all their pent-up hopes of the recovery of their ancient rights once
more burst forth. Yet dreading new dangers from new governors, they took
measures of precaution. Within a fortnight of Rudolf's death the three
districts of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden had entered into a perpetual
league or defensive alliance (_Ewiger Bund_), a renewal no doubt of a
previous pact, probably that of 1246. They may have met on the Ruetli to
swear the solemn oath which was to bind them into a confederation, _a
perpetuite_. The various acts of agreement were drawn up in Latin, and
the document--the Magna Charta of the Eidgenossenschaft--treasured up at
Schwyz, is held in veneration by the whole Swiss nation. It bears an
essentially conservative character, and witnesses to the thought and
consideration given to the matter, no less than to the strong sense of
equity and clear judgment of the contracting parties. Amongst other
things it enjoins that every one shall obey and serve his master
according to his standing; that no judge shall be appointed who has
bought his office with gold, nor unless he be a native; that if quarrels
shall arise between the Eidgenossen (_inter aliquos conspiratos_), the
more sensible shall settle the differences, and if the one party does
not submit, the opposition shall decide in the matter. To the document
were affixed the seals of the three countries as a guarantee of its
authenticity.
FOOTNOTES:
[26] Unterwalden is parted into two unequal halves by a mountain range
running from the Titlis to the Buochser Horn, with the wood of Kerns in
its centre. The districts on both sides have thence taken the names of
Ob and Nidwalden, above and below the wood.
XI.
THE BATTLE OF MORGARTEN.
(1315.)
The primary object of the Perpetual League was to secure for the three
Waldstaetten that safety which the empire, with its fluctuating fortunes
and condition, failed to ensure. Rich and mighty cities in Germany and
Italy had joined in alliance with similar intent, but whilst these
alliances had come to nought, the simple peasants of the Forest,
hardened by continual struggles, had developed into a power before which
even the Habsburgs were of no avail; for, gifted with striking political
understanding and far-sightedness, these born diplomatists knew how to
turn the tide of events to their own advantage.
As an additional security, they entered within a few weeks into an
alliance with Zurich and the Anti-Habsburg coalition that had sprung up
in East Switzerland when Adolf of Nassau was chosen successor to King
Rudolf in preference to his son Albert, whose absolutism was dreaded by
all. The Zurich forces attacked Winterthur, a Habsburg town, but owing
to the absence of reinforcements sustained a severe defeat (1292).
Taking advantage of their heavy losses, Duke Albert laid siege to the
imperial city of Zurich. Great was his dismay, however, when from his
camp he saw a formidable force drawn up in battle array on the
Lindenhof, an eminence within the city. The armour-bearers, their
helmets, shields, and lances glittering in the sun, appeared to the foe
to indicate an overwhelming force, and Albert made his peace with the
remarkable city. This was gladly accepted, as well it might be, for it
is said that the dazzling array seen by Albert consisted of the Amazons
of the place, to wit, the women of the town, who had lit on this
stratagem to save their city.
King Adolf guaranteed the "liberties" of Uri and Schwyz in 1297; but on
his death in the following year, in battle against his rival, Albert of
Habsburg, these were again at stake--for charters had to be submitted to
the sovereign's pleasure at every new accession--and in fact were never
acknowledged by the succeeding king. As the object of the Habsburgs was
to join the Waldstaetten to their Austrian possessions, their policy was
naturally to oppose the freedom of the district. It was a fact highly
favourable to Swiss interests that the German monarchy was elective; for
the princes and prince-electors, with their personal and selfish aims,
shut out the mighty Habsburg dynasty, whenever candidates presented
themselves whom they considered more likely to favour their views. On
such grounds Adolf of Nassau was elected, as was also Henry of
Luetzelburg later on.
Albrecht was not the cruel, taciturn, tyrant Swiss chroniclers and
historians have pictured him. They have, in fact, confounded him with
previous rulers, chiefly of the junior Habsburg line. Albrecht was bent
on the aggrandizement of his house, but, if anything, less selfishly so
than his father Rudolf III. He was, however, no friend of Swiss
liberties, and, had he lived longer, would doubtless have checked any
efforts on the part of the Swiss to gain greater freedom. But he was cut
off in the very prime of life, by his nephew and ward, John of Swabia,
who believed himself defrauded of his heritage. With John were other
young Swiss nobles--Von Eschenbach, Von Balm, Von Wart, &c.; and by
these Albrecht was stabbed, within sight of his ancestral manor,
Habsburg, as he was on a journey to meet his queen, Elizabeth. He sank
to the ground, and expired in the lap of a poor woman (1308). The
assassins got clear away, excepting Wart. A terrible vengeance was taken
on him, and on the friends and connections of the fugitives, however
innocent. A thousand victims perished, by order of the bloody Elizabeth.
On the spot where her husband had fallen the queen built the Monastery
of Koenigsfelden (King's Field), a place which afterwards attained great
fame and splendour. The stained windows of the church still in
existence, are masterpieces of Swiss work, showing all the exquisite
finish of the fourteenth century, and testifying to the former
magnificence of the abbey.
Once again the Habsburgs were passed over, and Henry VII. became King of
Germany. To him Unterwalden owes its charter, which placed the three
small states on an equal footing politically. However, he died in Italy
when going to receive the imperial crown--it is thought by poison. On
his decease the opposing parties elected two sovereigns, Louis of
Bavaria, and Frederick the Handsome, of Austria, son of Albrecht. During
a short interregnum, which occurred after the death of Henry VII.,
Schwyz began hostilities against the Abbey of Einsiedeln, of which the
Habsburgs were stewards. This greatly vexed Frederick, and his annoyance
was increased by finding that the Forest generally sided with his rival.
Goaded beyond bearing, Frederick determined to deal a crushing blow
against the rebellious Forest states, and, late in the autumn of 1315,
hostile operations commenced. We are now in our story on the eve of the
famous battle of Morgarten, which is justly regarded by the Swiss as one
of the noblest of the many noble episodes in their stirring history.
There is not a civilized nation in the world to which the name of
Morgarten is not familiar.
Both parties prepared for war. The Wald Cantons fortified such parts of
their district as offered no sufficient security, and placed troops at
the entrance to the valley. Duke Leopold, a younger brother of the king,
a great champion, and eager for combat, undertook the command of the
campaign, with much dash and self-reliance. He gathered a considerable
army together on the shortest notice, the Aargau towns, with Lucerne
and Winterthur, and even Zurich, sending troops, whilst the nobility
espoused his cause, and rallied to his standard at Zug. In order to
divide the forces of the enemy the leader ordered a section of the army,
under Count Otto of Strassberg, to break into Unterwalden by the Bruenig
Pass. Leopold himself commanded the main force, and directed his
principal charge against Schwyz, which was particularly obnoxious to
him. Of the two roads leading from Zug to Schwyz, he chose--probably
from ignorance--the one which was the more difficult, and strategically
the less promising. On the 15th of November, the day before the feast of
St. Othmar, he brought his cavalry to AEgeri, and thence moved in a
heedless fashion along the eastern bank of that lake, taking no care
either to watch the enemy or to reconnoitre his ground. Amongst his
baggage was a cartload of ropes, with which he intended to fasten
together the cattle he expected to seize. Hurried on by the nobles, and
himself eager for the fray, he neglected even the most elementary
measures of precaution, which, indeed, he deemed quite unnecessary when
marching against mere peasants. His _cortege_ resembled a hunting party
rather than an army expecting serious warfare. Reaching the hamlet of
Haselmatt, the troops began slowly to ascend the steep and frozen slopes
of Morgarten, in the direction of Schornen. Soon they were hemmed in by
lake and mountain, when, without a moment's warning, there came pouring
down upon the dense masses of horsemen huge stones, pieces of rock, and
trunks of trees. Dire confusion followed at once. This unexpected
avalanche had been hurled down upon them by a handful of men posted on
the mountain ridge, and well informed respecting the movement of the
Austrians. Presently the main body of the men from Schwyz and Uri
appeared behind Schornen, and like a whirlwind rushed down the hill on
the terrified and bewildered foe, who were caught in the narrow pass of
Morgarten, as in a net. It was quite impossible to ward off such an
attack as that. Then the Eidgenossen began to mow down the Austrians
with their terrible weapon the halberd, an invention of their own.
A confused scramble and a terrified _melee_ ensued, in which it was at
once seen that the foe must succumb, utterly disorganized as they were,
and well-nigh helpless through terror. Many in sheer despair rushed into
the lake. Soon lay scattered over the wintry field the "flower of
knighthood," amongst them the counts of Kyburg and Toggenburg, and other
Swiss nobles. Leopold himself had a narrow escape, and hurried back to
Winterthur, "looking," says Friar John of that place, an eye-witness,
"like death, and quite distracted." Otto of Strassberg, hearing of the
disaster, retreated with such rapidity that he died overcome by the
physical efforts he had made. "Throughout the country the sounds of joy
and glory were changed into wails of lamentation and woe." Such was the
ever-memorable battle of Morgarten. As to the number of men who fell on
that day, the accounts vary hopelessly, and we do not venture to give
any figures. The infantry probably fled, and had no share in the
encounter.
Such was the first proof the young Confederation gave of their mettle
and skill in warfare. The battle has been called the Swiss Thermopylae,
but it was more fortunate in its results than that of the Greeks. It
confirmed the national spirit of resistance to the house of Habsburg,
and commenced a whole series of brilliant victories, which for two
centuries increased the glory, as they improved the military skill of
the Swiss nation. In humbleness and in a spirit of true devotion, the
victors fell to thanking God on the battlefield for their rescue, and
they instituted a day of thanksgiving to be observed as year after year
it should come round.
On the 9th of December in the same year (1315) the Eidgenossen proceeded
to Brunnen, to renew by oath, and enlarge by some additional paragraphs,
the treaty or league of 1291, and this for nearly five hundred years
remained the fundamental code of agreement between the three
Waldstaetten. The Forest Cantons, having grown into three independent
republics, claimed each separate administration or autonomy. The idea of
a federal union thus started by the Forest men gradually grew in favour
with neighbouring commonwealths struggling for independence; and these,
so attracted, slowly clustered round the Forest Cantons, to form a
bulwark against a common foe.
[Illustration: MAP OF OLD SWITZERLAND.]
XII.
THE LEAGUE OF THE EIGHT STATES.
(1332-68.)
One by one the Swiss lands were reached by the breeze of freedom blowing
from the Forest Cantons after the great victory of Morgarten. Yet it was
only very gradually and in small groups that the other districts entered
within the pale of the Eidgenossenschaft. Eight states made up the
nucleus for some time; indeed, till after the Burgundian wars, in 1481,
they jealously kept out all intruders. In fact, the confederate states
looked on outsiders merely as "connections," or subjects, and associated
with them on no other footing. It is a somewhat startling and unusual
thing to find republics ruling over subject lands, yet in this case the
result was to knit the whole more closely together in after centuries.
In the fourteenth century the union was of the loosest kind; alliances
wavered, and politics were swayed by separate ends. The other
commonwealths, in joining themselves with the Forest states, had no
notion of giving up their individual life, but were wishful to create a
body powerful enough to secure independence against the aggressions of
Austria; and at the price of continued struggle, and steady perseverance
no less admirable, they achieved that object.
Attracted by common interests as a near neighbour, and being moreover
the mart of the Forest Cantons, Lucerne was the first to be drawn into
the union. This town had acquired great independence under the mild rule
of the famous Murbach Abbey. But in 1291 the convent, having got into
financial straits, had sold the town to the Habsburgs. Finding but
little liberty under their new rulers, the men of Lucerne formed in 1332
with the Forest the union of the four Waldstaetten,[27] with the view of
shaking off the Austrian yoke. Lucerne was bound by treaty not to league
herself with outsiders without the consent of the Forest Cantons.
In 1351 Zurich followed suit. Her clever and powerful burgomaster, Brun,
was keenly desirous of raising her to greatness. He was less regardful
of the interests of the Eidgenossen, and indeed had strong leanings
towards Austria and the empire, as affording a wider scope for ambitious
politics. Consequently he would not permit her superior position as an
imperial free city, nor her foreign and commercial relations, to be
injured by submission to the Forest control, and he carried a clause
which left her free to join in any other alliances she choose, provided
that with the Waldstaetten was not broken. He also bound the Forest
states by treaty, to secure to Zurich its own constitution. The
documents connected with this alliance show that the five states formed
a power quite ready to cope with Austria. And well for them that they
were so ready. Louis of Bavaria, the protector of the Forest Cantons,
was dead, and his successor on the German throne was Charles IV., son of
the famous blind King of Bohemia, who fell so bravely at Cressy. To
maintain his authority Charles fell back on the friendship of Austria,
and to win the favour of Albrecht (the "Wise," or "Lame"), he nullified
all the measures which Louis had enacted against Austria, measures which
had destroyed the power of that country in the Waldstaetten. The
destruction of Rapperswyl[28] (Zurich), and the union between Zurich and
the other four states were regarded by the Habsburgs as a challenge, and
gave rise to a long-protracted war, marked rather by feats of diplomacy
on the part of Austria than by feats of arms. Albrecht was desirous of
having a reckoning with the Eidgenossen generally, yet for the present
he confined his attacks to Zurich, their strongest outpost. The assault
by sixteen thousand men in 1351 was stoutly opposed, and collapsed
suddenly by proffers of peace. Queen Agnes of Koenigsfelden, the duke's
sister, was called in as umpire, and Brun temporizing with Austria to
save his town, a verdict was passed so injurious to the people of the
Forest, that they refused the mediation of this "wondrously shrewd and
quick woman," who had for these thirty years swayed the Habsburg
politics, and the quarrel broke out anew.
The Zurcher now assumed the offensive, and defeated the Austrians at
Taetwil, being led by Roger Manesse, the grandson of the amateur poet.
They then marched on Glarus, and conquered that valley in November,
1351. Clarona, like Lucerne, had drifted from beneath the spiritual
rule, and had fallen under that of the Habsburgs, much to her dislike.
An old chronicler reports that "the Glarner were well disposed towards
the Eidgenossen," and it is not difficult to believe that they consented
willingly to be conquered, for in the spring of the next year they
utterly defeated the Austrian forces under Count Stadion, who had
returned with the intention of recovering the country if possible. The
union of the Glarner with the Confederates was fixed by a treaty, on
June 4, 1352, but, curious to relate, they were received as inferiors or
_proteges_ (Schutzort) and not as equals. The Confederates no doubt
reasoned that the acquisition of the valley, with its open villages,
offered no adequate advantages for the extra risks to which it exposed
them.
Zug was the next to be brought into the union. The very situation of
Zug, surrounded as it was by the federal territory, rendered it quite
necessary that that state should be brought into the fold of the
Eidgenossen. The country districts surrendered at the approach of the
federal forces, but the town of Zug offered a stout resistance. However,
the townsmen heard nothing from Albrecht, much less received any help
from him, and yielded on June 27, 1352. Thanks to the greater security
she offered, Zug was admitted as a full member.
In July, 1352, Albrecht renewed his attack on Zurich, with an army
double the one first brought against her, Bern, Basel, Strasburg,
Solothurn, and Constance, being bound by treaty, sending troops. But
this second venture likewise miscarried, after stout opposition and much
wasteful ravaging. This plan of storming an imperial city was unpopular
amongst the neighbouring towns, and Eberhard "the Quarrelsome," who held
the chief command in the place of the lame duke, displeased with the
secret negotiations, left the camp, and the army was dissolved. Again
the Austrians resorted to diplomatic machinations, and recovered by the
pen what they had failed to keep by the sword. The treaty, or rather
truce, of Brandenburg, so called from its author, reinstated the
Habsburger in their Forest possessions. Glarus and Zug were compelled to
give up their union with the Eidgenossen, and, like Lucerne, to return
to the Habsburg rule. Nevertheless, though complying outwardly, the
states still maintained their friendly _liaisons_. And the league of the
five states remained intact, and was indeed strengthened by the alliance
of Bern with the Waldstaetten, with which she had been more closely
connected ever since the great battle of Laupen, where the Forest men
had proved such staunch and useful friends. The treaty is dated March 6,
1353.
Albrecht was dissatisfied with the results of the last truce, and
renewed the hostilities in the spring of 1353. Prevailing on Charles IV.
to intervene that monarch twice visited Zurich, and held interviews with
her representatives, and those of the Waldstaetten. Yet it was evident
his purpose was to give every advantage to Austria. The citizens
trusting that his mediation would be just, received him with "imposing
pomp and great honours." But their high hopes were soon dashed.
Influenced by the Austrian counsellors about him, Charles strongly
upheld the old Habsburg claims, and on his second visit even denied the
validity of the ancient charters of the Forest, and requested the
Eidgenossen to dissolve their union. Naturally, the Confederates were
unwilling to throw away the results of a century's hard struggling, and,
insisting on their unchangeable and undeniable rights, they simply
answered that his "views were incomprehensible to them." Charles at once
returned to Nuernberg, and thence sent to Zurich his declaration of war.
Albrecht, who had bought and rebuilt Rapperswyl, assembled there his
forces, and laid waste the borders of the lake. The king fixed his camp
at Regensberg; and thence the two pushed forward and formed a junction
at Kuesnacht. Their united forces, estimated at fifty thousand, formed
the most formidable and magnificent army seen that century. Ravaging the
lovely vineyard slopes, laments a contemporary annalist, they marched on
Zurich, and, in spite of the sallies of the Zurcher to avert such a
fate, completely encircled the town. Entirely cut off from all supplies,
the inhabitants had no hope of holding out for any length of time,
especially against a foe ten times more numerous. But at the most
critical moment the place was saved by a stratagem. For suddenly the
imperial banner was seen floating over the citadel. The burgesses (or
their leader Brun) had hoisted it up as a declaration that they were the
subjects of the Holy Roman Empire, and meant no disobedience to the
king. The incident made a deep impression on the enemy, and Charles at
once suspended the siege. Thus for the third time foiled Albrecht
retired in high dudgeon to Baden, and thence began to indulge in mere
petty warfare. As for the king, he betook himself to Prague, there to
enrich the Domkirche with the numerous relics and antiquities he had
delightedly amassed during his stay in Swiss lands. This king was the
founder of Bohemia's greatness, and of the splendour of its capital.
On his return from Italy as Roman emperor he concluded a peace at
Regensburg, in July, 1355, and the war came to an end. The result, as in
the case of the previous war, had been injurious to the interests of the
Confederation. Glarus and Zug remained excluded from the League, and the
Habsburgs retained their lands in the Forest. The only thing left was
the union of the six states. Zurich had borne the burden of the war for
the last four years, and, unless she wished to forfeit her very
existence, was compelled to have peace at any price. And as she was
completely exhausted, and yet was made the surety for the Waldstaetten,
the Eidgenossen submitted to the harsh conditions imposed.
In 1358 Albrecht died, and was succeeded by his enterprising son, Rudolf
IV. This ruler made it his special object to extend his power on the
Upper Zurich lake. Rapperswyl was fortified and enlarged, and the famous
wooden bridge across the lake was built--not for pilgrims wandering to
Einsiedeln, as common report had it, but--to connect the territories he
had conquered, or was expecting to conquer. Besides, he wished to cut
off Zurich from the direct route to, and trade with, Italy, and from the
Forest. But in 1360 died the all-powerful Brun, who had ever sympathised
with Austria; and, in 1364, the old Queen Agnes (the widowed queen of
Hungary), who had resided for twenty years at Koenigsfelden. Rudolf
likewise died about the same time, and with their decease the Austrian
spell was broken, and the hold of the Habsburgs on Zurich for a while
loosened. Charles, now unfriendly towards Austria, tried to win favour
with the Eidgenossen. He heaped privileges on Zurich, and sanctioned the
league of the six states. Zurich refused to renew the treaty of
Regensburg by oath, and as persistently declined to punish the people of
Schwyz for breaking it. A fresh outbreak of war seemed imminent, but was
averted by the peace of Torberg, 1368, which established a better
agreement between Austria and the Confederation. By this treaty Zug was
permitted to be re-annexed to the league. Zug had been conquered by
Schwyz in 1365, at a moment when the attention of Austria was withdrawn.
Glarus did not return to the Confederation until it had, so to speak,
qualified itself for re-admission, by gaining the most remarkable
victory of Naefels, the story of which will be told later on.
FOOTNOTES:
[27] Compare _Vierwaldstaettersee_, the German for Lake Lucerne.
[28] See Chapter xiii.
XIII.
ZURICH AN EXAMPLE OF A SWISS TOWN IN THE MIDDLE AGES.
(853-1357.)
We may perhaps do well to pause here awhile before proceeding to show
how the various Swiss cantons were gathered into the fold of the
Eidgenossenschaft--a long process, as a matter of fact--and devote a
short chapter to a glance at an aristocratic city whose polity and
development contrast with those of the Forest lands. Zurich presents a
fair example of a city whose origin dates back to a remote age, and
whose transition from the condition of a feudal territory into the
position of an independent commonwealth can be clearly followed. That
Turicum is a word of Celtic origin, and that the place was one of the
lake settlements in prehistoric times, and a Roman toll-station later
on, has been already shown.