THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS_The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

_Imperial Chancellor_.--He has no _Powers and Duties._--As a Cabinet,

counterpart in any other constitu- the Ministers represent the adminis-

tional government. He is the Em- tration in the Chambers; as a Coun-

peror’s responsible proxy, control- cil, they exercise a general over-

ling the politics of the Empire. sight of the administration of the

laws, with a view of giving unity of

_Appointment and Tenure of Office._-- direction to the affairs of the

Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one State. The President may be present

of Prussia’s seventeen representa- at all Council meetings.

tives in the Bundesrath. His term is

dependent upon the pleasure of the _Cabinet and Council of Ministers._--

Emperor. Both the Cabinet and the Council con-

sist of the same persons. The Cabinet

_Responsibility._--Does not consist is a political body; the Council, an

in a liability to be forced to re- administrative body.

sign, but consists simply in amena-

bility to the laws. _Appointment._--Chosen by the Presi-

dent, generally from among the mem-

bers of the Chambers.

_Powers and Duties._--Must give an _Members of the Cabinet._--Membership

account of the administration to the may vary somewhat:

Reichstag, and submits the annual

budget. He is the center and source _Premier and Foreign Minister._

of all the administrative depart-

ments, dominating the entire imperial _Ministers of State._

service. He superintends the ad-

ministration of the laws of the Em- _Minister of Justice and Vice-

pire by the States. As chairman of President of the Council._

the Bundesrath he is simply a

Prussian representing the King of _Minister of War._

Prussia, as the Emperor has no place

in the Bundesrath. _Minister of Marine._

The army and navy, however, are not _Minister of the Interior._

directly controlled by him, but by

the General Field-Marshal. _Minister of Finance._

The following are the imperial _Minister of Agriculture._

authorities or Secretaries of State;

they do not form a Ministry or _Minister of Public Works._

Cabinet, but act independently of

each other, under the general super- _Minister of Commerce._

vision of the Chancellor:

_Minister of Colonies._

_Chancellor of the Empire._

_Minister of Instruction and

_Secretary for Foreign Affairs._ Minister of Inventions affecting

National Defense._

_Imperial Home Office_ and

_Council of State._--Gives advice on

_Representative of the Chancellor._ all projects of law which the Cham-

bers or the Government wish to submit

_Imperial Admiralty._ to it, and on administrative regula-

tions and by-laws. Its decision is

_Imperial Secretary of Justice._ final in all disputes arising in

matters of administration.

_Imperial Treasury._

Is presided over by the Minister of

_Imperial Post-Office._ Justice, and is composed of Council-

lors, Masters of Requests, and

_Secretary for the Colonies._ Auditors, all appointed by the Presi-

dent of the republic.

And, in addition, the following

presidents of imperial bureaus: _Relations to the Chambers._--Are the

leaders of the Chambers.

_Railways._

Whether members of the Chambers or

_Imperial Exchequer._ not, they have as Ministers the right

to attend all sessions of the Cham-

_Imperial Bank._ bers and take a specially privileged

part in the debate.

_Imperial Debt Commission._

_Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon

_Administration of Imperial Rail- the favor of the Chambers; for, if

ways._ not sustained, they must all resign.

_Imperial Court Martial._

Acting under the direction of the

Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes-

rath represents also a supreme ad-

ministrative and consultative board,

and as such has twelve standing com-

mittees--namely, for army and forti-

fications; for naval matters; tariff,

excise and taxes; trade and commerce;

railways, posts and telegraphs; civil

and criminal law; financial accounts;

foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine;

for the Constitution; for the

standing orders; and for railway

tariffs.

=III. The Government.= =III. The Chambers.=--Consist of the

Senate and House of Deputies.

The legislative functions of the

Empire are vested jointly in the Bun-

desrath or Federal Council which re-

presents the several states, and by

the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm,

which represents the German nation.

The Emperor has no veto on laws

passed by these bodies. All laws for

the Empire must receive the votes of

an absolute majority.

The consent of the Federal Council

and Reichstag is necessary in regard

to certain specified treaties. The

Emperor has the right to summon,

open, adjourn, and close the Reichs-

tag. The Federal Council and Reichs-

tag must be summoned to meet every

year; the Reichstag cannot be sum-

moned without the adherence of the

Federal Council.

_BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council_, is _THE SENATE_ is composed of three

composed of sixty-one votes repre- hundred members chosen by the Depart-

senting the individual states. They ments and Colonies for nine years,

are appointed by the governments one-third of the members retiring

(_i. e._ the Executives) of the every three years.

States for each session.

Until 1884 the Senate contained

The apportionments of representa- seventy-five life members, the life

tion in the Bundesrath among the list having been originally made up

States of the Empire is as follows: by election by the National Assembly

Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, of 1875, and vacancies being filled

Saxony and Würtemberg four each, by the Senate itself. In 1884 this

Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each arrangement was abolished, and since

three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and that year vacancies in the life roll

Brunswick each two, the other States have been filled by ordinary nine-

(seventeen) one apiece. year Senators.

_Qualifications._--Must be a French-

man, and at least forty years of age.

_Remuneration._--Receive no pay. _Remuneration._--15,000 francs

($3,000).

_Organization_--_Quorum._--The Im- _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority

perial Chancellor or his substitute of members. Elects its own President

(at regular meeting). The Imperial and Vice-Presidents.

Chancellor presides. Votes with the

other Prussian representatives, whose

votes must be undivided; and, in case

of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.

_Committees._--There are three _Committees._--Each month the members

standing committees and eight commis- are divided by lots into “Bureaux.”

sions, two of which are appointed by These select all the special commit-

the Emperor, five wholly by the Bun- tees to which bills are referred,

desrath, and one in part by the Bun- except when the House chooses itself

desrath, being made up principally of to elect a committee.

members _ex-officio_.

Each commission consists of represen-

tatives of at least five States of

the Empire.

_Powers and Duties._--May originate _Powers and Duties._--In concurrence

bills to be sent to the Reichstag. with the Chamber of Deputies, makes

Its consent is indispensable to the the laws, and has in law-making the

validity of all legislation. Members same prerogatives as the Chamber,

may speak on the floor of the Reichs- except that bills relating to revenue

tag. Acting under the direction of originate with the Chamber. It is a

the Imperial Chancellor, it is the court of justice for trying the

supreme administrative board. It is President of the republic and the

in some cases the highest court of Ministers. It may originate, and, in

the Empire. Is the court of appeal concurrence with the Senate, pass

between two or more States of the resolutions and bills; but bills re-

Empire. lating to finance must be originated

by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power

to bring accusations against the

President of the republic and the

Ministers.

_REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet_, is _THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES_ is composed

composed (in 1917) of three hundred (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-

and ninety-seven members, and four Deputies, distributed among the

elected for five years by universal Departments and certain colonies in

suffrage. the proportion of one Deputy to

seventy thousand inhabitants. The

Deputies are chosen for a term of

four years by universal suffrage, the

Arrondissements serving as electoral

districts.

_Qualifications._--Must be at least _Qualifications._--Must be a citizen

twenty-five years of age, and have of France, and at least twenty-five

lived at least one year in one of the years of age.

German States.

_Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority

of members. Elects its own presiding of members. Chooses its own Presi-

officer, who is called the President. dent, Vice-President and other

officers.

_Remuneration._--3,000 marks ($750) _Remuneration._--15,000 francs

per session, with deduction of twenty ($3,000).

marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence;

they have free passes over German

railways during session.

_Powers and Duties._--Has power to _Powers and Duties._--May originate,

originate and, with the advice and and, in concurrence with the Senate,

consent of the Bundesrath, to enact pass resolutions and bills; but bills

the laws. It also exerts a control- relating to finance must be origi-

ling influence through its power to nated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has

give or withhold its sanction to power to bring accusations against

certain ordinances to whose validity the President of the republic and

the Constitution makes its concur- Ministers.

rence necessary, through its right to

inquire into the conduct of affairs;

and in many other ways not suscepti-

ble of enumeration.

_Committees._--There are no standing _Committees._--Each month the members

committees, but select committees are are divided by lot into eleven

occasionally appointed by election “Bureaux,” which select all the

from the seven “Sections” into which special committees to which bills are

the members are divided by lot for referred, except when the Chamber

committee work. chooses to appoint a committee di-

rectly.

=IV. Judicial Department.= =IV. Judicial Department.=

The laws of the Empire take prece- The judicial system is under direct

dence of the Federated States within control of the government. All Judges

the scope of the Constitution of the are nominated by the President of the

Empire; they are compulsory on all republic. They can be removed only by

Governments of the Empire. a decision of the Court of Cassation

constituted as the _Conseil

A uniform system of law courts exists Supérieur_ of the magistracy.

throughout the Empire, though, with

the exception of the Reichsgericht, THE COURT OF CASSATION.

all courts are directly subject to

the Government of the special State _The Court of Cassation_, which sits

in which they exercise jurisdiction, at Paris, is the highest court for all

and not to the Imperial Government. criminal cases tried by jury, so far

The appointment of the judges is also as regards matters of law.

a State and not an Imperial function.

The Empire enjoys uniform codes of _Courts of Appeal._--The highest

commercial and criminal law. courts are the twenty-six Courts of

Appeal, composed each of one presi-

IMPERIAL SUPREME COURT. dent and a variable number of mem-

bers, for all criminal cases which

_Reichsgericht_ (Imperial Supreme have been tried without a jury.

Court), to which there is a right of

appeal from all inferior courts, sits _Court of Assizes._--In all cases of

at Leipzig, and consists of one a _délit_ or a crime the preliminary

hundred judges, appointed by the inquiry is made in secrecy by an

Kaiser on the recommendation of the examining magistrate (_juge d’in-

Bundesrath. struction_), who may either dismiss

the case or send it for trial before

_The Oberlandesgerichte_ (Supreme a court where a public prosecutor

Court), which are the first courts of (procureur) endeavors to prove the

the second instance, have original charge. The Court of Assizes is

jurisdiction in serious offenses, and assisted by twelve jurors, who decide

are presided over by seven judges. by simple majority on the fact with

respect to offenses amounting to

_The Landgerichte_ (County Courts) crimes.

have a fairly extensive jurisdiction

in civil and criminal cases and in

divorce proceedings. There are five

judges in the criminal chamber of a

Landgericht, four votes being re-

quired to make a conviction valid.

Three judges from such a court pre-

side at intervals over jury courts

(Schwurgerichte), and juries do not,

therefore, form a permanent part of

the system.

Not the least important work of the

Landgerichte is to revise the deci-

sions of the Amtsgerichte, which are

the lowest courts of the first in-

stance, being controlled by single

judges, who are competent to hear

only petty civil and criminal cases.

_The Amtsgerichte_ (Police or Dis- _Justices of the Peace_ (_juges de

trict Courts) are the lowest courts, paix_) are the courts of lowest

each with a single judge competent to jurisdiction in France. They try

try petty civil and criminal cases, small civil cases and act also as

divorce cases, etc. judges of Police Courts, where all

petty offenses (_contraventions_) are

disposed of. The Correctional Courts

pronounce upon all graver offenses

(_délits_), including cases involving

imprisonment up to five years. They

have no jury, and consist of three

judges belonging to the civil tri-

bunals of first instance.

For commercial cases there are, in

two hundred and twenty-six towns,

Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of

Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns

are police courts.

=IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED

STATES=

=TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE=

===============================+=======================================

=NAMES OF PRESIDENTS= | =BORN=

+----------------------+----------------

| =Date= | =Birthplace=

-------------------------------+----------------------+----------------

1. =George Washington= |Fri., Feb. 22, 1732|Bridges Creek,

| |near Fredericks-

| |burg, Va.

2. =John Adams= |Wed., Oct. 30, 1735|Quincy, Mass.

3. =Thomas Jefferson= |Tues., April 13, 1743|Shadwell, Va.

4. =James Madison= |Fri., Mar. 16, 1751|Port Conway, Va.

5. =James Monroe= |Fri., April 28, 1758|Westmoreland

| |Co., Va.

6. =John Quincy Adams= |Sat., July 11, 1767|Quincy, Mass.

7. =Andrew Jackson= |Sun., Mar. 15, 1767|Union County,

| |N. C.

8. =Martin Van Buren= |Thurs., Dec. 5, 1782|Kinderhook,

| |N. Y.

9. =William Henry Harrison= |Tues., Feb. 9, 1773|Berkeley, Va.

10. =John Tyler= |Mon., Mar. 29, 1790|Charles City

| |Co., Va.

11. =James Knox Polk= |Mon., Nov. 2, 1795|Mecklenburg Co.,

| |N. C.

12. =Zachary Taylor= |Tues., Nov. 24, 1784|Orange Co., Va.

13. =Millard Fillmore= |Tues., Jan. 7, 1800|Summerhill,

| |N. Y.

14. =Franklin Pierce= |Fri., Nov. 23, 1804|Hillsborough,

| |N. H.

15. =James Buchanan= |Sat., April 23, 1791|Cove Gap, Pa.

16. =Abraham Lincoln= |Sun., Feb. 12, 1809|Nolin Creek, Ky.

17. =Andrew Johnson= |Thurs., Dec. 29, 1808|Raleigh, N. C.

18. =Ulysses Simpson Grant= |Sat., April 27, 1822|Point Pleasant,

| |Ohio

19. =Rutherford Birchard Hayes=|Fri., Oct. 4, 1822|Delaware, Ohio

20. =James Abram Garfield= |Sat., Nov. 19, 1831|Orange Township,

| |Ohio

21. =Chester Alan Arthur= |Tues., Oct. 5, 1830|Fairfield, Vt.

22. =Grover Cleveland= |Sat., Mar. 18, 1837|Caldwell, N. J.

23. =Benjamin Harrison= |Tues., Aug. 20, 1833|North Bend, Ohio

24. =Grover Cleveland= |Sat., Mar. 18, 1837|Caldwell, N. J.

25. =William McKinley= |Sun, Jan. 29, 1843|Niles, Ohio

26. =Theodore Roosevelt= |Wed., Oct. 27, 1858|28 East 20th

| |St., New York

| |City

27. =William Howard Taft= |Tues., Sept. 15, 1857|Cincinnati, Ohio

28. =Woodrow Wilson= |Sun., Dec. 28, 1856|Staunton, Va.

-------------------------------+----------------------+----------------

===============================+=====================+=======+=========

=NAMES OF PRESIDENTS= | =PARENTS= |=Pater-|=Father’s

-------------------------------+----------+----------+nal An-|Business=

| =Father= | =Mother= |cestry=|

-------------------------------+----------+----------+-------+---------

1. =George Washington= |Augustine |Mary Ball |English|Planter

2. =John Adams= |John |Susanna |English|Farmer

| |Boylston | |

3. =Thomas Jefferson= |Peter |Jane |Welsh |Planter

| |Randolph | |

4. =James Madison= |James |Nellie |English|Planter

| |Conway | |

5. =James Monroe= |Spence |Eliza |Scotch |Planter

| |Jones | |

6. =John Quincy Adams= |John |Abigail |English|Lawyer

| | | |

7. =Andrew Jackson= |Andrew |Elizabeth |Scotch-|Farmer

| |Hutchinson|Irish |

8. =Martin Van Buren= |Abraham |Maria Hoes|Dutch |Farmer

9. =William Henry Harrison= |Benjamin |Elizabeth |English|Statesman

| |Bassett | |

10. =John Tyler= |John |Mary |English|Jurist

| |Armistead | |

11. =James Knox Polk= |Samuel |Jane Knox |... |Farmer

12. =Zachary Taylor= |Richard |Sarah |Scotch-|...

| |Strother |Irish |

13. =Millard Fillmore= |Nathaniel |Phebe |English|Farmer

| |Millard | |

14. =Franklin Pierce= |Benjamin |Anna |English|Farmer

| |Kendrick | |

15. =James Buchanan= |James |Elizabeth |Scotch-|Merchant

| |Speer |Irish |

16. =Abraham Lincoln= |Thomas |Nancy |English|Farmer

| |Hanks | |

17. =Andrew Johnson= |Jacob |Mary |English|Sexton

| |McDonough | |

18. =Ulysses Simpson Grant= |Jesse Root|Harriet |Scotch |Farmer

| |Simpson | |

19. =Rutherford Birchard Hayes=|Rutherford|Sophia |Scotch |Merchant

| |Birchard | |

20. =James Abram Garfield= |Abram |Eliza |English|Farmer

| |Ballou | |

21. =Chester Alan Arthur= |William |Malvina |Scotch-|Clergyman

| |Stone |Irish |

22. =Grover Cleveland= |Richard |Anne |English|Clergyman

|Falley |Neale | |

23. =Benjamin Harrison= |John Scott|Elizabeth |English|Farmer

| |Findlay | |

| |Irwin | |

24. =Grover Cleveland= |Richard |Anne |English|Clergyman

|Falley |Neale | |

25. =William McKinley= |William |Nancy C. |Scotch-|Iron Mnfr.

| |Allison |Irish |

26. =Theodore Roosevelt= |Theodore |Martha |Dutch |Merchant

| |Bullock | |

27. =William Howard Taft= |Alphonso |Louise M. |English|Lawyer

| |Torrey | |

28. =Woodrow Wilson= |Jos. |Jessie |Scotch-|Clergyman

|Ruggles |Woodrow |Irish |

-------------------------------+----------+----------+-------+---------

=TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS=

========================+================+========+=======+=========+======

------------------------+----------------+--------+-------+---------+------

|Mary, 1762 | | | |[12]

|1787 | | | |lican

|1843 | | | |

------------------------+----------------+--------+-------+---------+------

[12] The _first_ Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later

developed into the Democratic party of today.

=TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY=

=======+=============+=====+===========================+==============

=Terms=| =Name= |=Mar-| =Wife’s Name= | =Children=

| |ried=| +------+-------

-------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------

1-2 |=Washington= |1759 |Martha (Dandridge) Custis | 0 | 0

3 |=Adams= |1764 |Abigail Smith (1744-1818) | 3 | 2

4-5 |=Jefferson= |1772 |Martha (Wayles) Skelton | 0 | 6

6-7 |=Madison= |1794 |Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772- | 0 | 0

8-9 |=Monroe= |1786 |Elisa Kortwright (1768- | 0 | 2

| | |1830) | |

10 |=Adams, J.Q.=|1797 |Louisa Catherine Johnson | 3 | 1

| | |(1775-1852) | |

11-12 |=Jackson= |1791 |Rachel (Donelson) Robards | 3 | 0

13 |=Van Buren= |1807 |Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) | 4 | 0

14 |=Harrison= |1795 |Anna Symmes (1775-1864) | 6 | 4

|=Tyler= |1813 |(1) To Letitia Christian | 3 | 4

| | |(1790-1842) | |

| |1844 |(2) To Julia Gardiner | 4 | 2

| | |(1820-1889) | |

15 |=Polk= |1824 |Sarah Childress (1803-1891)| 0 | 0

16 |=Taylor= |1810 |Margaret Smith (1788-1852) | 1 | 3

|=Fillmore= |1826 |(1) Abigail Powers (1798- | 1 | 1

| | |1853) | |

| |1858 |(2) Caroline (Carmichael) | 0 | 0

17 |=Pierce= |1834 |Jane Means Appleton (1806- | 3 | 0

| | |1863) | |

18 |=Buchanan= | ... |Unmarried | ... | ...

19-20 |=Lincoln= |1842 |Mary Todd (1818-1882) | 4 | 0

20 |=Johnson= |1827 |Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) | 3 | 2

21-22 |=Grant= |1848 |Julia Dent (1826-1902) | 3 | 1

23 |=Hayes= |1852 |Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) | 7 | 1

24 |=Garfield= |1858 |Lucretia Rudolph (1832- | 4 | 1

| | |----) | |

|=Arthur= |1859 |Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837- | 1 | 1

| | |1880) | |

25 |=Cleveland= |1886 |Frances Folsom (1864- | 2 | 3

| | |----) | |

26 |=Harrison= |1853 |(1) Caroline Scott (1832- | 1 | 1

| | |1892) | |

| |1896 |(2) Mary Scott (Lord) | 0 | 1

27 |=Cleveland= | ... |Frances Folsom (1864- | ... | ...

| | |----) | |

28-29 |=McKinley= |1871 |Ida Saxton (1844-1907) | 0 | 2

29-30 |=Roosevelt= |1883 |(1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) | 0 | 1

| |1886 |(2) Edith Kermit Carow | 4 | 1

| | |(1861- ----) | |

31 |=Taft= |1886 |Helen Herron (1861- ----) | 2 | 1

32 |=Wilson= |1885 |(1) Helen Louise Axsen | 0 | 3

| | |(1860-1914) | |

| |1915 |(2) Edith Bolling Galt | ... | ...

| | |(1872- ----) | |

-------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------

=TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL=

=======+=============+=========+===============+=========+===============

-------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------

1-2 |=Washington= | 1789 |Mt. Vernon, Va.| 57 |April 30, 1789-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1797

3 |=Adams= | 1796 |Quincy, Mass. | 62 |Mar. 4, 1797-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1801

4-5 |=Jefferson= | 1800 |Monticello, Va.| 58 |Mar. 4, 1801-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1809

6-7 |=Madison= | 1808 |Montpelier, Va.| 58 |Mar. 4, 1809-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1817

8-9 |=Monroe= | 1816 |Oakhill, Va. | 59 |Mar. 4, 1817-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1825

10 |=Adams, J.Q.=| 1824 |Quincy, Mass. | 58 |Mar. 4, 1825-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1829

11-12 |=Jackson= | 1828 |Hermitage, | 62 |Mar. 4, 1829-

| | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1837

13 |=Van Buren= | 1836 |Kinderhook, | 55 |Mar. 4, 1837-

| | |N. Y. | |Mar. 4, 1841

14 |=Harrison= | 1840 |North Bend, | 68 |Mar. 4, 1841-

| | |Va. | |Mar. 4, 1845

15 |=Polk= | 1844 |Nashville, | 50 |Mar. 4, 1845-

| | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1849

16 |=Taylor= | 1848 |Baton Rouge, | 65 |Mar. 4, 1849-

| | | La. | |July 10, 1850

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1853

17 |=Pierce= | 1852 |Concord, N. H. | 49 |Mar. 4, 1853-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1857

18 |=Buchanan= | 1856 |Wheatland, Pa. | 66 |Mar. 4, 1857-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1861

19-20 |=Lincoln= | 1860 |Springfield, | 52 |Mar. 4, 1861-

| | |Ill. | |April 15, 1865

20 |=Johnson= | ... |Greeneville, | 57 |April 15, 1865-

| | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1869

21-22 |=Grant= | 1868 |Washington, | 47 |Mar. 4, 1869-

| | |D. C. | |Mar. 4, 1877

23 |=Hayes= | 1876 |Fremont, Ohio | 54 |Mar. 4, 1877-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1881

24 |=Garfield= | 1880 |Mentor, Ohio | 49 |Mar. 4, 1881-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1885

25 |=Cleveland= | 1884 |Buffalo, N. Y. | 48 |Mar. 4, 1885-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1889

26 |=Harrison= | 1888 |Indianapolis, | 55 |Mar. 4, 1889-

| | |Ind. | |Mar. 4, 1893

27 |=Cleveland= | 1892 |Buffalo, N. Y. | 56 |Mar. 4, 1893-

| | | | |Mar. 4, 1897

28-29 |=McKinley= | 1896 |Canton, Ohio | 54 |Mar. 4, 1897-

29-30 |=Roosevelt= | 1904 |Oyster Bay, | 43 |Sept. 14, 1901-

| | |N. Y. | |Mar. 4, 1909

31 |=Taft= | 1908 |Cincinnati, | 51 |Mar. 4, 1909-

| | |Ohio | |Mar. 4, 1913

32 |=Wilson= | 1912 |Princeton, | 56 |Mar. 4, 1913-

| | |N. J. | |...

-------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------

=======+=============+======+=========+======+===============+============

-------+-------------+------+---------+------+---------------+------------

1-2 |=Washington= | 1799 |Pneumonia| 67 |Mt. Vernon, Va.|Mt. Vernon,

| | | | | |Va.

3 |=Adams= | 1826 |Natural | 90 |Quincy, Mass. |Unitarian

4-5 |=Jefferson= | 1826 |Chronic | 83 |Monticello, Va.|Monticello,

6-7 |=Madison= | 1836 |Natural | 85 |Montpelier, Va.|Montpelier,

| | | | | |Va.

8-9 |=Monroe= | 1831 |Natural | 73 |New York City |Hollywood,

| | | | | |Va.

10 |=Adams, J.Q.=| 1848 |Paralysis| 80 |Washington, |Unitarian,

| | | | |D. C. |Quincy,

11-12 |=Jackson= | 1845|Consump- | 78 |Hermitage, near|Hermitage,

13 |=Van Buren= | 1862 |Asthma | 79 |Kinderhook, |Kinderhook,

| | | | |N. Y. |N. Y.

14 |=Harrison= | 1841 |Pleurisy | 68 |White House, |North Bend,

| | | | |D. C. |

| | |with | | |Va.

| | |tis | | |

15 |=Polk= | ... |Chronic | 53 |Nashville, |Nashville,

16 |=Taylor= | 1850 |Cholera | 65 |White House, |Springfield,

| | |and | |D. C. |

| | | | | |N. Y.

17 |=Pierce= | 1869 |Dropsy | 64 |Concord, N. H. |Concord,

| | |and in- | | |N. H.

18 |=Buchanan= | 1868 |Rheumatic| 77 |Lancaster, Pa. |Woodward

19-20 |=Lincoln= | 1865 |Assassi- | 56 |Washington, |Oak Ridge,

| | |Booth | | |Ill.

20 |=Johnson= | 1875 |Paralysis| 66 |Greeneville, |Greeneville,

21-22 |=Grant= | 1885 |Cancer of| 63 |Mt. McGregor, |Riverside,

| | |the | |N. Y. |New York

23 |=Hayes= | 1893 |Neuralgia| 70 |Fremont, Ohio |Fremont,

24 |=Garfield= | 1881 |Assassi- | 49 |Elberon, Long |Lake View

| | | | | |N. Y.

25 |=Cleveland= | ... |... | ... |... |...

26 |=Harrison= | 1901 |Pneumonia| 67 |Indianapolis, |Crown Hill

| | | | |Ind. |Cemetery,

27 |=Cleveland= | 1908 |Heart | 71 |Princeton, |Princeton,

| | |failure | |N. J. |N. J.

28-29 |=McKinley= | 1901 |Assassi- | 58 |Buffalo, N. Y. |Cemetery,

29-30 |=Roosevelt= | ... |... | ... |... |...

31 |=Taft= | ... |... | ... |... |...

32 |=Wilson= | ... |... | ... |... |...

-------+-------------+------+---------+------+---------------+------------

=TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS=

=============+========================================================

=Name= | =Career After Leaving the Presidency=

-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=Washington= |Agricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief

|(1798) because of threatened war with France.

=Adams= |Member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of

|1820.

=Jefferson= |Retired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted

|much time to the University of Virginia.

=Madison= |Retired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to

|University of Virginia; served in the Virginia Constitu-

|tional Convention, 1829.

=Monroe= |Retired to private life in Virginia; served as a member

|of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830.

=Adams, J.Q.=|Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of

|Representatives; served from 1830 to his death.

=Jackson= |Retired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.;

|always took a deep interest in public affairs.

=Van Buren= |Was renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the

|presidency.

=Harrison= |Died in office.

=Tyler= |Retired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace

|convention held in Washington in 1861.

=Polk= |Died in office.

=Taylor= |...

=Fillmore= |Was candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent

|his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y.

=Pierce= |Traveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H.

=Buchanan= |Retired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing

|defense of his administration.

=Lincoln= |Died in office.

=Johnson= |Retired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United

|States Senator in 1875.

=Grant= |Made tour of the world and retired to private life in

|New York.

=Hayes= |Was president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of

|the National Prison association.

=Garfield= |Died in office.

=Arthur= |Died the year following his retirement.

=Cleveland= |Retired to New York to practice law; at the end of

|second term retired to Princeton, N. J.

=Harrison= |Professor of International law at Leland Stanford Uni-

|versity, California; afterward practiced law.

=McKinley= |Died in office.

=Roosevelt= |In March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to

|Africa, organized in the interest of the Smithsonian

|Institution; resumed literary work and politics.

=Taft= |Kent Professor of Law at Yale University.

=Wilson= |...

-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=============+========================================================

=Name= | =Writings of the Presidents=

-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=Washington= |_Maxims_; _Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence_.

=Adams= |_Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws_; _Defense of the Ameri-

|can Constitution_.

=Jefferson= |_A Summary View of the Rights of America_; _The Declara-

|tion of Independence_; _Act for Freedom of Religion_.

=Madison= |_Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Con-

|federation and Federal Congress_; _Essays_.

=Monroe= |_A View of the Conduct of the Executive_; _The People_;

|_The Sovereign_.

=Adams, J.Q.=|_Poems of Religion and Society_; _Lectures on Rhetoric

|and Oratory_; _Criticisms of Paine’s “Rights of Man;”_

|_Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality_

=Jackson= |...

=Van Buren= |_Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties

|in the United States_.

=Harrison= |_A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the

|Ohio_.

=Tyler= |...

=Polk= |...

=Taylor= |...

=Fillmore= |...

=Pierce= |...

=Buchanan= |_Résumé of My Administration_.

=Lincoln= |_Orations_.

=Johnson= |_Speeches_.

=Grant= |_Shiloh_; _Vicksburg_; _Chattanooga_; _The Wilderness_;

|_The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant_.

=Hayes= |...

=Garfield= |_Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory_;

|_Garfield’s Words_.

=Arthur= |...

=Cleveland= |_Writings and Speeches_.

=Harrison= |_Speeches_; _This Country of Ours_; _Views of an Ex-

|President_.

=McKinley= |_Speeches_.

=Roosevelt= |_The Naval War of 1812_; _Essays on Practical Politics_;

|_The Winning of the West_; _Hero Tales From American

|History_; _American Ideals_; _Life of Oliver Cromwell_;

|_African Game Trails_.

=Taft= |...

=Wilson= |_Congressional Government_; _The State_; _An Old Master,

|and Other Political Essays_; _Mere Literature and Other

|Essays_; _George Washington_; _A History of the American

|People_.

-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=============+========================================================

=Name= |=Presidential Sobriquets=

-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=Washington= |“Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.”

=Adams= |“Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.”

=Jefferson= |“Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.”

=Madison= |“Father of the Constitution.”

=Monroe= |“Last Cocked Hat.”

=Adams, J.Q.=|“Old Man Eloquent.”

=Jackson= |“Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.”

=Van Buren= |“Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.”

=Harrison= |“Tippecanoe.”

=Tyler= |“Young Hickory.”

=Polk= |Also “Young Hickory.”

=Taylor= |“Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.”

=Fillmore= |“The American Louis Philippe.”

=Pierce= |“Purse.”

=Buchanan= |“Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.”

=Lincoln= |“Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.”

=Johnson= |“Sir Veto.”

=Grant= |“Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.”

=Hayes= |“President de Facto.”

=Garfield= |“The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.”

=Arthur= |“Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.”

=Cleveland= |“Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.”

=Harrison= |“Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.”

=McKinley= |“Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.”

=Roosevelt= |“Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous

|President.”

=Taft= |“The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.”

=Wilson= |“The Scholar in Politics.”

-------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=CANADA.=--What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of

the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the

British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova

Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions

of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of

the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.

Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000

square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census

figures for 1911 were:

Area Popula-

sq. mi. tion

Prince Edward Island 2,184 93,728

Nova Scotia 21,428 492,338

New Brunswick 27,985 351,889

Quebec 351,873 2,002,712

Ontario 260,862 2,523,274

Manitoba 73,732 455,614

British Columbia 355,855 392,480

Alberta 255,285 374,663

Saskatchewan 251,700 492,432

Yukon (Territory) 207,076 8,512

Northwest Territories 1,921,685 17,196

--------- ---------

Total 3,729,665 7,204,838

In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba,

Ontario, and Quebec.

NEWFOUNDLAND.--The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the

Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a

population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island

is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles

(population 3,949).

=Physical Features.=--Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in

deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the

Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high

and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is

also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits,

really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand

square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles

in extent.

The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains,

the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming

part of the boundary with the United States.

The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence,

the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the

north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred

miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence,

and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.

The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same

is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan.

Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth

parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general

agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.

This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most

easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the

highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes,

Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from

seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska,

is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See Mountains of

the World for elevations.)

=Lakes and Rivers.=--Canada is well watered, the country presenting a

network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with

the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between

the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada

of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See North America

and United States.)

Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the

Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.

Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the

Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it

into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their

waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill,

emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing

into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake;

the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes,

and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British

Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the

Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau

and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence;

and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick,

which it partly separates from the State of Maine.

The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton,

Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St.

Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte

Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are

immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.

=Climate.=--The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently

extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to

continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four

and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest

climate in North America.

In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from

ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six

degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is

always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.

=Products and Industries.=--The chief industries of Canada are those of

agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade

and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is

maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber,

fish, and furs, with dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat

flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish,

coal, and minerals.

The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron,

asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been

worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon

(Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to

open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing

also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in

Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined

to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of

the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova

Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality.

Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred

and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north

from the frontier for about one thousand miles.

The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important

sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world--to the

United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian

commonwealth.

Great progress has recently been made in the development of

manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system,

but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.

Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the

manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are

sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors,

window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.

=People.=--The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south,

along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of

British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province

of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French

settlers; they are called _habitans_; many of them speak an archaic

French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are

Roman Catholic in religion.

The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch,

French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch,

Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.

Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is

by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in

Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and

Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or

French.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION.--There is no state religion in Canada, and

absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics,

Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans,

and Congregationalists are all represented.

Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control

of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of

Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which

existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial

normal schools.

In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and

Roman Catholics.

The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation

are as follows:

=PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA=

=====+========+=============+=========+=============+======+=====+=======

-----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------

1881|Alma |St. Thomas, |Methodist|Robt. I. | 21 | 200| 2,500

1838|Arcadia |Wolfville, |Baptist |Geo. Barton | 24 | 250| 2,500

1818|Dal- |Halifax, N.S.|Non-Sect.|A. Stanley | 86 | 417| 28,000

| | | |B.A. | | |

1894|Havergal|Toronto, Ont.|... |N. W. Hoyles,| 65 | 350| 1,000

|Ladies’ | | |Kc. | | |

1789|Kings |Windsor, Ont.|Prot. |Rev. T.W. | 13 | 91| ...

1844|Knox |Toronto, Ont.|Pres- |Rev. Alfred | 9 | 140| 22,000

1907|Mac- |A. de Belle- |Non-Sect.|F.C. | 50 | 407| 9,000

|College | | |D.Sc. | | |

1906|McGill |Vancouver, |Non-Sect.|Geo. E. | 24 | 340| 1,600

|Col. | | |(Act.) | | |

1821|McGill |Montreal, |Indepen. |Wm. Peterson,| 280 |2,104|140,000

|Univer- |Can. | |M.A. | | |

1887|McMaster|Toronto, Ont.|Baptist |A.L. | 30 | 300| 20,000

|sity | | |M.A. | | |

1873|Montreal|Montreal, |Prot. |E.I. Rexford,| 5 | 30| 7,000

|Diocesan|Can. |Epis. |M.A. | | |

1863|Mt. |Sackville, |Methodist|Byron C. | 21 | 250| 12,000

1874|Ontario |Whitby, Ont. |Methodist|Rev. J.J. | 22 | 185| 7,000

1867|Presby- |Montreal, |Pres- |John | 21 | 80| 20,000

|College | | |D.D. | | |

1855|Provin- |Truro, N.S. |State |David Soloam,| 20 | 425| 4,000

|cial | | |LL.D. | | |

|Nor. | | | | | |

1847|Queen’s |Kingston, |Non-Sect.|Very Rev. | 125 |1,610| 67,000

1888|Ridley |St. Cath’n’s.|Anglican |Rev. J.O. | 15 | 160| 2,500

1899|St. |Toronto, Ont.|... |Rev. D.B. | 18 | 250| ...

|College | | |M.A. | | |

1851|Trinity |Toronto, Ont.|Prot. |Rev. T.C.S. | 24 | 180| 15,000

1845|Univ. of|Lennoxville, |Prot. |Rev. R.A. | 9 | 60| 11,500

|Col. | | | | | |

1912|Univ. of|Calgary, Alb.|Non-Sect.|F.H. Dougall | 11 | 268| ...

|Calgary | | |(Act.) | | |

1852|Univer- |Quebec |Non-Sect.|Mgr. Amedee | 70 | 474|100,000

|Laval U.| | |M.A. | | |

1877|Univ. of|Winnipeg, |State |James A. | 43 | 881| 12,790

| | | |Ph.D. | | |

1800|Univ. of|Fredericton, |State |Cecil C. | 18 | 165| 10,000

|New |N.B. | |Jones (Chan.)| | |

1907|Univ. of|Saskatoon, |State |Walter C. | 41 | 381| ...

|wan | | | | | |

1855|U. of |Antigonish, |Catholic |H.P. | 19 | 225| 22,000

|St. |N.S. | |MacPherson, | | |

|Fran. | | |D.D. | | |

|Xav. | | | | | |

|Col. | | | | | |

1841|Victoria|Toronto, Ont.|Methodist|Rev. R.P. | 28 | 610| 25,080

1873|Wesleyan|Montreal, |Methodist|Rev. J. | 4 | 100| 5,000

|Col. | | | | | |

1877|Wycliffe|Toronto, Ont.|Prot. |Thos. R. | 8 | 118| ...

| | | |LL.D. | | |

-----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------

=Government.=--Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of

the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North

America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion

shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the

executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain

and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy

Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a

Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of

Commons.”

Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who

is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five

years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of

Canadian revenues.

The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom

exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The

Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial

Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete

autonomy.

=The Legislature.=--The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of

an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.

The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed

between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four

for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince

Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for

Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are

appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for

the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the

province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized

subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four

thousand dollars.

The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists

of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two

being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova

Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for

British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta,

fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is

also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no

property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a

very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their

Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.

Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a

Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of

the Executive.

=The Judicature.=--Justice is administered, as in England, by judges,

police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named

are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost

men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the

Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate

judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other

Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by

a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The

Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench,

Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General

Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally

analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and

criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.

=Cities.=--The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion

is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.

Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has

extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria

tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St.

Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.

Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping

place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with

walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.

Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local

capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the

Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.

Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401;

Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619;

London, Ont., 46,300.

=Ottawa= is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one

hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at

Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred

yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans

the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber

mills, flour mills and factories.

East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal

passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau

Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the

northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.

It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded

pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official

events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public

functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the

city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide

reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.

The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style

after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome

library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet).

Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the

Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General--an old

fashioned building, called Rideau Hall--is about a mile from the city.

The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely

built of stone.

Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of

England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a

cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a

very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a

musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and

the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.

The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter

thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the

streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the

mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also

manufactured.

The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a

settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence

near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The

construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was

called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was

created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital

of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.

=History.=--In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec,

of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France.

Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded

Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to

Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held

to be French territory.

The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and

bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the

French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands

of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations.

Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to

England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota,

Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the

United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided

into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and

the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New

Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British

Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to

it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American

provinces--except Newfoundland--took place in 1867-1871, and the

prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red

River rebellion of 1869.

The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between

Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the

other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan

coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary

dispute was settled in 1903.

A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911

saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the

Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of

government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General

by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as

Governor-General.

The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the

vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done

much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the

Dominion.

=MEXICO= (or _Méjico_; Span. pron. _Meh´hē-co_, from a native word), a

federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a

federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United

States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand

miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of

Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost

six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble

haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and

lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally

closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however,

have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.

From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there

extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the

Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square

miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany

and Austria-Hungary together.

=Surface.=--For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland,

which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand

one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico

City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three

thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain

range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from

Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras

of the east coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges

and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them

are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl,

“star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl

(“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.

On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip

(about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific,

where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the

descent is more gradual.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--From their rapid fall the rivers of such a

mountainous region could never be of value for transport or

communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only

navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest

interior river--the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the

Pacific--is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course

expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico,

fully fifty miles in length.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Though Mexico lies just on the border of the

torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by

elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are

recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.

The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two

thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the

characteristics of tropical lands.

Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the

mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in

which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.

This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.

[Illustration: =NATIONAL PALACE, CITY OF MEXICO=]

Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which

is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland

and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which

some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high

tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast,

where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt

lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States

appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls

furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the

plateau.

=Production and Industry.=--The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide

range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers

abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber,

palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave,

sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco,

besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some

districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila,

where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from

Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of

archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the

forests along the coast.

Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an

important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced.

Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in

Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other

important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron

ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid

mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and

sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum,

besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great

quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of

excellent quality.

Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there

vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the

people.

Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry

are encouraged by high protective duties.

=People.=--The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous

Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants.

Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government

of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish

descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed

Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood

Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are

the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and

mestizos speak Spanish.

The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are

tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady

progress.

=Government.=--The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of

the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of

state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second

term. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a

Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred

and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position

as that of the United States; and the several states have elective

governors and legislatures.

Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically

suspended in September, 1914. (See under History of Mexico.)

[Illustration: =THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO=]

=Cities.=--The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population

470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second

town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest,

is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded

by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the

chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other

important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.

The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio

Grande.

=Mexico City= is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above

the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square

miles) of the Anahuac plateau.

All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the

old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of

this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by

two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and

the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much

more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and

eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.

Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the

plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the

national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library

(two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the

school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of

the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized

ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering,

a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.

Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the

statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the

engineer Martinez.

The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with

houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the

alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent

and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double

rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter;

and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of

steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city

was so celebrated.

Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal

government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were

completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive

drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of

five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and

eighty-two dollars.

In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the

ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the

heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty

million dollars.

The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive

cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and

silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap--many of them

due to foreign enterprise.

=History of Mexico.=--The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two

distinct and widely differing periods--that of the Toltecs and that of

the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives

in Mexico to this day.

The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related

to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to

Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization,

about 1325. A hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II.,

they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to

the Pacific.

On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was

finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards

received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.

In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories--at one time

all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island--under the name of New

Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the

mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have

lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in

1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the

vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open

rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.

In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the

guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised

the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a

pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the

federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of

Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas

secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years,

and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas

was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of

1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.

The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in

1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French,

was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was

re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too

autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the

ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set

aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate

President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States

with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated

attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and

assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the

relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916

nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near

Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.

Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred

bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M.,

killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On

March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops

into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed

the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts

and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department

ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks

fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.

President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the

suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican

commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions

continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for

the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days,

conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that

it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American

territory.

Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a

strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting

several days captured the city.

Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and

Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were

later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more

extensive operations.

The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and

Villa factions still in progress.

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