The Esquimaux are emphatically an "odd people," perhaps the oddest upon
the earth. The peculiar character of the regions they inhabit has
naturally initiated them into a system of habits and modes of life
different from those of any other people on the face of the globe; and
from the remoteness and inaccessibility of the countries in which they
dwell, not only have they remained an unmixed people, but scarce any
change has taken place in their customs and manners during the long
period since they were first known to civilised nations.
The Esquimaux people have been long known and their habits often
described. Our first knowledge of them was obtained from Greenland,--
for the native inhabitants of Greenland are true Esquimaux,--and
hundreds of years ago accounts of them were given to the world by the
Danish colonists and missionaries--and also by the whalers who visited
the coasts of that inhospitable land. In later times they have been
made familiar to us through the Arctic explorers and whale-fishers, who
have traversed the labyrinth of icy islands that extend northward from
the continent of America. The Esquimaux may boast of possessing the
longest country in the world. In the first place, Greenland is theirs,
and they are found along the western shores of Baffin's Bay. In North
America proper their territory commences at the straits of Belle Isle,
which separate Newfoundland from Labrador, and thence extends all around
the shore of the Arctic Ocean, not only to Behring's Straits, but beyond
these, around the Pacific coast of Russian America, as far south as the
great mountain Saint Elias. Across Behring's Straits they are found
occupying a portion of the Asiatic coast, under the name of Tchutski,
and some of the islands in the northern angle of the Pacific Ocean are
also inhabited by these people, though under a different name.
Furthermore, the numerous ice islands which lie between North America
and the Pole are either inhabited or visited by Esquimaux to the highest
point that discovery has yet reached.
There can be little doubt that the Laplanders of northern Europe, and
the Samoyedes, and other littoral peoples dwelling along the Siberian
shores, are kindred races of the Esquimaux; and taking this view of the
question, it may be said that the latter possess all the line of coast
of both continents facing northward; in other words, that their country
extends around the globe--though it cannot be said (as is often
boastingly declared of the British empire) that "the sun never sets upon
it;" for, over the "empire" of the Esquimaux, the sun not only sets, but
remains out of sight of it for months at a time.
It is not usual, however, to class the Laplanders and _Asiatic Arctic_
people with the Esquimaux. There are some essential points of
difference; and what is here said of the Esquimaux relates only to those
who inhabit the northern coasts and islands of America, and to the
native Greenlanders.
Notwithstanding the immense extent of territory thus designated,
notwithstanding the sparseness of the Esquimaux population, and the vast
distances by which one little tribe or community is separated from
another, the absolute similarity in their habits, in their physical and
intellectual conformation, and, above all, in their languages, proves
incontestably that they are all originally of one and the same race.
Whatever, therefore, may be said of a "Schelling," or native
Greenlander, will be equally applicable to an Esquimaux of Labrador, to
an Esquimaux of the Mackenzie River or Behring's Straits, or we might
add, to a Khadiak islander, or a Tuski of the opposite Asiatic coast;
always taking into account such differences of costume, dialect, modes
of life, etc, as may be brought about by the different circumstances in
which they are placed. In all these things, however, they are
wonderfully alike; their dresses, weapons, boats, houses, and house
implements, being almost the same in material and construction from East
Greenland to the Tchutskoi Noss.
If their country be the longest in the world, it is also the
_narrowest_. Of course, if we take into account the large islands that
thickly stud the Arctic Ocean, it may be deemed broad enough; but I am
speaking rather of the territory which they possess on the continents.
This may be regarded as a mere strip following the outline of the coast,
and never extending beyond the distance of a day's journey inland.
Indeed, they only seek the interior in the few short weeks of summer,
for the purpose of hunting the reindeer, the musk-ox, and other animals;
after each excursion, returning again to the shores of the sea, where
they have their winter-houses and more permanent home. They are, truly
and emphatically, a _littoral_ people, and it is to the sea they look
for their principal means of support. But for this source of supply,
they could not long continue to exist upon land altogether incapable of
supplying the wants even of the most limited population.
The name _Esquimaux_--or, as it is sometimes written, "Eskimo,"--like
many other national appellations, is of obscure origin. It is supposed
to have been given to them by the Canadian voyageurs in the employ of
the Hudson's Bay Company, and derived from the words _Ceux qui miaux_
(those who mew), in relation to their screaming like cats. But the
etymology is, to say the least, _suspicious_. They generally call
themselves "Inuit" (pronounced enn-oo-eet), a word which signifies
"men;"--though different tribes of them have distinct tribal
appellations.
In personal appearance they cannot be regarded as at all prepossessing--
though some of the younger men and girls, when cleansed of the filth and
grease with which their skin is habitually coated, are far from
ill-looking. Their natural colour is not much darker than that of some
of the southern nations of Europe--the Portuguese, for instance--and the
young girls often have blooming cheeks, and a pleasing expression of
countenance. Their faces are generally of a broad, roundish shape, the
forehead and chin both narrow and receding, and the cheeks very
prominent, though not angular. On the contrary, they are rather fat and
round. This prominence of the cheeks gives to their nose the appearance
of being low and flat; and individuals are often seen with such high
cheeks, that a ruler laid from one to the other would not touch the
bridge of the nose between them!
As they grow older their complexion becomes darker, perhaps from
exposure to the climate. Very naturally, too, both men and women grow
uglier, but especially the latter, some of whom in old age present such
a hideous aspect, that the early Arctic explorers could not help
characterising them as _witches_.
The average stature of the Esquimaux is far below that of European
nations, though individuals are sometimes met with nearly six feet in
height. These, however, are rare exceptions; and an Esquimaux of such
proportions would be a giant among his people. The more common height
is from four feet eight inches to five feet eight; and the women are
still shorter, rarely attaining the standard of five feet. The
shortness of both men and women appears to be a deficiency in length of
limb, for their bodies are long enough; but, as the Esquimaux is almost
constantly in his canoe, or "kayak," or upon his dog-sledge, his legs
have but little to do, and are consequently stunted in their
development.
A similar peculiarity is presented by the Comanche, and other Indians of
the prairies, and also in the Guachos and Patagonian Indians, of the
South-American Pampas, who spend most of their time on the backs of
their horses.
The Esquimaux have no religion, unless we dignify by that name a belief
in witches, sorcerers, "Shamans," and good or evil spirits, with, some
confused notion of a good and bad place hereafter. Missionary zeal has
been exerted among them almost in vain. They exhibit an apathetic
indifference to the teachings of Christianity.
Neither have they any political organisation; and in this respect they
differ essentially from most savages known, the lowest of whom have
usually their chiefs and councils of elders. This absence of all
government, however, is no proof of their being lower in the scale of
civilisation than other savages; but, perhaps, rather the contrary, for
the very idea of chiefdom, or government, is a presumption of the
existence of vice among a people, and the necessity of coercion and
repression. To one another these rude people are believed to act in the
most honest manner; and it could be shown that such was likewise their
behaviour towards strangers until they were corrupted by excessive
temptation. All Arctic voyagers record instances of what they term
petty theft, on the part of certain tribes of Esquimaux,--that is, the
pilfering of nails, hatchets, pieces of iron-hoops, etc,--but it might
be worth while reflecting that these articles are, in the eyes of the
Esquimaux, what ingots of gold are are to Europeans, and worth while
inquiring if a few bars of the last-mentioned metal were laid loosely
and carelessly upon the pavements of London, how long they would be in
changing their owners? Theft should be regarded along with the amount
of temptation; and it appears even in these recorded cases that only a
few of the Esquimaux took part in it. I apprehend that something more
than a few Londoners would be found picking up the golden ingots. How
many thieves have we among us, with no greater temptation than a cheap
cotton kerchief?--more than a few, it is to be feared.
In truth, the Esquimaux are by no means the savages they have been
represented. The only important point in which they at all assimilate
to the purely savage state is in the filthiness of their persons, and
perhaps also in the fact of their eating much of their food (fish and
flesh-meat) in a raw state. For the latter habit, however, they are
partially indebted to the circumstances in which they are placed--fires
or cookery being at times altogether impossible. They are not the only
people who have been forced to eat raw flesh; and Europeans who have
travelled in that inhospitable country soon get used to the practice, at
the same time getting quite cured of their _degout_ for it.
It is certainly not correct to characterise the Esquimaux as mere
_savages_. On the contrary, they may be regarded as a civilised people,
that is, so far as civilisation is permitted by the rigorous climate in
which they live; and it would be safe to affirm that a colony of the
most polished people in Europe, established as the Esquimaux are, and
left solely to their own resources, would in a single generation exhibit
a civilisation not one degree higher than that now met with among the
Esquimaux. Indeed, the fact is already established: the Danish and
Norwegian colonists of West Greenland, though backed by constant
intercourse with their mother-land, are but little more civilised than
the "Skellings," who are their neighbours.
In reality, the Esquimaux have made the most of the circumstances in
which they are placed, and continue to do so. Among them _agriculture_
is impossible, else they would long since have taken to it. So too is
commerce; and as to manufactures, it is doubtful whether Europeans could
excel them under like circumstances. Whatever raw material their
country produces, is by them both strongly and neatly fabricated, as
indicated by the surprising skill with which they make their dresses,
their boats, their implements for hunting and fishing; and in these
accomplishments--the only ones practicable under their hyperborean
heaven--they are perfect adepts. In such arts civilised Europeans are
perfect simpletons to them, and the theories of fireside speculators, so
lately promulgated in our newspapers, that Sir John Franklin and his
crew could not fail to procure a living where the simple Esquimaux were
able to make a home, betrayed only ignorance of the condition of these
people. In truth, white men would starve, where the Esquimaux could
live in luxurious abundance, so far superior to ours is their knowledge
both of fishing and the chase. It is a well-recorded fact, that while
our Arctic voyagers, at their winter stations, provided with good guns,
nets, and every appliance, could but rarely kill a reindeer or capture a
seal, the Esquimaux obtained both in abundance, and apparently without
an effort; and we shall presently note the causes of their superiority
in this respect.
The very dress of the Esquimaux is a proof of their superiority over
other savages. At no season of the year do they go either naked, or
even "ragged." They have their changes to suit the seasons,--their
summer dress, and one of a warmer kind for winter. Both are made in a
most complicated manner; and the preparation of the material, as well as
the manner by which it is put together, prove the Esquimaux women--for
they are alike the tailors and dressmakers--to be among the best
seamstresses in the world.
Captain Lyon, one of the most observant of Arctic voyagers, has given a
description of the costume of the Esquimaux of Savage Island, and those
of Repulse Bay, where he wintered, and his account is so graphic and
minute in details, that it would be idle to alter a word of his
language. His description, with slight differences in make and
material, will answer pretty accurately for the costume of the whole
race.
"The clothes of both sexes are principally composed of fine and
well-prepared reindeer pelts; the skins of bears, seals, wolves, foxes,
and marmottes, are also used. The sealskins are seldom employed for any
part of the dress except boots and shoes, as being more capable of
resisting water, and of far greater durability than other leather.
"The general winter dress of the men is an ample outer coat of
deer-skin, having no opening in front, and a large hood, which is drawn
over the head at pleasure. This hood is invariably bordered with white
fur from the thighs of the deer, and thus presents a lively contrast to
the dark face which it encircles. The front or belly part of the coat
is cut off square with the upper part of the thighs, but behind it is
formed into a broad skirt, rounded at the lower end, which reaches to
within a few inches of the ground. The lower edges and tails of these
dresses are in some cases bordered with bands of fur of an opposite
colour to the body; and it is a favourite ornament to hang a fringe of
little strips of skin beneath the border. The embellishments give a
very pleasing appearance to the dress. It is customary in blowing
weather to tie a piece of skin or cord tight round the waist of the
coat; but in other cases the dress hangs loose.
"Within the covering I have just described is another, of precisely the
same form; but though destitute of ornaments of leather, it has
frequently little strings of beads hanging to it from the shoulders or
small of the back. This dress is of thinner skin, and acts as a shirt,
the hairy part being placed near the body: it is the indoors habit.
When walking, the tail is tied up by two strings to the back, so that it
may not incommode the legs. Besides these two coats, they have also a
large cloak, or, in fact, an open deer-skin, with sleeves: this, from
its size, is more frequently used as a blanket; and I but once saw it
worn by a man at the ship, although the women throw it over their
shoulders to shelter themselves and children while sitting on the
sledge.
"The trowsers, which are tightly tied round the loins, have no
waistbands, but depend entirely by the drawing-string; they are
generally of deer-skin, and ornamented in the same manner as the coats.
One of the most favourite patterns is an arrangement of the skins of
deer's legs, so as to form very pretty stripes. As with the jackets,
there are two pair of these indispensables, reaching no lower than the
knee-cap, which is a cause of great distress in cold weather, as that
part is frequently severely frost-bitten; yet, with all their experience
of this bad contrivance, they will not add an inch to the established
length.
"The boots reach to the bottom of the breeches, which hang loosely over
them. In these, as in other parts of the dress, are many varieties of
colour, material, and pattern, yet in shape they never vary. The
general winter boots are of deer-skin; one having the hair next the leg,
and the other with the fur outside. A pair of soft slippers of the same
kind are worn between the two pair of boots, and outside of all a strong
sealskin shoe is pulled to the height of the ankle, where it is tightly
secured by a drawing-string. For hunting excursions, or in summer when
the country is thawed, one pair of boots only is worn. They are of
sealskin, and so well sewed and prepared without the hair, that although
completely saturated, they allow no water to pass through them. The
soles are generally of the tough hide of the walrus, or of the large
seal called Oo-ghioo, so that the feet are well protected in walking
over rough ground. Slippers are sometimes worn outside. In both cases
the boots are tightly fastened round the instep with a thong of leather.
The mittens in common use are of deer-skin, with the hair inside; but,
in fact, every kind of skin is used for them. They are extremely
comfortable when dry; but if once wetted and frozen again, in the winter
afford as little protection to the hands as a case of ice would do. In
summer, and in fishing, excellent sealskin mittens are used, and have
the same power of resisting water as the boots of which I have just
spoken. The dresses I have just described are chiefly used in winter.
During the summer it is customary to wear coats, boots, and even
breeches, composed of the prepared skins of ducks, with the feathers
next the body. These are comfortable, light, and easily prepared. The
few ornaments in their possession are worn by the men. These are some
bandeaus which encircle the head, and are composed of various-coloured
leather, plaited in a mosaic pattern, and in some cases having human
hair woven in them, as a contrast to the white skins. From the lower
edge foxes' teeth hang suspended, arranged as a fringe across the
forehead. Some wear a musk-ox tooth, a bit of ivory, or a small piece
of bone.
"The clothing of the women is of the same materials as that of the men,
but in shape almost every part is different from the male dress. An
inner jacket is worn next the skin, and the fur of the other is outside.
The hind-flap, or tail, is of the same form before described, but there
is also a small flap in front, extending about halfway down the thigh.
The coats have each an immense hood, which, as well as covering the
head, answers the purpose of a child's cradle for two or three years
after the birth of an infant. In order to keep the burden of the child
from drawing the dress tight across the throat, a contrivance, in a
great measure resembling the slings of a soldier's knapsack, is affixed
to the collar or neck part, whence it passes beneath the hood, crosses,
and, being brought under the arms, is secured on each side the breast by
a wooden button. The shoulders of the women's coat have a bag-like
space, for the purpose of facilitating the removal of the child from the
hood round to the breast without taking it out of the jacket.
"A girdle is sometimes worn round the waist: it answers the double
purposes of comfort and ornament; being composed of what they consider
valuable trinkets, such as foxes' bones (those of the rableeaghioo), or
sometimes of the ears of deer, which hang in pairs to the number of
twenty or thirty, and are trophies of the skill of the hunter, to whom
the wearer is allied. The inexpressibles of the women are in the some
form as those of the men, but they are not ornamented by the same
curious arrangement of colours; the front part is generally of white,
and the back of dark fur. The manner of securing them at the waist is
also the same; but the drawing-strings are of much greater length, being
suffered to hang down by one side, and their ends are frequently
ornamented with some pendent jewel, such as a grinder or two of the
musk-ox, a piece of ivory, a small ball of wood, or a perforated stone.
"The boots of the fair sex are, without dispute, the most extraordinary
part of their equipment, and are of such an immense size as to resemble
leather sacks, and to give a most deformed, and, at the same time,
ludicrous appearance to the whole figure, the bulky part being at the
knee; the upper end is formed into a pointed flap, which, covering the
front of the thigh, is secured by a button or knot within the waistband
of the breeches.
"Some of these ample articles of apparel are composed with considerable
taste, of various-coloured skins; they also have them of parchment,--
seals' leather. Two pairs are worn; and the feet have also a pair of
sealskin slippers, which fit close, and are tightly tied round the
ankle.
"Children have no kind of clothing, but lie naked in their mothers'
hoods until two or three years of age, when they are stuffed into a
little dress, generally of fawn-skin, which has jacket and breeches in
one, the back part being open; into these they are pushed, when a string
or two closes all up again. A cap forms an indispensable part of the
equipment, and is generally of some fantastical shape; the skin of a
fawn's head is a favourite material in the composition, and is sometimes
seen with the ears perfect; the nose and holes for the eyes lying along
the crown of the wearer's head, which in consequence, looks like that of
an animal."
The same author also gives a most graphic description of the curious
winter dwellings of the Esquimaux, which on many parts of the coast are
built out of the only materials to be had,--_ice and snow_! Snow for
the walls and ice for the windows! you might fancy the house of the
Esquimaux to be a very cold dwelling; such, however, is by no means its
character.
"The entrance to the dwellings," says Captain Lyon, "was by a hole,
about a yard in diameter, which led through a low-arched passage of
sufficient breadth for two to pass in a stooping posture, and about
sixteen feet in length; another hole then presented itself, and led
through a similarly-shaped, but shorter passage, having at its
termination a round opening, about two feet across. Up this hole we
crept one step, and found ourselves in a dome about seven feet in
height, and as many in diameter, from whence the three dwelling-places,
with arched roofs, were entered. It must be observed that this is the
description of a large hut, the smaller ones, containing one or two
families, have the domes somewhat differently arranged.
"Each dwelling might be averaged at fourteen or sixteen feet in diameter
by six or seven in height, but as snow alone was used in their
construction, and was always at hand, it might be supposed that there
was no particular size, that being of course at the option of the
builder. The laying of the arch was performed in such a manner as would
have satisfied the most regular artist, the key-piece on the top, being
a large square slab. The blocks of snow used in the buildings were from
four to six inches in thickness, and about a couple of feet in length,
carefully pared with a large knife. Where two families occupied a dome,
a seat was raised on either side, two feet in height. These raised
places were used as beds, and covered in the first place with whalebone,
sprigs of andromeda, or pieces of sealskin, over these were spread
deer-pelts and deer-skin clothes, which had a very warm appearance. The
pelts were used as blankets, and many of them had ornamental fringes of
leather sewed round their edges.
"Each dwelling-place was illumined by a broad piece of transparent
fresh-water ice, of about two feet in diameter, which formed part of the
roof, and was placed over the door. These windows gave a most pleasing
light, free from glare, and something like that which is thrown through
ground glass. We soon learned that the building of a house was but the
work of an hour or two, and that a couple of men--one to cut the slabs
and the other to lay them--were labourers sufficient.
"For the support of the lamps and cooking apparatus, a mound of snow is
erected for each family; and when the master has two wives or a mother,
both have an independent place, one at each end of the bench.
"I find it impossible to attempt describing everything at a second
visit, and shall therefore only give an account of those articles of
furniture which must be always the same, and with which, in five
minutes, any one might be acquainted. A frame, composed of two or three
broken fishing-spears, supported in the first place a large hoop of wood
or bone, across which an open-meshed, and ill-made net was spread or
worked for the reception of wet or damp clothes, skins, etc, which could
be dried by the heat of the lamp. On this contrivance the master of
each hut placed his gloves on entering, first carefully clearing them of
snow.
"From the frame above mentioned, one or more coffin-shaped stone pots
were suspended over lamps of the same material, crescent-shaped, and
having a ridge extending along their back; the bowl part was filled with
blubber, and the oil and wicks were ranged close together along the
edge. The wicks were made of moss and trimmed by a piece of asbestos,
stone, or wood; near at hand a large bundle of moss was hanging for a
future supply. The lamps were supported by sticks, bones, or pieces of
horn, at a sufficient height to admit an oval pot of wood or whalebone
beneath, in order to catch any oil that might drop from them. The lamps
varied considerably in size, from two feet to six inches in length, and
the pots were equally irregular, holding from two or three gallons to
half a pint. Although I have mentioned a kind of scaffolding, these
people did not all possess so grand an establishment, many being
contented to suspend their pot to a piece of bone stuck in the wall of
the hut. One young woman was quite a caricature in this way: she was
the inferior wife of a young man, whose senior lady was of a large size,
and had a corresponding lamp, etc, at one corner; while she herself,
being short and fat, had a lamp the size of half a dessert-plate, and a
pot which held a pint only.
"Almost every family was possessed of a large wooden tray, resembling
those used by butchers in England; its offices, however, as we soon
perceived, were more various, some containing raw flesh of seals and
blubber, and others, skins, which were steeping in urine. A quantity of
variously-sized bowls of whalebone, wood, or skin, completed the list of
vessels, and it was evident that they were made to contain _anything_."
The Esquimaux use two kinds of boats,--the "oomiak" and "kayak." The
oomiak is merely a large species of punt, used exclusively by the women;
but the kayak is a triumph in the art of naval architecture, and is as
elegant as it is ingenious. It is about twenty-five feet in length, and
less than two in breadth of beam. In shape it has been compared to a
weaver's shuttle, though it tapers much more elegantly than this piece
of machinery. It is decked from stem to stern, excepting a circular
hole very nearly amidships, and this round hatchway is just large enough
to admit the body of an Esquimaux in a sitting posture. Around the rim
of the circle is a little ridge, sometimes higher in front than at the
back, and this ridge is often ornamented with a hoop of ivory. A flat
piece of wood runs along each side of the frame, and is, in fact, the
only piece of any strength in a kayak. Its depth in the centre is four
or five inches, and its thickness about three fourths of an inch; it
tapers to a point at the commencement of the stem and stern projections.
Sixty-four ribs are fastened to this gunwale piece; seven slight rods
run the whole length of the bottom and outside the ribs. The bottom is
rounded, and has no keel; twenty-two little beams or cross-pieces keep
the frame on a stretch above, and one strong batten runs along the
centre, from stem to stern, being, of course, discontinued at the seat
part. The ribs are made of ground willow, also of whalebone, or, if it
can be procured, of good-grained wood. The whole contrivance does not
weigh over fifty or sixty pounds; so that a man easily carries his kayak
on his head, which, by the form of the rim, he can do without the
assistance of his hands.
An Esquimaux prides himself in the neat appearance of his boat, and has
a warm skin placed in its bottom to sit on. His posture is with the
legs pointed forward, and he cannot change his position without the
assistance of another person; in all cases where a weight is to be
lifted, an alteration of stowage, or any movement to be made, it is
customary for two kayaks to lie together; and the paddle of each being
placed across the other, they form a steady double boat. An inflated
seal's bladder forms, invariably, part of the equipage of a canoe, and
the weapons are confined in their places by small lines of whalebone,
stretched tightly across the upper covering, so as to receive the points
or handles of the spears beneath them. Flesh is frequently stowed
within the stem or stern, as are also birds and eggs; but a seal,
although round, and easily made to roll, is so neatly balanced on the
upper part of the boat as seldom to require a lashing. When Esquimaux
are not paddling, their balance must be nicely preserved, and a
trembling motion is always observable in the boat. The most difficult
position for managing a kayak is when going before the wind, and with a
little swell running. Any inattention would instantly; by exposing the
broadside, overturn this frail vessel. The dexterity with which they
are turned, the velocity of their way, and the extreme elegance of form
of the kayaks, render an Esquimaux of the highest interest when sitting
independently, and urging his course towards his prey.
"The paddle is double-bladed, nine feet three inches in length, small at
the grasp, and widening to four inches at the blades, which are thin,
and edged with ivory for strength as well as ornament.
"The next object of importance to the boat is the sledge, which finds
occupation during at least three fourths of the year. A man who
possesses both this and a canoe is considered a person of property. To
give a particular description of the sledge would be impossible, as
there are no two actually alike; and the materials of which they are
composed are as various as their form. The best are made of the
jaw-bones of the whale, sawed to about two inches in thickness, and in
depth from six inches to a foot. These are the runners, and are shod
with a thin plank of the same material; the side-pieces are connected by
means of bones, pieces of wood, or deers' horns, lashed across, with a
few inches space between each, and they yield to any great strain which
the sledge may receive. The general breadth of the upper part of the
sledge is about twenty inches; but the runners lean inwards, and
therefore at bottom it is rather greater. The length of bone sledges is
from four feet to fourteen. Their weight is necessarily great; and one
of moderate size, that is to say, about ten or twelve feet, was found to
be two hundred and seventeen pounds. The skin of the walrus is very
commonly used during the coldest part of the winter, as being
hard-frozen, and resembling an inch board, with ten times the strength,
for runners. Another ingenious contrivance is, by casing moss and earth
in seal's skin, so that by pouring a little water, a round hard bolster
is easily formed. Across all these kinds of runners there is the same
arrangement of bones, sticks, etc, on the upper part; and the surface
which passes over the snow is coated with ice, by mixing snow with fresh
water, which assists greatly in lightening the load for the dogs, as it
slides forwards with ease. Boys frequently amuse themselves by yoking
several dogs to a small piece of seal's skin, and sitting on it, holding
by the traces. Their plan is then to set off at full speed, and he who
bears the greatest number of bumps before he relinquishes his hold is
considered a very fine fellow.
"The Esquimaux possess various kinds of spears, but their difference is
chiefly in consequence of the substances of which they are composed, and
not in their general form.
"One called ka-te-teek, is a large and strong-handled spear, with an
ivory point made for despatching any wounded animal in the water. It is
never thrown, but has a place appropriated for it on the kayak.
"The oonak is a lighter kind than the former; also ivory-headed. It has
a bladder fastened to it, and has a loose head with a line attached;
this being darted into an animal, is instantly liberated from the handle
which gives the impetus. Some few of these weapons are constructed of
the solid ivory of the unicorn's horn, about four feet in length, and
remarkably well-rounded and polished.
"Ip-poo-too-yoo, is another kind of hand-spear, varying but little from
the one last described. It has, however, no appendages.
"The Noogh-wit is of two kinds; but both are used for striking birds,
young animals, or fish. The first has a double fork at the extremity,
and there are three other barbed ones at about half its length,
diverging in different directions, so that if the end pair should miss,
some of the centre ones might strike. The second kind has only three
barbed forks at the head. All the points are of ivory, and the natural
curve of the walrus tusk favours and facilitates their construction.
"Amongst the minor instruments of the ice-hunting are a long bone feeler
for plumbing any cracks through which seals are suspected of breathing,
and also for trying the safety of the road. Another contrivance is
occasionally used with the same effect as the float of a fishing-line.
Its purpose it to warn the hunter, who is watching a seal-hole, when the
animal rises to the surface, so that he may strike without seeing, or
being seen, by his prey. This is a most delicate little rod of bone or
ivory, of about a foot in length, and the thickness of a fine
knitting-needle. At the lower end is a small knob like a pin's head,
and the upper extremity has a fine piece of sinew tied to it, so as to
fasten it loosely to the side of the hole. The animal, on rising, does
not perceive so small an object hanging in the water, and pushes it up
with his nose, when the watchful Esquimaux, observing his little beacon
in motion, strikes down, and secures his prize.
"Small ivory pegs or pins are used to stop the holes made by the spears
in the animal's body; thus the blood, a great luxury to the natives, is
saved.
"The same want of wood which renders it necessary to find substitutes in
the construction of spears, also occasions the great variety of bows.
The horn of the musk-ox, thinned horns of deer, or other bony
substances, are as frequently used or met with as wood, in the
manufacture of these weapons, in which elasticity is a secondary
consideration. Three or four pieces of horn or wood are frequently
joined together in one bow,--the strength lying alone in a vast
collection of small plaited sinews; these, to the number of perhaps a
hundred, run down the back of the bow, and being quite tight, and having
the spring of catgut, cause the weapon, when unstrung, to turn the wrong
way; when bent, their united strength and elasticity are amazing. The
bowstring is of fifteen to twenty plaits, each loose from the other, but
twisted round when in use, so that a few additional turns will at any
time alter its length. The general length of the bows is about three
feet and a half.
"The arrows are short, light, and formed according to no general rule as
to length or thickness. A good one has half the shaft of bone, and a
head of hard slate, or a small piece of iron; others have
sharply-pointed bone heads: none are barbed. Two feathers are used for
the end, and are tied opposite each other, with the flat sides parallel.
A neatly-formed case contains the bow and a few arrows. Sealskin is
preferred for this purpose, as more effectually resisting the wet than
any other. A little bag, which is attached to the side, contains a
stone for sharpening, and some spare arrow-heads carefully wrapped up in
a piece of skin.
"The bow is held in a horizontal position, and though capable of great
force, is rarely used at a greater distance than from twelve to twenty
yards."
Their houses, clothing, sledges, boats, utensils, and arms, being now
described, it only remains to be seen in what manner these most singular
people pass their time, how they supply themselves with food, and how
they manage to support life during the long dark winter, and the scarce
less hospitable summer of their rigorous clime. Their occupations from
year to year are carried on with an almost unvarying regularity, though,
like their dresses, they change according to the season.
Their short summer is chiefly employed in hunting the reindeer, and
other quadrupeds,--for the simple reason that it is at this season that
these appear in greatest numbers among them, migrating northward as the
snow thaws from the valleys and hill-sides. Not but that they also kill
the reindeer in other seasons, for these animals do not all migrate
southward on the approach of winter, a considerable number remaining all
the year upon the shores of the Arctic Sea, as well as the islands to
the north of them. Of course, the Esquimaux kills a reindeer when and
where he can; and it may be here remarked, that in no part of the
American continent has the reindeer been trained or domesticated as
among the Laplanders and the people of Russian Asia. Neither the
Northern Indians (Tinne) nor the Esquimaux have ever reached this degree
in domestic civilisation, and this fact is one of the strongest points
of difference between the American Esquimaux and their kindred races in
the north of Asia. One tribe of true Esquimaux alone hold the reindeer
in subjection, viz the Tuski, already mentioned, on the Asiatic shore;
and it might easily be shown that the practice reached them from the
contiguous countries of northern Asia. The American Esquimaux, like
those of Greenland, possess only the dog as a domesticated animal; and
him they have trained to draw their sledges in a style that exhibits the
highest order of skill, and even elegance. The Esquimaux dog is too
well-known to require particular description. He is often brought to
this country in the return ships of Arctic whalers and voyagers; and his
thick, stout body covered closely with long stiff hair of a whitish or
yellowish colour, his cocked ears and smooth muzzle, and, above all, the
circle-like curling of his bushy tail, will easily be remembered by any
one who has ever seen this valuable animal.
In summer, then, the Esquimaux desert their winter houses upon the
shore, and taking with them their tents make an excursion into the
interior. They do not go far from the sea--no farther than is necessary
to find the valleys browsed by the reindeer, and the fresh-water lakes,
which, at this season, are frequented by flocks of swans, geese of
various kinds, ducks, and other aquatic birds. Hunting the reindeer
forms their principal occupation at this time; but, of course, "all is
fish that comes into the net" of an Esquimaux; and they also employ
themselves in capturing the wild fowl and the fresh-water fish, in which
these lakes abound. With the wild fowl it is the breeding and moulting
season, and the Esquimaux not only rob them of their eggs, but take
large numbers of the young before they are sufficiently fledged to
enable them to fly, and also the old ones while similarly incapacitated
from their condition of "moult." In their swift kayaks which they have
carried with them on their heads, they can pursue the fluttering flocks
over any part of a lake, and overtake them wherever they may go. This
is a season of great plenty in the larder of the _Inuit_.
The fresh-water fish are struck with spears out of the kayaks, or, when
there is ice on the water strong enough to bear the weight of a man, the
fish are captured in a different manner. A hole is broken in the ice,
the broken fragments are skimmed off and cast aside, and then the
fisherman lets down a shining bauble--usually the white tooth of some
animal--to act as a bait. This he keeps bobbing about until the fish,
perceiving it afar off through the translucent water, usually approaches
to reconnoitre, partly from curiosity, but more, perhaps, to see if it
be anything to eat. When near enough the Esquimaux adroitly pins the
victim with his fish spear, and lands it upon the ice. This species of
fishing is usually delivered over to the boys--the time of the hunters
being too valuable to be wasted in waiting for the approach of the fish
to the decoy, an event of precarious and uncertain occurrence.
In capturing the reindeer, the Esquimaux practises no method very
different from that used by "still hunters" in other parts of America.
He has to depend alone upon his bow and arrows, but with these poor
weapons he contrives to make more havoc among a herd of deer than would
a backwoods hunter with his redoubtable rifle. There is no mystery
about his superior management. It consists simply in the exhibition of
the great strategy and patience with which he makes his approaches,
crawling from point to point and using every available cover which the
ground may afford.
But all this would be of little avail were it not for a _ruse_ which he
puts in practice, and which brings the unsuspecting deer within reach of
his deadly arrows. This consists in a close imitation of the cries of
the animal, so close that the sharp-eared creature itself cannot detect
the counterfeit, but, drawing nearer and nearer to the rock or bush from
which the call appears to proceed, falls a victim to the deception. The
silent arrow makes no audible sound; the herd, if slightly disturbed at
seeing one of their number fall, soon compose themselves, and go on
browsing upon the grass or licking up the lichen. Another is attracted
by the call, and another, who fall in their turn victims either to their
curiosity or the instinct of amorous passions.
For this species of hunting, the bow far excels any other weapon; even
the rifle is inferior to it.
Sometimes the Esquimaux take the deer in large numbers, by hunting them
with dogs, driving the herd into some defile or _cul de sac_ among the
rocks, and then killing them at will with their arrows and javelins.
This, however, is an exceptional case, as such natural "pounds" are not
always at hand. The Indians farther south construct artificial
enclosures; but in the Esquimaux country there is neither time nor
material for such elaborate contrivances.
The Esquimaux who dwell in those parts frequented by the musk-oxen, hunt
these animals very much as they do the reindeer; but killing a musk
bull, or cow either, Is a feat of far grander magnitude, and requires
more address than shooting a tiny deer.
I have said that the Esquimaux do not, even in these hunting excursions,
stray very far into the interior. There is a good reason for their
keeping close to the seashore. Were they to penetrate far into the land
they would be in danger of meeting with their _bitter_ foemen, the
_Tinne_ Indians, who in this region also hunt reindeer and musk-oxen.
War to the knife is the practice between these two races of people, and
has ever been since the first knowledge of either. They often meet in
conflict upon the rivers inland, and these conflicts are of so cruel and
sanguinary a nature as to imbue each with a wholesome fear of the other.
The Indians, however, dread the Esquimaux more than the latter fear
them; and up to a late period took good care never to approach their
coasts; but the musket and rifle have now got into the hands of some of
the northern tribes, who avail themselves of these superior weapons, not
only to keep the Esquimaux at bay, but also to render them more cautious
about extending their range towards the interior.
When the dreary winter begins to make its appearance, and the reindeer
grow scarce upon the snow-covered plains, the Esquimaux return to their
winter villages upon the coast. Quadrupeds and birds no longer occupy
their whole attention, for the drift of their thoughts is now turned
towards the inhabitants of the great deep. The seal and the walrus are
henceforth the main objects of pursuit. Perhaps during the summer, when
the water was open, they may have visited the shore for the purpose of
capturing that great giant of the icy seas--a whale. If so, and they
have been successful in only one or two captures, they may look forward
to a winter of plenty--since the flesh of a full-grown whale, or, better
still, a brace of such ample creatures, would be sufficient to feed a
whole tribe for months.
They have no curing process for this immense carcass; they stand in need
of none. Neither salt nor smoking is required in their climate. Jack
Frost is their provision curer, and performs the task without putting
them either to trouble or expense. It is only necessary for them to
hoist the great flitches upon scaffolds, already erected for the
purpose, so as to keep the meat from the wolves, wolverines, foxes, and
their own half-starved dogs. From their aerial larder they can cut a
piece of blubber whenever they feel hungry, or they have a mind to eat,
and this _mind_ they are in so long as a morsel is left.
Their mode of capturing a whale is quite different from that practised
by the whale-fishers. When the huge creature is discovered near, the
whole tribe sally forth, and surround it in their kayaks; they then hurl
darts into its body, but instead of these having long lines attached to
them, they are provided with sealskins sewed up air-tight and inflated,
like bladders. When a number of these become attached to the body of
the whale, the animal, powerful though he be, finds great difficulty in
sinking far down, or even progressing rapidly through the water. He
soon rises to the surface, and the sealskin buoys indicate his
whereabouts to the occupants of the kayaks, who in their swift little
crafts, soon dart up to him again, and shoot a fresh volley into his
body. In this way the whale is soon "wearied out," and then falls a
victim to their larger spears, just as in the case where a capture is
made by regular, whalers.
I need scarcely add that a success of this kind is hailed as a jubilee
of the tribe, since it not only brings a benefit to the whole community,
but is also a piece of fortune of somewhat rare occurrence.
When no whales have been taken, the long, dark winter may justly be
looked forward to with some solicitude; and it is then that the
Esquimaux requires to put forth all his skill and energies for the
capture of the walrus or the seal--the latter of which may be regarded
as the staff of his life, furnishing him not only with food, but with
light, fuel, and clothing for his body and limbs.
Of the seals that inhabit the Polar Seas there are several species; but
the common seal (_Calocephalus vitulina_) and the harp-seal
(_Calocephalus Groenlandicus_) are those most numerous, and consequently
the principal object of pursuit.
The Esquimaux uses various stratagems for taking these creatures,
according to the circumstances in which they may be encountered; and
simpletons as the seals may appear, they are by no means easy of
capture. They are usually very shy and suspicious, even in places where
man has never been seen by them. They have other enemies, especially in
the great polar bear; and the dread of this tyrant of the icy seas keeps
them ever on the alert. Notwithstanding their watchfulness, however,
both the bear and the biped make great havoc among them, and each year
hundreds of thousands of them are destroyed.
The bear, in capturing seals, exhibits a skill and cunning scarce
excelled by that of the rational being himself. When this great
quadruped perceives a seal basking on the edge of an ice-field, he makes
his approaches, not by rushing directly towards it, which he well knows
would defeat his purpose. If once seen by the seal, the latter has only
to betake himself to the water, where it can soon sink or swim beyond
the reach of the bear. To prevent this, the bear gets well to leeward,
and then diving below the surface, makes his approaches under water, now
and then cautiously raising his head to get the true bearings of his
intended victim. After a number of these subaqueous "reaches," he gets
close in to the edge of the floe in such a position as to cut off the
seal's retreat to the water. A single spring brings him on the ice, and
then, before the poor seal has time to make a brace of flounders, it
finds itself locked in the deadly embrace of the bear. When seals are
thus detected asleep, the Esquimaux approaches them in his kayak, taking
care to paddle cautiously and silently. If he succeed in getting
between them and the open water, he kills them in the ordinary way--by
simply knocking them on the snout with a club, or piercing them with a
spear. Sometimes, however, the seal goes to sleep on the surface of the
open water. Then the approach is made in a similar manner by means of
the kayak, and the animal is struck with a harpoon. But a single blow
does not always kill a seal, especially if it be a large one, and the
blow has been ill-directed. In such cases the animal would undoubtedly
make his escape, and carry the harpoon along with it, which would be a
serious loss to the owner, who does not obtain such weapons without
great difficulty. To prevent this, the Esquimaux uses a contrivance
similar to that employed in the capture of the whale,--that is, he
attaches a float or buoy to his harpoon by means of a cord, and this so
impedes the passage of the seal through the water, that it can neither
dive nor swim to any very great distance. The float is usually a walrus
bladder inflated in the ordinary way, and wherever the seal may go, the
float betrays its track, enabling the Esquimaux to follow it in his
shuttle-shaped kayak, and pierce it again with a surer aim.
In winter, when the sea is quite covered with ice, you might fancy that
the seal-fishery would be at an end, for the seal is essentially a
marine animal; and although it can exist upon the ice or on dry land, it
could not _subsist_ there. Access to the water it must have, in order
to procure its food, which consists of small fish and molluscs. Of
course, when the ice forms on the surface, the seal is in its true
element--the water underneath--but when this ice becomes, as it often
does, a full yard in thickness, extending over hundreds of miles of the
sea, how then is the seal to be got at? It could not be reached at all;
and at such a season the Esquimaux people would undoubtedly starve, were
it not for a habit peculiar to this animal, which, happily for them,
brings it within their reach.
Though the seal can live under water like a fish, and probably could
pass a whole winter under the ice without much inconvenience, it likes
now and then to take a little fresh air, and have a quiet nap upon the
upper surface in the open air. With this design it breaks a hole
through the ice, while the latter is yet thin, and this hole it keeps
carefully open during the whole winter, clearing out each new crust as
it forms. No matter to what thickness the ice may attain, this hole
always forms a breathing-place for the seal, and a passage by which he
may reach the upper surface, and indulge himself in--his favourite
siesta in the open air. Knowing this habit, the Esquimaux takes
advantage of it to make the seal his captive. When the animal is
discovered on the ice, the hunter approaches with the greatest stealth
and caution. This is absolutely necessary: for if the enemy is
perceived, or makes the slightest noise, the wary seal flounders rapidly
into his hole, and is lost beyond redemption. If badly frightened, he
will not appear for a long time, denying himself his open air exercise
until the patience of his persecutor is quite worn out, and the coast is
again clear.
In making his approaches, the hunter uses all his art, not only taking
advantage of every inequality--such as snow-drifts and ice-hillocks--to
conceal himself; but he also practises an ingenious deception by
dressing himself in the skin of a seal of like species, giving his body
the figure of the animal, and counterfeiting its motions, by floundering
clumsily over the ice, and oscillating his head from side to side, just
as seals are seen to do.
This deception often proves successful, when the hunter under any other
shape would in vain endeavour to get within striking distance of his
prey. When seals are scarce, and the supply greatly needed, the
Esquimaux often lies patiently for hours together on the edge of a
seal-hole waiting for the animal to come up. In order to give it time
to get well out upon the ice, the hunter conceals himself behind a heap
of snow, which he has collected and piled up for the purpose. A
float-stick, ingeniously placed in the water of the breathing-hole,
serves as a signal to tell when the seal is mounting through his
trap-like passage, the motion of the stick betraying its ascent. The
hunter then gets himself into the right attitude to strike, and summons
all his energies for the encounter.
Even during the long, dark night of winter this mode of capturing the
seal is practised. The hunter, having discovered a breathing-hole--
which its dark colour enables him to find--proceeds in the following
manner: he scrapes away the snow from around it, and lifting up some
water pours it on the ice, so as to make a circle of a darker hue around
the orifice. He then makes a sort of cake of pure white snow, and with
this covers the hole as with a lid. In the centre of this lid he
punches a small opening with the shaft-end of his spear, and then sits
down and patiently awaits the issue.
The seal ascends unsuspiciously as before. The dark water, bubbling up
through the small central orifice, betrays its approach, which can be
perceived even in the darkest night. The hunter does not wait for its
climbing out upon the ice. Perhaps if he did so, the suspicious
creature might detect the device, and dive down again. But it is not
allowed time for reflection. Before it can turn its unwieldly body, the
heavy spear of the hunter--struck through the yielding snow--descends
upon its skull, and kills it on the instant.
The great "walrus" or "morse" (_Trichecus rosmarus_) is another
important product of the Polar Seas, and is hunted by the Esquimaux with
great assiduity. This splendid amphibious animal is taken by
contrivances very similar to those used for the seal; but the capture of
a walrus is an event of importance, second only to the striking of a
whale. Its great carcass not only supplies food to a whole village, but
an oil superior to that of the whale, besides various other useful
articles. Its skin, bones, and intestines are employed by the Esquimaux
for many domestic purposes,--and, in addition, there are the huge molar
tusks, that furnish one of the most valuable ivories of commerce, from
which are manufactured those beautiful sets of teeth, of dazzling
whiteness, that, gleaming between vermilion lips, you may often see at a
ball or an evening party!