SQUARING AND JOINTING.
For this and other exercises we recommend 2 in. × 4 in. kiln dried
No. 1 pine s4s. This is less than 2 in. × 4 in., as these are the
dimensions in the rough and some surface is taken off in dressing it.
In speaking of lumber we give dimensions in the rough, but in speaking
of parts of a piece of work actual measurements are always given.
[Illustration: Exercise No. I.]
Saw off a piece of 2 in. × 4 in. 18¼ inches long. The object of
this exercise is to learn to square this block, that is, make every
surface perfectly flat and straight and exactly at right angles to the
adjoining surfaces. This operation is necessary on almost every piece
of work you will do and its accuracy is of the utmost importance. Place
your piece on the bench with one of the wide sides up and the end
against the bench stop. Set your jack plane to cut a very thin shaving.
Plane the upper surface carefully, testing it from time to time with
the side of your plane to see that it is perfectly straight. This is
called jointing. It must also be flat. Test this with the side of your
plane laid across it and in all directions. Next turn it up on edge
and joint and square in the same manner. To test the angle use the try
square with the broad arm against the face of the side you have already
squared. Plane the other two sides in like manner until all four sides
are absolutely square with adjoining sides and perfectly straight from
end to end. Measure off ⅛ in. from one end and mark with try square and
knife across the top. Turn it up and mark from this line down the side
next you. With the back saw cut square to these marks. Now measure 18
in. from this and cut the other end off square in the same manner. Put
the piece in the vise end up and projecting about an inch above the
vise and with your smoothing plane plane the ends true, testing from
all four sides with the try square. It is well in this operation to
put a piece of waste material back of your work in the vise, with its
upper edge even with the upper edge of your work. This will prevent
chipping off the further edge as you plane across it. Square up other
end in like manner. You will probably have to try some little time
before you can get this exercise perfectly, but persist. Though simple
it is perhaps as important as any you will have and you will be called
upon to repeat this process constantly. Do not slight it, therefore,
and when you can square a block perfectly you have made a great stride
forward.
HALF TENON AND HALVING.
[Illustration: Exercise No. II.]
Saw off a piece of 2 in. × 4 in. 12 inches long. Square it up as in
Exercise I. Select the wide side with the best grain, etc., for your
working side and mark it “O.” Measure off 3½ in. from the left-hand end
as it lies on the bench before you and with your knife and try square
mark across the working face (a-a). Turn up on edge and mark across
from this line (b-b). Turn on other edge and do the same. Next measure
3 in. farther from the end and mark across the working face and down
the two edges in the same manner (c-c-c). Then 3½ inches farther from
the end mark across face and edges as before (d-d-d). Now take your
marking gauge and set it ⅝ in. deep. Turn work on its edge, with the
working face to your right and with the gauge make a line along the
edge from (e-e-e), that is, a line ⅝ of an inch below the working face
and parallel with it. Do likewise between (c) and (d) and (f-f). Turn
the work over and mark the other side in the same way and also carry
your gauge mark across the end (g-g). Place the work on the bench
working face up with the marked end to the right. With your back saw
cut down at (b) to the gauge mark (e), being careful that your saw
cuts just to the mark both on top and down the edge. Saw in the same
way at (c) to (f) and (d) to (f), being careful in all cases that your
saw cuts only to the middle of your mark, the cut being in the wood to
be removed, which in our case is between (b) and the end and (c) and
(d). Do not mar corners in starting your saw. Place the work in the
vise with the gauge mark just above the jaws. With your widest chisel
cut out the parts to be removed, cutting across the grain, flat side
of the chisel down. Do not try to take out too much at a time. Do not
cut all the way across as the wood is likely to chip off the far side
below your gauge line, so cut only half way across, then turn the piece
around and cut from the other side. When you reach the bottom (the
gauge line) be very careful to hold the chisel flat, that is, straight
across, or you will not have a flat, even bottom. Next turn the work up
on end in the vise and with your rip saw cut down the gauge line across
the end (g-g) and down the edge (e-e). Repeat this exercise until you
can get it absolutely accurate. All surfaces should be “square” and
smooth. These operations are constantly necessary and must be accurate
or your joints will show unsightly cracks. While, on the other hand,
when you have mastered this exercise, you have accomplished a great
deal, as you will appreciate a little later.
HALVED JOINT.
So far we have not required our material to be of any particular
dimensions when finished. We should now be able to square up to given
dimensions, which is, of course, necessary in most cases. It is in this
exercise. Therefore, remember to get your material out a trifle larger
than the dimensions given for the finished work in order to leave room
for squaring. The purpose of this exercise is to join two pieces of
equal thickness which cross each other at right angles, and have them
flush top and bottom; the pieces to be of the exact dimensions given,
fitted closely on both sides, each piece exactly in the center of the
other, both sides to be perfectly smooth and even when finished and
the ends planed square. To do this get out two pieces which square up
as in Ex. I to 3½ in. wide, 1¾ in. thick and 12 in. long each. Choose
and mark working face of each. Find the center (6 in. from each end).
Measure 1⅝ in. each way from the center and mark across the working
face of one piece and bottom of the other piece (a-a) and (a-a). Now
set your marking gauge to half the thickness of the piece (⅝ in.) and
mark the bottom of your cut as in Ex. II (b-b). Do not forget that the
working face of both pieces must be up. Therefore, the cut is made on
the working face of one piece and the bottom of the other. Proceed to
saw and chisel out as in Ex. II, when, if accurately done, the pieces
will fit together perfectly making a cross with all four arms exactly
the same length.
[Illustration: Exercise No. III.]
You will use this joint often in furniture and can make the pieces
cross at any angle by using the sliding T bevel set at the angle you
desire for marking across the tops and bottoms of the pieces and the
try square for the edges. Accuracy is essential both as to dimensions
and work.
MORTISE AND TENON.
[Illustration: Exercise No. IV.]
The mortise and tenon are used more than any other kind of joint in
furniture. Therefore great patience and care are justified in learning
to make them nicely. When the end of one piece is to be joined to
the side of another, the mortise and tenon are almost always used.
The mortise (No. 1) is an opening, square or oblong, to receive the
tenon and may go part way or all the way through. When part way it is
called a “blind” mortise; when all the way a “through” mortise. The
tenon (No. 2), is a projection on the end of the other piece, which
fits into the mortise. It generally has two shoulders, but may have
three or four, made by cutting away the sides. It should be about
one-third the thickness of the piece. In furniture it is fastened with
glue, and where advisable with a wooden pin also. The objects of this
exercise are that the pieces be straight and accurately squared to the
measurements; that the tenon be exactly in the center of the joint;
that the pieces be square to each other when joined; that the tenon fit
the mortise exactly without squeezing; that the shoulders fit up to the
cross pieces nicely and that when joined the two pieces be perfectly
flush at the joint. The method is as follows: Square up two pieces to
1½ in. × 3½ in. × 12 in. long each, take one piece for the mortise
piece, turn it on edge and find the middle. Measure 1¾ in. (a-a) each
way from the middle and mark across with knife and try square. As the
tenon is to be one-third the thickness of the piece set your marking
gauge ½ in. deep and mark a line parallel with the side between these
two lines (b-b) and (b-b), being careful not to run over the line.
Turn around and mark other side of the mortise in the same way. You
now have the mortise marked on one edge. To mark it exactly opposite
on the other side, mark across the flat side of the piece very lightly
at the end lines and across the other edge at these lines. This will
give you the end lines on the other side. Mark the side lines with the
gauge as before. Lay the piece aside and take the tenon piece. Now, as
your mortise piece is 3½ in. wide, your tenon will have to be 3½ in.
long and you will want a little extra to smooth off the end, so better
measure a trifle over 3½ in. from the end, the piece being on edge and
mark across (c-c). From this line mark square across top and bottom
sides. Also across the other edge. This gives the shoulder line for
the tenon. Take the gauge, which is set at ½ in., and mark parallel
with the flat sides from these shoulder lines to the end (d-d) (d-d),
and this will give the thickness of the tenon. Lay aside the piece and
put the mortise piece in the vise edge up. With your ¼ in. chisel and
mallet cut your mortise part way through, then turn the piece over and
cut from the other side. Remember to keep the flat side of the chisel
towards the edge of the hole and leave a slight margin all the way
round. When you have cut the mortise clear through in this way, take
your ½ in. chisel and true up to the lines, the sides first and then
the ends. See that all four sides of the mortise are straight through
from side to side or the tenon will jam. Lay aside the piece and take
tenon piece. Lay it flat side down and cut tenon exactly the same on
both sides as you did the half tenon in Ex. II. Insert tenon through
the mortise and plane off the end flush with the mortise piece. Now
look carefully over your work and see if it fulfills all the objects of
this exercise. Do it over until it does. Do not get discouraged. It is
a mighty nice operation and when you can make this joint properly you
may be proud for it is a step beyond simple carpentering and belongs to
the Joiners’ and Cabinet Makers’ art.
PANELLING.
[Illustration: Exercise No. V.]
Panelling is used in doors, the ends and backs of furniture, etc. It
may be more or less ornamented with beading, moulding and so on, but
in the best modern furniture all ornament is omitted and the panels
absolutely plain. The objects of this exercise are to make a frame 13
in. × 17½ in. × 1¾ in. thick with two sunken panels; that it shall lie
perfectly flat when put together; be smooth and true at all joints and
exact in dimensions. The method is as follows: Get out a piece which
will finish to 1¾ in. × 3½ in. × 60 in. Joint and square to required
thickness, also square up one edge only. Set in the vise with the
squared edge up. Set your gauge ½ in. deep and mark along the top edge
½ in. from and parallel with the side farthest from you. Then turn it
around and mark other side. This will give you the width of the rabbet
(see end view No. 4), in which the ¾ in. sunken panel will slide. To
cut this rabbet use your ½ in. rabbet plane and plow (cut) 1 in. deep.
If you have a Stanley No. 45 or No. 55 it has a fence to guide it, but
if you have only a wooden rabbet plane you must use a straight strip
of wood to guide the plane. There are several ways of fastening this
strip. The easiest way is to brad it on to your work along the gauge
line, but this leaves the brad holes. The best way is to take a strip
a little longer than your work and fasten a block on each end of it
which will drop down over the ends of your work, then wedge it tight
at each end. In this case the strip must be stout enough, of course,
not to bend as you plane against it. When you have plowed an inch
deep, turn your work around, move guide to other side, and with your
¼ in. rabbet plane plow the other ¼ in. to be taken out, making the
rabbet ¾ in. wide. Be sure to plane square or the panel will not lie
flat. When plowed cut this piece into two pieces 18 in. long for the
sides of the frame and three pieces 8 in. long for the top, bottom
and middle. Plow one of these 8 in. pieces, which you intend to use
for the middle bar, on the side opposite the one already plowed, as
it will have a panel on each side of it (see No. 6). Now cut a tenon
1 in. long by ¾ in. thick on each end of all three 8 in. pieces, just
as you did in Ex. III (see Nos. 2 and 3). For the panels saw from an
inch board two pieces 5½ in. × 8 in., dress them down to ¾ in. thick.
Put one of the 18 in. frame pieces in the vise with the rabbet up.
Insert the tenon of an 8 in. piece in the rabbet ¼ in. from the end,
with the rabbet in itself turned so as to receive the panel. With your
¼ in. auger bit bore a hole straight through the frame and tenon ½ in.
from the edge of the frame in the center of the tenon, as at (a) No.
1. Make a round plug to fit this hole, sand paper it smooth and drive
it in gently. This will hold the tenon in place. Slide a panel into
this rabbet and down into the rabbet in the frame piece. Next slide the
center piece in so the rabbet fits over the panel and the tenon in the
rabbet in the frame. Bore and pin like the first one, then insert the
other panel and end piece in like manner. Now take the remaining 18 in.
frame piece and fit it down snug over the tenons and panels, leaving
¼ in. margin at each end. Pin each of the three tenons, being careful
to hold the shoulders snugly against the frame and the piece tight down
on the panel. Cut the pins off flush and sand paper smooth. Now put the
whole frame in the vise and with your plane trim to exact size. When
you can do this exercise so that all joints are perfect, all surfaces
flat, smooth and even, and all dimensions correct and have mastered
the exercises before it you can pretty nearly make furniture. There is
one thing more, however, which is important, a little difficult and
frequently required, and that is dowelling and joining.
DOWELLING AND JOINING.
[Illustration: Exercise No. VI.]
For this exercise practice will do more for you than instruction. The
object of the exercise is to join two boards at their edges so as to
make a continuous surface with no crack or unevenness at the joint, as
in table tops, etc. You will be called upon for this operation whenever
you make any piece of furniture with a plain surface more than 8 to
10 inches wide. The method is as follows: Take two pieces ⅝ in. × 6
in. × 36 in., select working face of each. Find the center of each and
with knife and try square mark across the edge to be joined as at (a).
Measure 12 in. each way from center (b-b), and mark. Take your marking
gauge, set it half the thickness of the board (⁷⁄₁₆ in.) and mark a
fine point ⁷⁄₁₆ in. below the working face on the knife marks, as at
(c). With brace and ⅜ in. bit bore a hole 1½ in. deep exactly square
into edge of the board at each point, as at (d). Repeat the process
in the other board. These holes are for the dowels (e-e-e), which are
pins that keep the boards from wabbling at the joint and also hold
them together. You will appreciate, therefore, that if the holes are
not exactly straight in, the pins will lean and not fit into the holes
on the other piece, or else tip it one way or the other. To make the
dowels square up a piece ½ in. square and 9 in. long, then round it
with your smoothing plane and sand paper to exactly ⅜ in. diameter,
or, in other words, to fit the holes tight without jamming. Cut into 3
in. lengths with back saw. Before inserting the dowels the pieces must
be jointed. To do this turn one on edge in the vise and square up the
top edge (f-f) with your jack plane. Observe strictly directions given
in Chapter I for planing. When you have the edge precisely square and
straight lay aside and square one edge of the other piece. When this is
done, before taking it out of the vise, test it by standing the other
piece on it with the squared edges together and working faces turned
the same way. Test the surface of the two boards by holding the back
of your steel square across the two, seeing that it touches at the two
edges and at the joint and that no least crack shows on either side.
Now insert your dowels and the joint will be true.
This is a difficult exercise and requires much practice, but its
accomplishment brings the keen delight of work well done.
MITRING.
[Illustration: Exercise No. VII.]
The mitre is used to form a joint where two pieces come together at
right angles and make a corner. The end of each piece is cut at an
angle of 45 degrees (No. 1). To make this joint, you will want your
mitre box which you can now make with comparative ease. It must be
precise to be of use. It is a box without ends or lid (No. 2), and
made as follows: Get out three pieces ⅝ in. × 4 in. × 18 in. Joint and
square them. Select working face of each. Firmly nail sides to bottom,
all faces inward; 3 in. from end mark with knife and try square across
top of both sides (a-a). From this line mark in same way straight down
the outside of the side towards you (b-b). With back saw cut down this
line till you strike the bottom of the box, starting your saw in the
mark (a-a) on top of the two sides. Now measure 4 in. farther from
same end and mark across the tops of sides (c-c). Then 4 in. farther
and mark as before (d-d). Take your steel square or other perfectly
straight edge laid diagonally across the tops of the sides from (c) to
(d) and (d) to (c) just at the points where these marks run off the
insides of the edges and mark the tops of the sides at this angle (45
degrees). Now mark square down the outside nearest you (d) to (e), and
(c) to (f). With your back saw cut diagonally across in the marks on
top and straight down the mark on the side to the bottom of the box.
The cut straight across is for a guide for your saw in cutting square
ends and you can use it also for the shoulders of tenons. The 45-degree
cut is for guiding your saw when cutting mitres, like the corner of a
picture frame. You will realize, then, that the sides of the bottom
piece must be carefully squared or the sides of the box will not be
square to the bottom, and it must be exactly 4 in. wide or your angle
will not be true and your mitres will not fit.
If at any time you need a mitre box to take wider material make the
bottom wider and proceed otherwise as above, except that the space on
the inside face of the sides between the diagonal cuts must always be
exactly the same as the width of the bottom. In use, remember that if
you plane anything off the outside edge of a mitred end you make the
piece shorter and anything off the inside makes it longer, as you will
readily understand by experimenting a little. Therefore, you must be
careful to have your piece of the proper dimensions before mitring or
else allow for this in its length.
DOVETAILING.
To make an accurately lifted dovetailed corner is good evidence of a
workman’s ability to use tools. There are three kinds: First, common
dovetailing (Fig. 1), where strength is more important than appearance,
as in box corners, etc. The pins and tails should be of equal size and
about as wide as the material is thick. The pins are the parts widest
on the inside face of the piece (a-a-a) and the tails are the parts
which are widest at their ends (b-b).
Second, lap dovetailing (Fig. 2), which shows only from the side as
at the front ends of drawers. The tails are always on the side piece
and should be two to four times as large as the pins. There is no rule
for size. Use a size that is strong, looks well and divides the space
evenly. Always begin and finish with a half pin.
Third, the mitre dovetail, not illustrated, which is hidden altogether.
It is much more difficult to make and not so strong as the others. You
will have no use for it.
Cut your pins first and mark the tails from them, then if you make a
slip you can correct it before marking the tails and after you have
had some experience you can learn to cut the tails without marking the
bevels.
[Illustration: Exercise No. VIII.]
The object of this exercise is to make a lap dovetail joint, as of a
drawer front. Get out one piece ⅝ in. × 5 in. × 12 in. when jointed
and squared, for the front of the drawer and one piece ½ in. × 5 in. ×
12 in. for the side of the drawer. Select working faces which will be
the insides. Set your marking gauge a shade less than the thickness of
the side piece and see that the marker is sharp. Now mark across the
inside face of the front piece, gauging from the end (c-c). This is
the length of the pin. The length of the tails (which are on the side
piece) should be about ¾ the thickness of the front piece, or about
⅝ in. in this case, so set your gauge ⅝ in. deep and mark across the
end of the front piece gauging from the inside (d-d). Without changing
your gauge mark a line across both sides of the side piece, gauging
from the end (e-e). Place front piece in vise, marked end up and face
towards you. With a pencil, space out the tails, which in this case
will be about ⅜ in. wide, making a half pin at beginning and end and
three full ones between. Make them even distances apart, of course, and
when you have located them set your T bevel at an angle of 1 in 6 and
mark them accurately on the end of the front, and with your try square
continue these lines down to the gauge line (c-c) on the face. Take
your back saw and cutting on the inside of the bevel lines saw down to
the gauge mark (c-c) on the face, but not beyond the gauge mark (d-d)
on the end. In other words, you can only saw the corners. Make all cuts
in one direction first, then the others just as you would file a saw.
It is easier to be accurate this way. Next, with your chisel clean out
the spaces between the pins. These spaces will be like a mortise, open
on the end and wider at the bottom than at the surface. There will be
a little space close in the corner where you cannot get the chisel,
clean this out with your knife. Remember not to cut quite to the line
till the very last. The pins are now complete. Lay the side piece (No.
4) on the bench face up. Stand the end on it with its inside face
just covering the gauge mark (e-e) across the side near the end, as
illustrated. Hold it firmly and mark the side around the pins in the
end piece. Place the side in the vise, end up, and square the tails
across its end. With the back saw cut the sides of the tails (on inside
of lines), and lay on the bench and cut between the tails with your
chisel.
If you have much dovetailing to do it is worth while to get a chisel
bevelled on both sides and across the end, like a lathe chisel. It is
easier to get into the corners with this. Put your pieces together and
dress off the side till it is exactly flush with the front.
When you can do this exercise and the preceding ones accurately you can
do about anything you will be called upon to do. It is hard, but worth
while. You will be able to make the common dovetail easily after this.
Just remember, in that case, to make pins and tails the same size and
about as wide as the thickness of the material.