RESULTS: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was
followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.
=RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE=--1562-1598.
(1) =Catholics= vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).
CAUSE: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.
LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Guise=, =Henry III.=; (2) Catherine de Medici,
Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)
CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Massacre of St. Bartholomew= (1572); (2) Siege of
Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593).
Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.
RESULTS: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal
political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the
possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of
refuge.
=WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS=--1568-1648.
(1) =Spain= vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.
CAUSES: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva
enforces the Inquisition.
LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Alva=, =Alexander of Parma=; (2) William of
Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Mechlin=, =Haarlem=; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden,
“Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of
Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).
RESULTS: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the
seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The
ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.
=THIRTY YEARS’ WAR=--1618-1648.
(1) =German Protestants and their Allies=, =England=, =Holland=,
=Sweden and France= vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their
Allies, Spain, Italy.
CAUSES: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious
and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war
passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3)
Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.
LEADERS: (1) =Frederick=, =Elector Palatine=, =Mansfield=, =Gustavus
Adolphus= (=Sweden=), =Turenne and Conde= (=France=); (2) Emperor
Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Stralsund=, =Edict of Restitution=,
=Breitenfeld=, =Lützen=; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.
RESULTS: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace
thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and
the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany
are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria,
Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.
=CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND=--1642-1649.
(1) =Royalists= (=Cavaliers=) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads)
allied with Scots (to 1647).
CAUSES: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on
England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2)
privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.
LEADERS: (1) =Charles I.=, =Prince Rupert=, =Montrose=; (2)
Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.
RESULTS: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to
bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was
then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver
Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored
in 1660 as Charles II.
=FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.=--1667-1697.
(1) =France= vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand
Alliance (German States, England, Holland).
CAUSES: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French
territory in Europe.
LEADERS: (1) =Turenne=, =Conde=, =Luxembourg=; (2) William III., De
Ruyter.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ravaging of Palatinate=, =Steenkirke=,
=Neerwinden=; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.
RESULT: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.
=SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR=--1701-1714.
(1) =France=, =Spain and Bavaria= vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland,
Portugal, Savoy.
CAUSES: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish
dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the
partition treaty to which he had consented.
LEADERS: (1) =Vendome Villars=, =Leopold of Dessau=; (2) Duke of
Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde,
Malplaquet.
RESULTS: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714
Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia
and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives
Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and
Gibraltar from Spain.
=NORTHERN WAR=--1700-1721.
(1) =Sweden= vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.
CAUSES: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the
purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her
Baltic ports.
LEADERS: (1) =Charles XII.=; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus
II. of Saxony.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Denmark=, =Narva=, =Invasion of
Saxony=; (2) Pultava.
RESULTS: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large
territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the
foremost power of the north.
=WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION=--1740-1748.
(1) =Austria, supported by Hungary=, =Bohemia=, =England=, =Holland
and Saxony= vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.
CAUSES: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of
Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This
precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of
Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is
contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes
Silesia.
LEADERS: (1) =Maria Theresa=, =George II. of England=, =Charles of
Lorraine=; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII.,
Schwerin.
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dettingen=; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague,
Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.
RESULTS: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to
Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is
one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for
sea power and dominion in America and India.
=SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR=;
In America: =FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR=--1756-1763.
(1) =England=, =Prussia= vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain,
Sweden.
CAUSES: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between
French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for
his ancestral territory of Hanover.
LEADERS: (1) =Frederick the Great=, =Duke of Cumberland=, =Wolfe=
(=America=), =Robert Clive= (=India=); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles
of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).
CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dresden=, =Rossbach=, =Leuthen=, =Zorndorf=,
=Minden=; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.