Asia has been remarkable, from the earliest times, for having a large
population without any fixed place of residence, but who lead a _nomade_
or wandering life. It is not the only quarter of the globe where this
kind of people are found: as there are many _nomade_ nations in Africa,
especially in the northern division of it; and if we take the Indian
race into consideration, we find that both the North and South-American
continents have their tribes of wandering people. It is in Asia,
nevertheless, that we find this unsettled mode of life carried out to
its greatest extent,--it is there that we find those great pastoral
tribes,--or "hordes," as they have been termed,--who at different
historical periods have not only increased to the numerical strength of
large nationalities, but have also been powerful enough to overrun
adjacent empires, pushing their conquests even into Europe itself. Such
were the invasions of the Mongols under Zenghis Khan, the Tartars under
Timour, and the Turks, whose degenerate descendants now so feebly hold
the vast territory won by their wandering ancestors.
The pastoral life, indeed, has its charms, that render it attractive to
the natural disposition of man, and wherever the opportunity offers of
following it, this life will be preferred to any other. It affords to
man an abundant supply of all his most prominent wants, without
requiring from him any very severe exertion, either of mind or body;
and, considering the natural indolence of Asiatic people, it is not to
be wondered at that so many of them betake themselves to this mode of
existence. Their country, moreover, is peculiarly favourable to the
development of a pastoral race. Perhaps not one third of the surface of
the Asiatic continent is adapted to agriculture. At least one half of
it is occupied by treeless, waterless plains, many of which have all the
characters of a desert, where an agricultural people could not exist, or
at all events, where their labour would be rewarded by only the most
scant and precarious returns.
Even a pastoral people in these regions would find but a sorry
subsistence, were they confined to one spot; for the luxurious herbage
which, for the most part, characterises the great savanna plains of
America, is either altogether wanting upon the _steppes_ of Asia, or at
best very meagre and inconstant. A fixed abode is therefore impossible,
except in the most fertile tracts or _oases_: elsewhere, the nomad life
is a necessity arising from the circumstances of the soil.
It would be difficult to define exactly the limits of the territory
occupied by the wandering races in Asia; but in a general way it may be
said that the whole central portion of the continent is thus peopled:
indeed, much more than the central portion,--for, if we except the rich
agricultural countries of Hindostan and a small portion of Persia,
Arabia, and Turkey, the whole of Asia is of this character. The
countries known as Balk and Bokara, Yarkand and Khiva, with several
others of equal note, are merely the central points of oases,--large
towns, supported rather by commerce than by the produce of agriculture,
and having nomad tribes dwelling within sight of their walls. Even the
present boundaries of Asiatic Turkey, Arabia and Persia, contain within
them a large proportion of nomadic population; and the same is true of
Eastern Poland and Russia in Europe. A portion of the Affghan and
Belochee country is also inhabited by nomad people.
These wandering people are of many different types and races of men; but
there is a certain similarity in the habits and customs of all: as might
be expected from the similar circumstances in which they are placed.
It is always the more sterile steppes that are thus occupied; and this
is easily accounted for: where fertile districts occur the nomad life is
no longer necessary. Even a wandering tribe, entering upon such a
tract, would no longer have a motive for leaving it, and would soon
become attached to the soil,--in other words, would cease to be
wanderers; and whether they turned their attention to the pursuit of
agriculture, or not, they would be certain to give up their tent-life,
and fix themselves in a permanent abode. This has been the history of
many Asiatic tribes; but there are many others, again, who from time
immemorial, have shown a repugnance to the idea of fixing themselves to
the soil. They prefer the free roving life which the desert enables
them to indulge in; and wandering from place to place as the choice of
pasture guides them, occupy themselves entirely in feeding their flocks
and herds,--the sole means of their subsistence. These never have been,
and never could be, induced to reside in towns or villages.
Nor is it that they have been driven into these desert tracts to seek
shelter from political oppression,--as is the case with some of the
native tribes of Africa and America. On the contrary, these Asiatic
nomads are more often the aggressors than the objects of aggression. It
is rather a matter of choice and propensity with them: as with those
tribes of the Arabian race,--known as "Bedouins."
The proportion of the Asiatic wandering population to those who dwell in
towns, or fixed habitations, varies according to the nature of the
country. In many extensive tracts, the former greatly exceed the
latter; and the more sterile steppes are almost exclusively occupied by
them. In general, they acknowledge the sovereignty of some of the great
powers,--such as the empires of China, Russia, and Turkey, the kingdom
of Persia, or that of several powerful khans, as those of Khiva and
Bokara; but this sovereignty is, for the most part, little more than
nominal, and their allegiance is readily thrown off, whenever they
desire it. It is rarely so strong, as to enable any of the aforesaid
powers to draw a heavy tribute from them; and some of the more warlike
of the wandering tribes are much courted and caressed,--especially when
their war services are required. In general they claim an hereditary
right to the territories over which they roam, and pay but little heed
to the orders of either king, khan, or emperor.
As already stated, these wandering people are of different races; in
fact, they are of nearly all the varieties indigenous to the Asiatic
continent; and a whole catalogue of names might be given, of which
Mongols, Tartars, Turcomans, Usbecks, Kirghees, and Calmucks, are
perhaps the most generally known. It has been also stated that in many
points they are alike; but there are also many important particulars in
which they differ,--physical, moral, and intellectual. Some of the
"hordes," or tribes, are purely pastoral in their mode of life, and of
mild and hospital dispositions, exceedingly fond of strangers, and kind
to such as come among them. Others again are averse to all intercourse
with others, than those of their own race and religion, and are shy, if
not inhospitable, when visited by strangers. But there is a class of a
still less creditable character,--a large number of tribes that are not
only inhospitable, and hostile to strangers, but as ferocious and
bloodthirsty as any savages in Africa, America, or the South-Sea
Islands.
As a fair specimen of this class we select the Turcomans; in fact, they
may be regarded as its _type_; and our description henceforward may be
regarded as applying particularly to these people.
The country of the Turcomans will be found upon the map without
difficulty; but to define its exact boundary would be an impossibility,
since none such exists. Were you to travel along the whole northern
frontier of Persia, almost from the gates of Teheran to the eastern
frontier of the kingdom,--or even further towards Balk,--you would be
pretty sure of hearing of Turcoman robbers, and in very great danger of
being plundered by them,--which last misfortune would be of less
importance, as it would only be the prelude to your being either
murdered on the spot, or carried off by them into captivity. In making
this journey along the northern frontier of Persia, you would become
acquainted with the whereabouts of the Turcoman hordes; or rather you
would discover that the whole north part of Persia,--a good broad band
of it extending hundreds of miles into its interior,--if not absolutely
in possession of the Turcomans, is overrun and plundered by them at
will. This, however, is not their home,--it is only their
"stamping-ground,"--the home of their victims. Their place of habitual
residence lies further to the north, and is defined with tolerable
accuracy by its having the whole eastern shore of the Caspian Sea for
its western border, while the Amou River (the ancient Oxus) may be
generally regarded as the limit of their range towards the east. Some
tribes go still further east than the Amou; but those more particularly
distinguished for their plundering habits dwell within the limits
described,--north of the Elburz Mountains, and on the great steppe of
Kaurezm, where they are contiguous to the Usbeck community of Khiva.
The whole of this immense territory, stretching from the eastern shore
of the Caspian to the Amou and Aral Sea, may be characterised as a true
desert. Here and there oases exist, but none of any importance, save
the country of Khiva itself: and even that is but a mere irrigated
strip, lying on both banks of the Oxus. Indeed, it is difficult to
believe that this territory of Khiva, so insignificant in superficial
extent, could have been the seat of a powerful empire, as it once was.
The desert, then, between the Caspian Sea and the Oxus River may be
regarded as the true land of the Turcomans, and is usually known as
Turcomania. It is to be remembered, however, that there are some
kindred tribes not included within the boundaries of Turcomania--for the
Turkistan of the geographers is a country of much larger extent;
besides, an important division of the Turcoman races are settlers, or
rather wanderers in Armenia. To Turcomania proper, then, and its
inhabitants, we shall confine our remarks.
We shall not stay to inquire into the origin of the people now called
Turcomans. Were we to speculate upon that point, we should make but
little progress in an account of their habits and mode of living. They
are usually regarded as of Tartar origin, or of Usbeck origin, or of
Mongolian race; and in giving this account of them, I am certain that I
add very little to your knowledge of what they really are. The truth
is, that the words Tartar and Mongol and some half-dozen other titles,
used in relation to the Asiatic races, are without any very definite
signification,--simply because the relative distinctions of the
different nations of that continent are very imperfectly known; and
learned ethnologists are river loath to a confession of limited
knowledge. One of this class, Mr Latham,--who requires only a few
words of their language to decide categorically to what variety of the
human race a people belongs,--has unfortunately added to this confusion
by pronouncing nearly everybody _Mongolian_: placing the proud turbaned
Turk in juxtaposition with the squat and stunted Laplander! Of course
this is only bringing us back to the old idea, that all men are sprung
from a single pair of first parents,--a doctrine, which, though popular,
is difficult to reconcile with the rational knowledge derived from
ethnological investigation.
It matters little to our present purpose from what original race the
Turcoman has descended: whether he be a true Turk, as some regard him,
or whether he is a descendant of the followers of the Great Khan of the
Tartars. He possesses the Tartar physiognomy to a considerable extent--
some of the tribes more than others being thus distinguished,--and high
cheek-bones, flat noses, small oblique eyes, and scanty beards, are all
characteristics that are very generally observed. Some of these
peculiarities are more common among the women than the men--many of the
latter being tall, stout, and well-made, while a large number may be
seen who have the regular features of a Persian. Perhaps it would be
safest to consider the present Turcoman tribes as not belonging to a
pure stock, but rather an admixture of several; and their habit of
taking slaves from other nations, which has for a long time existed
among them, would give probability to this idea. At all events, without
some such hypothesis, it is difficult to account for the wonderful
variety, both in feature and form, that is found among them. Their
complexion is swarthy, in some cases almost brown as that of an American
Indian; but constant exposure to the open air, in all sorts of weather,
has much to do in darkening the hue of their skin. The newborn children
are nearly as white as those of the Persians; and their young girls
exhibit a ruddy brunette tint, which some consider even more pleasing
than a perfectly white complexion.
The costume of the Turcoman, like that of most Oriental nations, is rich
and picturesque. The dress of the men varies according to rank. Some
of the very poorer people wear nothing but a short woollen tonic or
shirt, with a pair of coarse woollen drawers. Others, in place of this
shirt, are clad in a longer garment, a sort of robe or wrapper, like a
gentleman's dressing-gown, made of camel's-hair cloth, or some coarse
brown woollen staff. But the true Turcoman costume, and that worn by
all who can afford it, consists of a garment of mixed silk and cotton,--
the _baronnee_,--which descends below the knee, and though open in
front, is made to button over the breast quite up to the neck. A gay
sash around the waist adds to the effect; and below the skirt are seen
trowsers of cotton or even silk. Cloth wrappers around the legs serve
in the place of boots or gaiters; and on the feet are worn slippers of
Persian fashion, with socks of soft Koordish leather.
As the material of which the baronnee is made is of good quality--a
mixture of silk and cotton--and as the fabric is always striped or
checkered in colours of red, blue, purple, and green, the effect
produced is that of a certain picturesqueness. The head-dress adds to
this appearance--being a high fur cap, with truncated top, the fur being
that beautiful kind obtained from the skins of the Astracan lamb,
well-known in commerce. These caps are of different colours, either
black, red, or grey. Another style of head-dress much worn is a
round-topped or helmet-shaped cap, made of quilted cotton-stuff; but
this kind, although in use among the Turcomans, is a more characteristic
costume of their enemies, the "Koords," who wear it universally.
The "jubba" is a kind of robe generally intended to go over the other
garments, and is usually of woollen or camel's-hair cloth. It is also
made like a dressing-gown, with wide sleeves,--tight, however, around
the wrist. It is of ample dimensions, and one side is lapped over the
other across the front, like a double-breasted coat. The "jubba" is
essentially a national garment.
The dress of the women is exceedingly picturesque. It is thus minutely
described by a traveller:--
"The head-dress of these women is singular enough: most of them wear a
lofty cap, with a broad crown, resembling that of a soldier's cap called
a shako. This is stuck upon the back of the head; and over it is thrown
a silk handkerchief of very brilliant colours, which covers the top, and
falls down on each side like a veil. The front of this is covered with
ornaments of silver and gold, in various shapes; more frequently gold
coins, mohrs, or tomauns, strung in rows, with silver bells or buttons,
and chains depending from them; hearts and other fanciful forms, with
stones set in them. The whole gives rather the idea of gorgeous
trappings for a horse, than ornaments for a female.
"The frames of these monstrous caps are made of light chips of wood, or
split reeds, covered with cloth; and when they do not wear these, they
wrap a cloth around their heads in the same form; and carelessly throw
another, like a veil over it. The veil or curtain above spoken of
covers the mouth; descending to the breast. Earrings are worn in the
ears; and their long hair is divided, and plaited into four parts,
disposed two on each side; one of which falls down behind the shoulders
and one before, and both are strung with a profusion of gold ornaments,
agates, cornelians, and other stones, according to the means and quality
of the wearer. The rest of their dress consists of a long, loose vest
or shirt, with sleeves, which covers the whole person down to the feet,
and is open at the breast, in front, but buttons or ties close up to the
neck: this is made of silk or cotton-stuff, red, blue, green, striped
red, and yellow, checked, or various-coloured: underneath this, are the
zere-jameh, or drawers, also of silk or cotton; and some wear a short
_peerahn_ or shirt of the same. This, I believe, is all; but in the
cold weather they wear, in addition, jubbas, or coats like those of the
men, of striped stuff made of silk and cotton; on their feet they
generally wear slippers like those of the Persian women."
The tents, or "portable houses" of the Turcomans--as their movable
dwellings rather deserve to be called--differ from most structures of
the kind in use elsewhere. They are thus described by the same
intelligent traveller:--
"The portable wooden houses of the Turcomans have been referred to by
several writers; but I am not aware that any exact description of their
structure has been given. The frame is curiously constructed of light
wood, disposed in laths of about an inch broad by three quarters thick,
crossing one another diagonally, but at right angles, about a foot
asunder, and pinned at each crossing with thongs of raw hide, so as to
be movable; and the whole framework may be closed up or opened in the
manner of those toys for children that represent a company of soldiers,
and close or expand at will, so as to form open or close column.
"One or more pieces thus constructed being stretched out, surround a
circular space of from fifteen to twenty feet diameter; and form the
skeleton of the walls,--which are made firm by bands of hair or woollen
ropes, hitched round the end of each rod, to secure it in its position.
From the upper ends of these, rods of a similar kind, bent near the wall
end into somewhat less than a right angle, are so disposed that the
longer portions slope to the centre, and being tied with ropes, form the
framework of a roof. Over this is thrown a covering of black _numud_,
leaving in the centre a large hole to give vent to the smoke, and light
to the dwelling. Similar numuds are wrapped round the walls; and
outside of these, to keep all tight, is bound another frame, formed of
split reeds or cane, or of very light and tough wood, tied together with
strong twine, the pieces being perpendicular. This is itself secured by
a strong, broad band of woven hair-stuff, which firmly unites. The
large round opening at top is covered, as occasion requires, by a piece
of numud, which is drawn off or on by a strong cord, like a curtain. If
the wind be powerful, a stick is placed to leeward, which supports the
fabric.
"In most of these houses they do not keep a carpet or numud constantly
spread; but the better classes use a carpet shaped somewhat in the form
of a horseshoe, having the centre cut out for the fireplace, and the
ends truncated, that those of inferior condition, or who do not choose
to take off their boots, may sit down upon the ground. Upon this carpet
they place one or two other numuds, as may be required, for guests of
distinction. When they have women in the tent, a division of split
reeds is made for their convenience; but the richer people have a
separate tent for their private apartments.
"The furniture consists of little more than camels and horses; _joals_,
or bags in which their goods are packed, and which are often made of a
very handsome species of worsted velvet carpet, of rich patterns; the
swords, guns, spears, bows and arrows, and other implements of the
family, with odds and ends of every description, may be seen hung on the
ends of the wooden rods, which form very convenient pins for the
purpose. Among some tribes all the domestic utensils are made of
wood,--calleeoons, trays for presenting food, milk-vessels, etc: among
others, all these things are formed of clay or metal. Upon the black
tops of the tents may frequently be seen large white masses of sour
curd, expressed from buttermilk, and set to dry as future store; this,
broken down and mixed with water, forms a very pleasant acidulous drink,
and is used as the basis of that intoxicating beverage called _kimmiz_.
The most common and most refreshing drink which they offer to the weary
and over-heated traveller in the forenoon is buttermilk, or sour curds
and water; and, indeed, a modification of this, with some other simple
sherbets, are the only liquors presented at their meals.
"Such are the wooden houses of the Turcomans, one of which just makes a
camel's load. There are poorer ones, of a less artificial construction,
the framework of which is formed of reeds.
"The encampment is generally square, enclosing an open space, or forming
a broad street, the houses being ranged on either side, with their doors
towards each other. At these may always be seen the most picturesque
groups, occupied with their various domestic duties, or smoking their
simple wooden _calleeoons_. The more important encampments are
surrounded by a fence of reeds, which serve to protect the flocks from
petty thefts."
It is now our place to inquire how the Turcomans occupy their time. We
have already described them as a pastoral and nomadic people; and, under
ordinary circumstances, their employment consists in looking after their
flocks. In a few of the more fertile oases they have habitations, or
rather camps, of a more permanent character, where they cultivate a
little corn or barley, to supply them with the material for bread; but
these settlements, if they deserve the name, are only exceptional; and
are used chiefly as a kind of head-quarters, where the women and
property are kept, while the men themselves are absent on their thieving
expeditions. More generally their herds are kept on the move, and are
driven from place to place at short intervals of a few weeks or even
days. The striking and pitching of their tents gives them employment;
to which is added that of milking the cattle, and making the cheese and
butter. The women, moreover, fill up their idle hours in weaving the
coarse blankets, or "numuds," in plaiting mats, and manufacturing
various articles of dress or household use. The more costly parts of
their costume, however, are not of native manufacture: these are
obtained by trade. The men alone look after the camels and horses,
taking special care of the latter.
Their flocks present a considerable variety of species. Besides horses,
cattle, and sheep, they own many camels, and they have no less than
three distinct varieties of this valuable animal in their possession,--
the dromedary with two humps, and the common camel. The third sort is a
cross breed--or "mule"--between these two. The dromedary is slightly
made, and swifter than either of the others, but it is not so powerful
as either; and being inferior as a beast of burden, is least cared for
by the Turcomans. The one-humped camel is in more general use, and a
good one will carry a load of six or seven hundred pounds with ease.
The mule camel is more powerful than either of its parents, and also
more docile and capable of greater endurance. It grows to a very large
size, but is low in proportion to its bulk, with stout, bony legs, and a
large quantity of coarse, shaggy hair on its haunch, shoulders, neck,
and even on the crown of its head, which gives it a strange, somewhat
fantastic appearance. Its colour varies from light grey to brown,
though it is as often nearly black. This kind of camel will carry a
load of from eight hundred to a thousand pounds.
The Turcoman sheep are of the large-tailed breed,--their tails often
attaining enormous dimensions. This variety of sheep is a true denizen
of the desert, the fat tail being unquestionably a provision of nature
against seasons of hunger,--just as in the single protuberance, or
"hump," upon the camel.
The horse of the Turcoman is the animal upon which he sets most value.
The breed possessed by him is celebrated over all Eastern Asia, as that
of the Arab is in the West. They cannot be regarded, however, as
handsome horses, according to the true standard of "horse beauty;" but
the Turcoman cares less for this than for other good qualities. In
point of speed and endurance they are not excelled, if equalled, by the
horses of any other country.
Their size is that of the common horse, but they are very different in
make. Their bodies are long in proportion to the bulk of carcass; and
they do not appear to possess sufficient compactness of frame. Their
legs are also long, generally falling off in muscular development below
the knee-joint; and they would appear to an English jockey too narrow in
the counter. They have also long necks, with large heavy heads. These
are the points which are generally observed in the Turcoman horses; but
it is to be remarked, that it is only when in an under-condition they
look so ungraceful; and in this condition their owners are accustomed to
keep them, especially when they have any very heavy service to perform.
Feeding produces a better shape, and brings them much nearer to the look
of a well-bred English horse.
Their powers of endurance are indeed, almost incredible: when trained
for a chappow, or plundering expedition, they will carry their rider and
provisions for seven or eight days together, at the rate of twenty or
even thirty fursungs--that is, from eighty to one hundred miles--a day.
Their mode of training is more like that of our pugilistic and
pedestrian performers, than that adopted for race-horses. When any
expedition of great length, and requiring the exertion of much speed, is
in contemplation, they commence by running their horses every day for
many miles together; they feed them sparingly on barley alone, and pile
numuds upon them at night to sweat them, until every particle of fat has
been removed, and the flesh becomes hard and tendonous. Of this they
judge by the feel of the muscles, particularly on the crest, at the back
of the neck, and on the haunches; and when these are sufficiently firm
and hard, they say in praise of the animal, that "his flesh is marble."
After this sort of training, the horse will proceed with expedition and
perseverance, for almost any length of time, without either falling off
in condition or knocking up, while horses that set out fat seldom
survive. They are taught a quick walk, a light trot, or a sort of
amble, which carries the rider on easily, at the rate of six miles an
hour; but they will also go at a round canter, or gallop, for forty or
fifty miles, without ever drawing bridle or showing the least symptom of
fatigue. Their _yaboos_, or galloways, and large ponies are fully as
remarkable, if not superior, to their horses, in their power of
sustaining fatigue; they are stout, compact, spirited beasts, without
the fine blood of the larger breeds, but more within the reach of the
poorer classes, and consequently used in by far greater numbers than the
superior and more expensive horses.
"It is a common practice of the Turcomans to teach their horses to fight
with their heels, and thus assist their masters in the time of action.
At the will of their riders they will run at and lay hold with their
teeth of whatever man or animal may be before them. This acquirement is
useful in the day of battle and plunder, for catching prisoners and
stray cattle, but it at the same time renders them vicious and dangerous
to be handled."
In addition to the flocks and herds, the Turcomans possess a breed of
very large fierce dogs, to assist them in keeping their cattle. These
are also necessary as watch-dogs, to protect the camp from thieves as
well as more dangerous enemies to their peace; and so well-trained are
those faithful creatures, that it would be impossible for either friend
or enemy to approach a Turcoman camp without the inmates being
forewarned in time. Two or three of these dogs may always be seen lying
by the entrance of each tent; and throughout the night several others
keep sentry at the approaches to the camp.
Other breeds of dogs owned by them are used for hunting,--for these wild
wanderers sometimes devote their hours to the chase. They have two
sorts,--a smooth-skinned dog, half hound half pointer, that hunts
chiefly by the scent; and a greyhound, of great swiftness, with a coat
of long, silky hair, which they make use of in coursing,--hares and
antelopes being their game.
They have a mode of hunting--also practised by the Persians--which is
peculiar. It should rather be termed hawking than hunting, as a hawk is
employed for the purpose. It is a species of falcon denominated
"goork," and is trained not only to dash at small game, such as
partridges and bustards, but upon antelopes and even the wild ass that
is found in plenty upon the plains of Turcomania. You will wonder how a
bird, not larger than the common falcon, could capture such game as this
but it will appear simple enough when the method has been explained.
The "goork" is trained to fly at the quadruped, and fix its claws in one
particular place,--that is, upon the frontlet, just between the eyes.
When thus attached, the bird, instead of closing its wings and remaining
at rest, keeps them constantly in motion, flapping them over the eyes of
the quadruped. This it does, no doubt, to enable it to retain its
perch; while the unfortunate animal, thus assailed, knows not in what
direction to run, and is soon overtaken by the pursuing sportsmen, and
either speared or shot with the bow and arrow.
Wild boars are frequently hunted by the Turcomans; and this, like
everything else with these rude centaurs, is performed on horseback.
The bow and arrow is but a poor weapon when employed against the thick,
tough hide of the Hyrcanian boar (for he is literally the Hyrcanian
boar), and of course the matchlock would be equally ineffective. How,
then, does the Turcoman sportsman manage to bag this bristly game? With
all the ease in the world. It costs him only the effort of galloping
his horse close up to the side of the boar after he has been brought to
by the dogs, and then suddenly wheeling the steed. The latter,
well-trained to the task, without further prompting, goes through the
rest of the performance, which consists in administering to the boar
such a slap with his iron-shod heel, as to prostrate the porcine
quadruped, often killing it on the instant!
Such employments and such diversions occupy only a small portion of the
Turcoman's tune. He follows another calling of a far less creditable
character, which unfortunately he regards as the most honourable
occupation of his life. This is the calling of the robber. His
pastoral pursuits are matters of only secondary consideration. He only
looks to them as a means of supplying his daily wants,--his food and the
more necessary portion of his clothing; but he has other wants that may
be deemed luxuries. He requires to keep up his stock of horses and
camels, and wishes to increase them. He needs costly gear for his
horse, and costly garments for himself--and he is desirous of being
possessed of fine weapons, such as spears, swords, bows, matchlocks,
daggers, and pistols. His most effective weapons are the spear and
sword, and these are the kinds he chiefly uses.
His spear consists of a steel head with four flutes, and edges very
sharp, fixed upon a slender shaft of from eight to ten feet in length.
In using it he couches it under the left arm, and directs it with the
right hand, either; straightforward, or to the right or left; if to the
right, the butt of the shaft lies across the hinder part of the saddle;
if to the left, the forepart of the spear rests on the horse's neck.
The Turcomans manage their horses with the left hand, but most of these
are so well broken as to obey the movement of the knee, or the impulse
of the body. When close to their object, they frequently grasp the
spear with both hands, to give greater effect to the thrust. The horse,
spurred to the full speed of a charge, in this way, offers an attack no
doubt very formidable in appearance, but perhaps less really dangerous
than the other, in which success depends so greatly on skill and
address. The Turcomans are all sufficiently dexterous with the sword,
which is almost universally formed in the curved Persian fashion, and
very sharp; they also wear a dagger at the waist-belt. Firearms are as
yet little in use among them; they possess a few, taken from the
travellers they have plundered, and procure a few more occasionally from
the Russians by the way of Bokara. Some use bows and arrows, but they
are by no means so dexterous as their ancestors were in the handling of
those weapons.
Mounted, then, upon his matchless steed, and armed with spear and sword,
the Turcoman goes forth to practise his favourite profession,--that of
plunder. He does not go alone, nor with a small number of his comrades,
either. The number depends altogether on the distance or danger of the
expedition; and where these are considered great, a troop of five
hundred, or even a thousand, usually proceed together upon their errand.
You will be inquiring to what point they direct themselves,--east, west,
north, or south? That altogether depends upon who may be their enemies
for the time, for along with their desire for booty, there is also mixed
up something like a sentiment of hostility. In this respect, however,
the Turcoman is a true Ishmaelite, and in lack of other victim he will
not hesitate to plunder the people of a kindred race. Indeed, several
of the Turcoman tribes have long been at war with one another; and their
animosity is quite as deadly among themselves as when directed against
strangers to their race. The _butt_, however, of most of the Turcoman
expeditions is the northern part of Persia,--Korassan in particular. It
is into this province that most of their great forays are directed,
either against the peaceful citizens of the Persian towns and villages,
or as often against the merchant caravans that are constantly passing
between Teheran and the cities of the east,--Mushed, Balkh, Bokara,
Herat, and Kelat. I have already stated that these forays are pushed
far into the interior of Persia; and the fact of Persia permitting such
a state of things to continue will perhaps surprise you; but you would
not be surprised were you better acquainted with the condition of that
kingdom. From historic associations, you believe Persia to be a
powerful nation; and so it once was, both powerful and prosperous. That
day is past; and at the present hour, this decaying monarchy is not only
powerless to maintain order within its own borders, but is even
threatened with annihilation from those very nomad races that have so
often given laws to the great empires of Asia. Even at this moment, the
more powerful Tartar Khans turn a longing look towards the tottering
throne of Nadir Shah; and he of Khiva has more than once made a feint at
invasion. But the subject is too extensive to be discussed here. It is
only introduced to explain with what facility a few hundreds of Turcoman
robbers can enter and harass the land. We find a parallel in many other
parts of the world,--old as well as new. In the latter, the northern
provinces of Mexico, and the southern countries of La Plata and
Paraguay, are in just such a condition: the weak, worn-out descendants
of the Spanish conquerors on one side, well representing the remnants of
the race of Nadir Shah; while, on the other, the Turcoman is type enough
of the Red Indian. The comparison, however, is not just to the latter.
He, at least, is possessed of courage and prowess; while the Turcoman,
notwithstanding his propensities for plunder, and the bloodthirsty
ferocity of his character, is as arrant a coward as ever carried lance.
Even the Persian can cope with him, when fairly matched; and the
merchant caravans,--which are usually made up of true Turks, and other
races possessing a little "pluck," are never attacked, unless when
outnumbered in the ratio of three to one.
For all this, the whole northern portion of the Persian kingdom is left
to the mercy of these desert-robbers. The towns and villages have each
their large fortress, into which the people retire whenever the
plunderers make their appearance, and there dwell till the latter have
ridden away,--driving off their flocks and herds to the desert
fastnesses. Even the poor farmer is obliged to build a fortress in the
middle of his fields, to which he may retire upon the occasion of any
sudden alarm, and his labourers till the ground with their swords by
their sides, and their matchlocks lying near!
These field fortresses of Korassan are altogether so curious, both as to
construction and purpose, that we cannot pass them without a word of
description. They are usually placed in some conspicuous place, at a
convenient distance from all parts of the cultivated tract. They are
built of mud, and raised to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, of a
circular form,--bearing some resemblance to the well-known round towers
of Ireland. A small aperture is left open at the bottom, through which
those seeking shelter may just squeeze their bodies, and this being
barricaded inside, the defence is complete. From the top--which can be
reached easily on the inside--the farmer and his labourers can use their
matchlocks with effect; but they are never called upon to do so,--as the
cowardly freebooter takes good care to give the mud tower a wide birth.
He has no weapons by which he might assail it; and, moreover, he has no
time for sieges: since an hour's delay might bring him into danger from
the force that is fast approaching. His only thought is to keep on his
course, and sweep off such cattle, or make prisoners of such people as
he may chance to find unwarned and unarmed. Now and then he ventures
upon an attack--where there is much booty to tempt him, and but a weak
force to defend it. His enemies,--the hated "Kuzzilbashes," as he calls
the Persians,--if defeated, have no mercy to expect from him. All who
resist are killed upon the spot, and often torture is the mode of their
death; but if they can be made prisoners, the desert-robber prefers
letting them live, as a captive is to him a more valuable consideration
than the death of an enemy. His prisoner, once secured, knows tolerably
well what is to follow. The first thing the Turcoman does is to bind
the victim's hands securely behind his back; he then puts a long halter
around his neck, attaching the other end of it to the tail of his horse,
and in this fashion the homeward march commences. If the poor
pedestrian does not keep pace with the horse, he knows what he may
expect,--to be dragged at intervals along the ground, and perhaps torn
to pieces upon the rocks. With this horrid fate before his fancy, he
makes efforts almost superhuman to keep pace with the troop of his
inhuman captors: though well aware that they are leading him off into a
hopeless bondage.
At night, his feet are also tied; and, thrown down upon the earth, he is
covered with a coarse "numud." Do not fancy that this is done to screen
him from the cold: the object is very different indeed. The numud is
placed over him in order that two of his captors may sleep upon its
edges--one on each side of him--thus holding him down, and frustrating
any chance of escape.
On arriving at the robber-camp, the captive is not kept long in suspense
as to his future fate. His owner--for he is now in reality a slave--
wants a new word, or a piece of silken cloth, or a camel, or some other
article of luxury. That he can obtain either at Khiva or Bokara, in
exchange for his slave; and therefore the new captive--or captives, as
the chance may be--is marched off to the ready market. This is no
isolated nor rare incident. It is one of everyday occurrence; and it is
a noted fact, that of the three hundred thousand people who constitute
the subjects of the Khivan Khan, nearly one half are Persian slaves
obtained from the robbers of Turcomania!
The political organisation of the Turcomans is of the patriarchal
character. From necessity they dwell in small communities that are
termed "teers," the literal signification of which is "arrows,"--though
for what reason they are so styled does not appear. Perhaps it is on
account of the rapidity of their movements: for, in hostile excursions,
or moving from place to place, they proceed with a celerity that may be
compared to arrows.
Over each tribe or teer there is a chief, similar to the "sheik" of the
Arab tribes,--and indeed, many of their customs offer a close analogy to
those of the wandering Bedouins of Arabia and Egypt, and the Kabyles of
Morocco and the Algerine provinces. The circumstances of life--almost
alike to both--could not fail to produce many striking resemblances.
The Turcoman tribes, as already observed, frequently go to war with each
other, but they oftener unite to rob the common enemy,--the caravan or
the Persian village. In these mere plundering expeditions they go in
such numbers as the case may require; but when called forth to take side
in anything like a national war, they can muster to the strength of many
thousands; and then indeed, they become terrible,--even to the most
potent sovereigns of Central Asia, by whom much diplomacy is employed to
enlist them on one side or the other. It matters little to them what
the cause be,--he who can promise them the largest booty in cattle or
slaves is sure to have the help of their spears and swords.
The Turcomans are not Pagans,--that is, they are not professedly so,--
though, for all the regard which they pay to religious observances, they
might as well be termed true Infidels. They profess a religion,
however, and that is Mohametanism in its worst and most bigoted form,--
the "Sunnite." The Persians, as is well-known, hold the milder Sheean
doctrines; and as the votaries of the two, in most countries where both
are practised, cordially hate each other, so it is between Turcomans and
Persians. The former even scorn the Persian creed, calling its
followers "Infidel" dogs, or _Kuzzilbashes_; and this bigoted rancour
gives them a sort of plausible excuse for the hostile attitude which
they hold towards them.
Taking them upon the whole, the Turcomans may be looked upon as true
savages,--savages dressed in _silk_ instead of in _skins_.