 5 shows what the arrangements
are with regard to these uprights. A little before the mast, on each
side of the boat, a pole runs through the forks of the uprights. The
ends of these poles are joined aft by a piece of one-inch plank, upon
which sits the man at the helm. A shelter may be made with a piece of
sailcloth or other material as shown in Fig. 6.
[Illustration]
The helm consists of a pole four feet long, which is fixed at an angle
of forty-five degrees to a piece of inch plank two feet long and eight
inches wide, as shown in Fig. 7. It will be found that the vessel
easily answers this helm, which is used like an oar. Along the mast
the sail is nine feet long. It does not run on rings, but is nailed
to the mast. The corner is tied securely to the end of the boom,
whose length is ten feet. The boom rests with its fork upon the mast
and is prevented from slipping away by a forked, upright support. It
is an easy matter to unfurl the sail. Take the fork of the boom from
the mast, and the sail collapses instantaneously. Much navigation can
be learned in a vessel of this kind, and it may be that some future
admiral will have his small beginnings in a craft of this homely
character.