opportunities open to modern composers in their struggle for
recognition is found in the field of songs and salon music. This
is particularly the case in America. Consequently, all of our
representatives produce such offerings, and that with success. A
few composers, however, have made a special study of song writing
and pianoforte pieces in lighter _genre_. Conspicuous among these
are G. Templeton Strong, J.H. Rogers, Clayton Johns, Neidlinger,
Ethelbert Nevin, Margaret Ruthven Lang, Fred Field Bullard, and
Percy L. Atherton. Especial mention is due to Clayton Johns for the
charming lyric quality of his songs; to Nevin for the fascination of
his lighter pianoforte pieces, that nevertheless avoid triviality; to
Miss Lang for the fairy-like daintiness of many of her conceptions;
to Bullard, whose promising career was prematurely cut off at the
very moment when the rugged simplicity of his inspiring songs and
choruses had won the hearts of his countrymen; to Atherton, who is,
perhaps, the most talented of contemporary song writers in the realm
of subtle psychological reasoning.
(5) =Organists and Church Composers.= It may be boldly asserted
that America concedes the palm to none in the art of organ playing.
Such is the skill in registration demanded in these days that that
art is practically assuming the dignity of orchestration. This
demand has been largely brought about by the need of finding an
adequate substitute for concert orchestras. As a result, not only
the large cities but almost every town in the Union possesses one or
more modern organs presided over by executants of marked ability.
In most cases these men devote themselves to church composition
as well. Almost all the composers whose careers we have just been
reviewing count church playing and church composition among their
accomplishments. The only notable exception is MacDowell, who is,
instead, a virtuoso pianoforte player. This is not the place to
examine into the work of our many excellent church organists and
composers. One is confronted by notable names wherever one turns. In
Boston, Warren A. Locke has for many years held undisputed authority
in matters pertaining to church services and boy choirs. Whitney and
Whiting have done similar good work. Of the younger men, J. Wallace
Goodrich displays an astounding technique, unexcelled either in
this country or in France. The high standard of Episcopal church
music in New York is due to such men as Samuel P. Warren, Richard H.
Warren, Stubbs, Hall, etc. Among the prominent soloists are Eddy,
Archer,[115] and Gerrit Smith. Shelley (1858) is widely known for
his church compositions. He has also written large works such as the
oratorio "The Inheritance Divine," but owes his popularity primarily
to pleasing though rather conventional songs. Another prominent
church composer is Jules Jordan of Providence, whose interest is
centered chiefly in oratorio. N.H. Allen, Marston, Hanscom and Coombs
should also be mentioned under this heading.
[Footnote 115: Frederic Archer died since the above lines were
written.]
(6) =Teachers and Theorists.= Teachers and theorists have found
a fertile field in the United States, and in scientific educational
matters the native American easily takes the lead. Already a
dignified array of theoretical and pedagogical books have been added
to the literature of music by such authors as A.J. Goodrich, A.R.
Parsons, Goetschius, Wilson G. Smith, Matthews, Chadwick, Benjamin
Cutter, Spalding, Norris. American teachers have won recognition in
Europe as well. Goetschius found occupation in Stuttgart; Boise was
for years an authority in Berlin.
(7) =School and College.= Of late, increased attention has
been bestowed upon the study of music in the college curriculum.
Harvard's lead is being followed, and chairs of music have been
established on every hand. Harvard has been obliged to increase
its staff of musical instructors, so that Paine is now assisted by
Spalding and Converse.[116] Excellent work is being done by Parker
at Yale, Lewis at Tufts, Gow at Vassar, Macdougall at Wellesley,
Chadwick at the New England Conservatory, Pratt at the Hartford
Theological Seminary. At Columbia, MacDowell has been succeeded by
Rübner, who is ably seconded by McWhood. Smith College was one of
the pioneers in musical affairs, being represented until recently by
Blodgett, who was possessed of a peculiarly magnetic power. One of
his prominent lieutenants, who is still in active service at Smith,
is the pianoforte teacher and pedagogue, Edwin B. Story. He is one of
the most fluent accompanists in the country. The enterprise of these
college professors is making itself felt in the preparatory schools
of the country, whereby the entire artistic morale of the public at
large is being elevated. Credit is also due to the sound principles
inoculated into the teaching of music in the public schools by such
men as Frank Damrosch in New York or Tomlins in Chicago.
[Footnote 116: The retirement of Professor Paine not long before his
death, and the recent resignation of Assistant Professor Converse for
the purpose of devoting himself to composition, leaves the department
of music at Harvard in charge of Assistant Professor Spalding.]
* * * * *
The writer has intentionally overstepped the bounds of orchestral
composition for the purpose of emphasizing the prodigious activity
displayed by our professional brethren on every hand. Throughout
these pages there runs an undercurrent of discontent provoked by
the listless attitude of the American public taken as a whole. The
fickleness of their support seems to be at the root of our troubles.
Everything conceivable is being done for this public. Music in the
schools is encouraged. The colleges are alive to the needs of the
hour. Many of our composers are sacrificing their inner convictions
on the altar of patriotism with the determination to write simply.
Music lovers and philanthropists are enlisted in the cause. A high
musical standard for religious worship is maintained. Orchestral
performances can be listened to at moderate cost. Such renditions are
as good as, frequently better than, those in Europe. How is it, then,
that so many choral societies flourish for a few seasons, only to
eventually die a lingering death? Buffalo's Symphony Orchestra is no
more. Other cities have allowed similar mortifying conditions to come
to pass.
On the other hand, the singer or the instrumental virtuoso reaps
rewards that are out of all proportion to the tardy recognition and
modest remuneration awarded to their colleagues--the composers,
conductors, and organists--who are almost invariably possessed
of an artistic education far superior to that of the soloist. A
Rossinian era would appear to have reasserted itself! The larger
number of these soloists are themselves rarely patriotic, for only
with difficulty can they be persuaded to sing or perform even the
finest of American productions. Orchestral conductors who come
to our shores from abroad soon perceive that the public does not
support home talent in a whole-hearted manner, and adjust their
programs accordingly. With a few notable exceptions, they too are
disloyal. Again, the worthy efforts of our comparatively few eminent
newspaper critics in behalf of the American composer are constantly
counteracted by the superficial and bombastic criticisms of their
lesser brethren.
The American composer is to-day ready to enter the lists against the
entire world. His own countrymen are impeding him. It is high time
that the American public awake out of its lethargy!
(Summary on page 180.)
SUMMARY OF PART III.
CHAPTER IX. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
The German composers of the nineteenth century are for convenience
classified in three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The
Classical Romanticists," "The New Movement." The so-called founders
of the Romantic School, Spohr and Weber, were followed by such
representative composers as Schubert, Mendelssohn and Schumann. The
evolution of orchestration was conspicuously advanced by Weber. He
stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with him a new
period began.
SPOHR was instrumental in awakening a keener interest for
the supernatural, and he aimed to illustrate certain definite ideas
by means of musical expression. He contributed to the evolution
of orchestration proper but little that was actually new, but his
development of violin technique stimulated at least a freer and
more elaborate manner of employing the strings. The equilibrium of
his orchestra is admirably preserved and the general color-scheme
enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass.
WEBER'S true greatness lay in the power of orchestral
portrayal and in rare appreciation of instrumental effects. Few
composers contributed more than he to the independence of the
wood-wind. He showed particular predilection for the clarinet as
well as for horns, and was exceedingly modern in the use of small
combinations. Weber's scoring is above all dramatic, and serves as a
model for all later composers.
SCHUBERT displayed rare skill in the handling of orchestral
instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. His was
the hand of a master who without hesitation knew what effects he
desired and how to obtain them. Novel was his manner of writing for
trombones, and the contrast of solo wood-instruments in dialogue.
MENDELSSOHN'S contributions to the details of
instrumentation are both original and varied. The suavity of his
melody, the purity of his form, and the delicacy of his scoring have
been excelled by none. His orchestration is buoyant, transparent, and
perfectly balanced.
SCHUMANN holds the unusual position of being one of the few
great masters who did not excel in orchestration.
CHAPTER X. THE CLASSICAL ROMANTICISTS.
The representatives of classical romanticism are Raff, Rubinstein,
Goldmark, Brahms, Bruch, Rheinberger. Although all of these men
displayed rare skill in the application of orchestral resources,
none of them can take rank with the more conspicuous exponents of
instrumentation.
RAFF. Striking insignia of absolutely original scoring are
not conspicuous in Raff's orchestration, but its entire character
gives evidence of fertile imagination and sound judgment.
RUBINSTEIN. The instrumentation of the Russian, Rubinstein,
is not of distinctive significance.
GOLDMARK, on the other hand, owes his reputation primarily
to his gifts as an orchestrator. He atones for a certain lack of
musical inspiration by mastery of material effects and power of vivid
portrayal.
BRAHMS considered glowing orchestral color and sensational
dramatic effect of secondary importance. In spite of his otherwise
comprehensive and titanic achievements, one cannot point to him as a
model for invariably felicitous instrumentation.
BRUCH possesses supreme command of modern orchestral
resources, but is at his best in the art of accompaniment, which
displays perfect taste, genuine expression and an abundance of
energetic force.
RHEINBERGER'S orchestral works cannot be regarded in
the light of important contributions to musical literature. The
instrumentation is thoroughly refined, marvellously smooth, and
perfectly rounded in every detail; but the essential elements of
individuality and novelty do not enter into the orchestral scheme to
any appreciable extent.
CHAPTER XI. THE NEW MOVEMENT.
The "New Movement" dates from the innovations simultaneously
introduced by Berlioz in France and by Liszt and Wagner in Germany.
BERLIOZ was practically the first representative of the New
Movement, but contrary to the natural course of evolution, he was
not only its founder but at once its most radical exponent as well.
The laying out of his musical scheme was inseparably connected with
a _series_ of events or ideas. As the chief French representative of
romantic musical art, he combined dramatic and symphonic effects. His
contributions to the development of "program" music and to modern
science of orchestration loom up in gigantic proportions. One of
the primary objects of his orchestral conceptions was to display
tone-color in its own right, an object that was foreign to the more
æsthetic ideals of the classicists. The distinctive features of his
orchestration are power of musical description; new combinations,
new effects, new treatment; insight into the characteristics of
the instruments whereby their possibilities both individual and
collective are demonstrated; excessive polyphony and complicated
rhythm. Berlioz must be accredited with having anticipated many
effects subsequently elaborated upon by Wagner, as discovered, for
example, by his frequent use of homogeneous tone-color in independent
three and four part harmony. Berlioz represents the ultra-realistic
school of instrumental music and was the most daring orchestral
writer that has ever lived.
LISZT. The importance attached to the rich and heavy
orchestration of Liszt consists of the bearing it has upon the
unfettered form, the freedom of tonality and the novelty of treatment
that characterize the New German School. His scoring is masterful,
highly colored and ingenious, but contains nothing conspicuously new.
He was led to modify the cyclic form of the symphony which became
transformed into the symphonic poem with its continuity of music,
monothematic principle and absence of conventional formulas.
WAGNER. The highest ideals of German opera culminated in the
music dramas of Wagner. He aimed to substitute a noble form of art
in the place of mere pleasure-giving and sensational fabrications.
Music, poetic ideas, action and stage setting were all to be worthy
of the subject intended for presentation. By developing the so-called
_Leit-motiv_, Wagner discovered a most potent factor for recalling
past events, for emphasizing those present, and for anticipating
those of the future. To-day Wagner stands forth as the accepted
champion of dramatic reforms, as the most eminent composer of the
nineteenth century, and as the greatest master of orchestration in
the annals of the world. Although at first susceptible to tone-color
as an end to itself, he learned to subordinate it to the demands of
the musical and poetic ideas of the immediate dramatic situation. He
emphasized solidity, made the orchestra firm and supple, increased
its melodic as well as harmonic force, and used it for two definite
purposes: to render emotion and to portray action and situations.
His orchestration does not deviate from well-established and approved
traditions, but the grouping and treatment of instruments are
entirely new. Every phase of his inexhaustible variety in string
writing is of surpassing beauty. The use of deep, sonorous basses
never interferes with harmonic clearness or with the outline of
melodic and rhythmic movement. The modern extreme development of
unsupported wood-wind and their numerical distribution are entirely
due to Wagner. The most radical changes are those affecting the
brass. Of incalculable value was the permanent employment of
valve-horns and valve-trumpets, the immense development in horn
writing, the discarding of opheicleides, and the introduction of a
complete group of tubas. Much of Wagner's warm and rich orchestration
is due to a substratum of soft brass harmonies that are apparently
not audible at all. No composer knew better than he how to obtain the
best effects from instruments of percussion without overstepping the
bounds of artistic refinement. Greatest of masters for the orchestra,
Wagner brought that organization to its highest point of evolution.
Further prominent representatives of the "New Movement" are
Cornelius, Bruckner, Lassen, Ritter, Draeseke, Weingartner, Nicodé,
Richard Strauss. The masterful and ingenious instrumentation of
Cornelius proves him a worthy follower of Wagner. Bruckner's
orchestration, though clever, lacks buoyancy and warmth. That of
Lassen, Ritter, Draeseke and Weingartner contains many sterling
qualities, but has not advanced the evolution of orchestration to
any perceptible degree. Nicodé's methods present some of the most
interesting specimens of modern orchestration.
RICHARD STRAUSS. The greatest cosmopolitan master of
orchestration after Wagner is Richard Strauss. He has progressed step
by step through various stages of development. Conforming at first
to the conservative romanticism of Mendelssohn and Schumann, he soon
came to admire and emulate the doctrines of Brahms, but eventually
leaned more and more upon Liszt and Wagner for the dominating thought
of his conceptions. With "Till Eulenspiegel" and "Also sprach
Zarathustra" Strauss inaugurated a permanent and ever advancing
method of procedure distinctly individualistic and unprecedented
that has so far culminated in the vast realistic conceptions of "Don
Juan" and "Ein Heldenleben." His works embody flowing cantilena,
intricate polyphony, freely used chromatic harmony, daring harmonic
combinations, complex rhythm, startling contrasts, monumental
climaxes, clever orchestral devices, and extreme realism. In order
to grasp the true significance of the contrapuntally synthesized
harmonic Melos it is of utmost importance to trace the complicated
melodic delineations as independent factors flowing in a horizontal
direction. His orchestral conceptions are vast color-pictures
and display a wealth of melodic utterance in all the principal
orchestral voices, a prolific number of themes and sub-themes, and
the most intimate acquaintance with the specific characteristics
of the various instruments as well as with orchestral combinations
and the resultant mixture of tonal tints thereby to be obtained.
Like Berlioz, Strauss secures dramatic effects by means of vivid
orchestration, and displays an insatiable craving for the discovery
of novel combinations. His themes are arrayed in a kaleidoscopic
sequence of instrumental color rather than being subjected to
elaborate thematic treatment, and climaxes are reached by means of
dynamic effects instead of by melodic evolution. An elaborately
conceived program justifies the requisition for vast orchestral
resources. There is further evidence of genuine inspiration, of a
true gift for thematic development forming a marvellous filigree of
contrapuntally interwoven leading motives, of intellectual power,
philosophical reflection, poetic revery, and naïve humor.
Germany still leads the van in the art of orchestration, of which she
possesses many eminent exponents such as Max Shillings and Cyrill
Kistler,--slavish imitators of extreme Wagnerism, and Humperdinck,
Thuille, Kienzl, Georg Schumann, Mahler,--less extreme in their views
but more successful in their results.
* * * * *
During the nineteenth century a small group of men were especially
instrumental in transplanting the daintiness and refinement of modern
French light opera into indigenous German productions. Conspicuous
among these is Lortzing, supported by Nicolai, Flotow, Suppé and
Johann Strauss junior.
CHAPTER XII.
(1) =France.= The French composers of the nineteenth century
may for convenience be divided into several distinctive groups.
After Berlioz, a number of representative writers devoted themselves
with signal success to the development of orchestral concert music.
Conspicuous among these are David, Franck, Lalo, Godard, d'Indy.
DAVID possessed, in addition to the characteristic feature
of _clearness_, a highly developed talent for artistic disposition of
his plans, for poetic picture-painting, and for rich and descriptive
orchestral color, especially when portraying Oriental subjects.
Like Berlioz, he introduced certain scenic qualities into his
orchestration, which is ever buoyant, supple, and varied.
CÉSAR FRANCK differs from his French contemporaries by
reason of what might be termed the masculine severity of his
inspiration, together with monumental mastery of polyphonic design,
exhaustless command of orchestral resources.
LALO. In antithesis to Franck's severe and somewhat solemn
style of writing, that of Lalo betrays a fund of spontaneous
invention, curious rhythmic effects, charming and sprightly
instrumentation, and great aptitude for imbuing his works with the
necessary local coloring.
GODARD. In France, Godard occupies a conspicuous position
on the programs of orchestral concert music. His musical ideas and
instrumentation are both graceful and charming.
D'INDY. In earnest endeavor and in faithful adherence to
high ideals d'Indy has proved himself a worthy successor to his
teacher, César Franck, whom he copies in exceedingly complicated
development of subject-matter. Not content with incorporating in his
works the most advanced tenets of Wagner, he further has explored
the pathway opened up by Brahms. He is essentially a symphonist,
evolves his conceptions on broad and dignified lines, and displays a
masterful deployment of orchestral resources.
* * * * *
A little coterie of Frenchmen--Adam, Maillart and Delibes--have
distinguished themselves by almost exclusive devotion to the lightest
of operatic forms. Conspicuous among these is Delibes by reason of
his naïve descriptive powers and clever instrumentation.
* * * * *
Thomas, Gounod, Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Chabrier, Massenet may be
regarded as the foremost French composers of the nineteenth century
and the greatest French orchestrator after Berlioz is Saint-Saëns.
THOMAS. The orchestration of Thomas is clear in _ensemble_,
ingenious in detail, polished, refined and never overloaded.
Characteristic tone-color and poetically conceived combinations
reveal the skilful hand of a competent master.
GOUNOD stands as the most illustrious recent representative
of lyric opera and exhibits the unusual attribute of attaining
excellent results without apparent effort. His scoring follows the
general path indicated by Auber and Meyerbeer, but it further shows
that he possessed a considerable knowledge of the German science of
instrumentation.
SAINT-SAËNS is the greatest living French composer and
the mightiest of her orchestral exponents. The fundamentals of
his artistic principles differ but slightly from those of Thomas
and Gounod, and the outlines of Meyerbeer's operatic forms are
also in evidence in his works. Nevertheless, Saint-Saëns discloses
involuntary leanings toward Wagner. His symphonic poems, though
not of the same magnitude and significance, are nevertheless
clearer and more compact than those of either Berlioz or Liszt.
Admirable clearness as well as simplicity of treatment characterizes
his chamber music. His orchestration is elaborate, rich and
varied,--intricate, at times, without being obtuse. It invariably
reveals the soundest of judgment in the deployment of large or small
orchestral forces. It is alternately scintillating, impassioned,
melancholy, heroic. Among other details, his scoring frequently makes
requisition for triplets of wood and brass instruments, and embodies
the best traits of all contemporary orchestral writers both native
and foreign.
BIZET followed the prevalent custom of building upon
French traditions, enhanced by German truthfulness of expression
and interpretation. He possessed a rare talent for discovering
novel traits of instrumentation together with variety of rhythm and
tone-color.
CHABRIER'S representative work "Gwendoline" may be
rightfully looked upon as the most advanced exposition of existing
Franco-German music dramas. Much of his orchestration suggests a
progressive yet peculiar phase of Wagnerism enveloped by a tinge of
melancholy and softened by the delicate touch peculiar to the French.
MASSENET appears at his best as a dramatic writer. His
endowments embrace highly developed feeling for sensuous charm, a
style distinctly poetic, and a manner of orchestration both rich and
varied.
* * * * *
French art during this era has been further assisted by the
sterling achievements of many secondary composers such as Dubois
and Paladhile; by the orchestral expounders: Gevaërt, Lavoix;
by the literary champions: Vidal, Benoit, Joncières; by the
organist-composers: Guilmant, Widor; by the representatives of the
fair sex: Augusta Holmès, Cécile Chaminade; and by the most recent
aspirants to fame: Charpentier and Debussy.
* * * * *
The attitude of the French public toward orchestral concert music has
undergone a radical change in the last fifty years. During the first
half of the nineteenth century Habeneck reorganized and developed the
"Concerts du Conservatoire." This was followed by the establishment
of Pasdeloup's "Société des jeunes artistes" and its offspring, the
"Concerts populaires." The persistent propagation of both indigenous
and exotic works of art is largely due to Pasdeloup's initiative. In
recent years, concert performances in France have been brought to a
high state of proficiency through the untiring efforts of Lamoureux
and Colonne.
* * * * *
(2) =Italy.= For half a century Italy has now been represented
by but one luminary of the first magnitude--VERDI. His earlier
scoring is conventional and commonplace. The orchestration
depends largely upon violent and frequently illogical contrasts.
Gradually, however, Verdi acquired increased regard for judicious and
more independent instrumentation, and that more particularly in the
deployment of the wood-wind. An extreme advance is discovered in his
Requiem and later operas. Here the functions of the orchestra become
more important, and the tonal colors acquire a richer and warmer hue.
Verdi's followers have done practically nothing for the cause of
orchestration other than to branch off into infrequented by-ways that
have necessitated corresponding orchestral treatment.
CHAPTER XIII.
The universal development of musical art during the nineteenth
century is indeed unprecedented. Side by side with the rise and
growth of the New Movement in Germany, side by side with the high
development of French lyric opera enhanced by advanced Teutonic
principles, side by side with the gradual unfolding of Verdi's
melodious and impassioned conceptions stands the evolution of
scientifically applied Folk-tunes belonging to the younger musical
countries.
* * * * *
(1) =Hungary.= It cannot be said that Hungary possesses a
national style of orchestration. Although Liszt and Goldmark were
both Hungarians by birth, the former benefited his country not so
much by developing an indigenous style of composition as by the
propagation of those musical traits peculiar to his race. As to
Goldmark's music, it is that of a German rather than of a Magyar.
More faithful to native characteristics were the efforts of a small
group of secondary composers. Their scores, like those of Liszt
and Goldmark, contain plenty of variety and color, but owe their
distinctive features to melodic and rhythmic novelty,--not to
instrumentation. Hungary has, therefore, exerted no more than an
indirect influence upon the art of orchestration.
* * * * *
(2) =Bohemia.= The development of orchestration in Bohemia
affords a striking contrast to that in Hungary. SMETANA, the
pioneer, was content to employ comparatively simple means,--indeed,
his scores occasionally reveal a suggestion of Mozart's naïve touch.
On the other hand, his eminent successor, DVO[VR]ÁK, developed
the art to a point excelled by none. The latter ranks among
the four greatest orchestrators since Wagner. Like Smetana,
Dvo[vr]ák evolved his music from the native folk-song. He was on the
whole, an adherent to strict forms, but subjected these to the utmost
freedom and originality of treatment. His greatest powers displayed
themselves in the colossal development of orchestral resources.
His orchestration is appropriate and consistent, varied, warm and
brilliant. It abounds in beautiful combinations. It is rich but never
overburdened. Further distinctive features include clear and bright
string writing, methods of employing the wood-wind similar to those
of Schubert, and an occasional touch of the supernatural suggestive
of Spohr and Weber. In a word, Dvo[vr]ák was a master of vivacious
and refined orchestration.
* * * * *
(3) =Scandinavia.= The music of Scandinavia is likewise
evolved from native folk-melodies. The Northern composers are not
particularly dramatic nor have they developed many novel traits of
instrumentation. They resemble the Hungarians in having wielded
but an indirect influence upon orchestration, this influence being
restricted to the indigenous properties of their melody, rhythm
and local coloring. Their chief representatives are GADE,
the pioneer, and his illustrious successor--GRIEG. The former,
under the beneficial influence of Mendelssohn, developed high
efficiency in the art of orchestration. He appreciated both the
possibilities and the limitations of each instrument, and revealed
his nationality by the application of suggestive tone-color. Grieg's
instrumentation is not conspicuously influenced by modern tendencies.
Though he cannot be ranked as a great orchestrator, his writing for
strings alone is of surpassing beauty, nor does his deployment of
larger forces lack novelty and effectiveness.
* * * * *
(4) =Russia.= The gradual ascendency of Russian music is one
of the phenomena of the nineteenth century. Here again the native
folk-song forms the basis for scientific development. Russian
composers may be divided into three classes:--the old lyric
school,--the new Russian school,--Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky in a
class by themselves.
GLINKA, pioneer of the old lyric school, accomplished for
his country what Gade and Smetana did for theirs. His orchestration
calls for but little comment excepting that it is clever and at times
even brilliant.
The tenets of the "New Russian Movement" are closely allied to those
of the "New German Movement." Chief representatives of this class are
BORODIN, CESAR CUI, RIMSKI-KORSAKOFF. The orchestration of these men
and their associates is, on the whole, but the reflection of
Tschaikowsky's style combined with the further progressive methods
of German and French orchestration.
RUBINSTEIN cannot be compared with Glinka as an operatic
writer or with Tschaikowsky as an orchestrator. His instrumentation
was hampered by his antagonism to the innovations of the New German
Movement. In string writing, however, Rubinstein reveals fine
appreciation of tone-color, and his full scoring at times displays
superb power.
TSCHAIKOWSKY still reigns supreme as the greatest
interpreter of Slavonic ideals. A remarkable feature of his scoring
is the extreme modern effect secured with comparatively modest means.
He expressed himself in a language of profound pathos which was in
part due to the embodiment of weird and gloomy orchestration. He made
prominent use of low wood-wind, which were constantly combined with
the violas, and he evinced peculiar predilection for clarinets in
their low range and bassoons in their upper range. On the other hand,
many magnificent specimens of forceful writing are also in evidence
in his scores.
* * * * *
(5) =England.= Of the ten men chosen as representative English
composers of the nineteenth century, six are prominently identified
with the evolution of English orchestration. The pioneer of these was
Macfarren, whose cosmopolitan range of composition is particularly
noteworthy. Bennett, a disciple of Mendelssohn, proved himself a
worthy heir to Purcell, and is regarded as the founder of a new
English School. Most widely known is Sullivan, who substantially
aided the development of an Anglican style of orchestration. Sullivan
based his methods of instrumentation upon those of Mozart, but
occasionally copied Gounod and even Berlioz. He displayed sound
musicianship, dramatic power, and a thorough command of orchestral
resources. Mackenzie's conceptions are wholly orchestral. His scoring
is powerful and effective, allowing also commendable freedom to the
wood-wind, and suggests a mixture of Mendelssohnian and Wagnerian
externals. Cowen is an exponent of both absolute and programmatic
music. He shares with Stanford the rank of representative English
symphonist.
The twentieth century gives promise of marked advance in English
composition from an emotional and orchestral standpoint as discovered
in the initial productions of Elgar.
* * * * *
(6) =America.= America and Russia are the two countries that
have forged to the front in musical art during the past quarter
century. Until the shackles of English conservatism and of Puritan
dogmas were thrown off, little could be done in the way of preparing
for a national school of composition. But with the ever increasing
influx of German musicians, American composers were stimulated to
extend their horizon, so that at the present day one can point to
a host of cultured and highly educated musicians who are devoting
themselves to the furtherance of national art. Many of them have
displayed rare skill as orchestral writers, but comparatively few
have as yet been sufficiently fortunate to acquire wide-spread
recognition in this branch. The list of pioneer composers and
promoters includes Lowell and William Mason, Bristow, Gottschalk,
C.C. Converse, Paine, Lang, and Emery. A somewhat arbitrary selection
of representative orchestrators includes Paine, Buck, Foote,
Chadwick, MacDowell, Parker. The pioneer of America's great composers
is Paine. His opera "Azara" may be regarded as his representative
work, and is conspicuous for its dramatic continuity, irresistible
climaxes, dignity and breadth of musical contents, consistent and
effective orchestration. Buck is prominently identified with the
evolution of American church music. The orchestration of his choral
compositions reveals the firm hand of a master. Foote appears to best
advantage when writing chamber and orchestral music. He does not aim
to produce sensational effects, yet clothes his artistic conceptions
in appropriate orchestral garment. Chadwick's music is above all
manly and energetic. His form, though conservative, is well rounded.
His orchestration is chaste and refined rather than sensational and
glowing. He has proved himself a keen judge of those essentials
required for large instrumental works. MacDowell's music possesses
certain characteristics that distinguish it from that of any other
American composer. His education has been thoroughly cosmopolitan.
He aims to induce poetic imagination symbolic of emotional reality.
His chord formations, harmonic progressions, thematic treatment,
and structural form are all in accord with the psychological
subtleties to be expressed. His orchestration is one of his strongest
attributes; though founded upon that of Raff, it possesses also the
charming touch of the modern French school. Parker has risen to
eminence through his choral writings, and is the best known American
writer in England. He wields his orchestral forces with no uncertain
hand, but does not allow tone-color in its own right to predominate
in his choral works. Further prominent writers for the orchestra
are Gilchrist, Gleason, Foerster, Beck, Bird, Kelley, Schoenefeld,
Zeck, van der Stucken, Mrs. Beach, F.S. Converse, Huss, Hadley. Until
recently the larger number of orchestral conductors in the United
States were foreigners, but the Americans are gradually taking the
reins into their own hands. The present display of musical activity
in America is unprecedented. The schools, the colleges, the churches,
the concert hall, the dramatic stage are all preparing the way for
the ascendency of the American composer.
CONCLUSION.
We have now traced the history of our modern art of orchestration
through five great stages of evolution. (1) Under the head of "The
Cradle of Instrumental Music," musical development among primitive
men was attributed to two impelling forces: emotional expression and
pagan religious rites. The nature of these early attempts at musical
utterance can only be conjectured, but although we have no knowledge
of its tonal aspect, extant relics and representations of primitive
instruments among such races as the Egyptians, the Assyrians and the
Jews correspond to the leading types of sound-producing apparatus
belonging to civilized nations. Authentic history discloses the
development of artistic music in India, in Greece and in early Rome.
These efforts were essentially melodic. Rhythm was dependent upon
poetic instinct, whereas the harmony of simultaneous sounds, though
scientifically expounded, was put to but small practical use. Systems
of harmony, notation and measure were eventually established, though
circuitously devolved from the tedious experiments of the scholastic
monks to the more tangible results of the troubadours and of the
masters of the Netherland School. Lasso and Palestrina eventually
pointed the way toward a settled tonality determined by harmonic
considerations. (2) "The Dawn of Independent Instrumentation" treats
of the further development of consistent tonality, of greater
rhythmic freedom, of artistic structural form, and of the gradual
ascendency of a secular style in connection with solo-singing and
independent instrumental music. Independent instrumental music found
its origin in the attempts at embellished organ accompaniment; solo
singing devolved from the Miracle Plays, from the lyrics of the
troubadours, and from the Florentine monody as developed by Peri and
Cavalieri, whose theories contained the germ of opera and oratorio,
for which instrumental accompaniment is a requisite. (3) The chapter
entitled "Beginnings of Orchestration" marks the actual starting
point for the nuclear thought of this book. Here the central figure
is Monteverde, father of modern instrumentation. His methods were
propagated by Carissimi in Italy, Schütz in Germany, Cavalli and
Lulli in France. The greatest orchestral writer after Monteverde
was Scarlatti. (4) The way was now prepared for the comprehensive
"Classic Era," of which the central figures, as regards orchestral
evolution, are Haydn, the father of modern orchestration, and
Beethoven,--magnificently supported by Mozart, and to a lesser degree
by Bach, Händel and Gluck. In the earlier part of this era, France
owed the high standard of her indigenous music primarily to Rameau
and Grétry. The former stands as an exponent of serious opera,
whereas the latter established _opéra comique_ upon a permanent
basis. Rameau found a worthy successor in the great orchestrator,
Méhul. Grétry was succeeded by Boieldieu, Auber, Hérold, Halévy.
Meanwhile the orchestration of Italy did not keep pace with that of
Germany or France. The Italians were primarily engaged in composing
church music and in writing operas that should satisfy the existing
demands for vocal virtuosity. Pergolesi was a notable exception.
Even though the art of instrumentation had originated in Italy, no
important evolutionist of orchestration can be mentioned between
Scarlatti (1659) and Cherubini (1760); the latter is moreover
identified with France rather than with Italy. Spontini, Rossini,
and the German, Meyerbeer, likewise won their laurels in Paris.
Cherubini and Spontini stand as the chief Italian exponents of
orchestration during the classic era, the one for the church, the
other for the drama. (5) The classic era overlaps the rise and
growth of the "Romantic Movement," for the highest attainments of
Beethoven, Auber and Rossini were not reached until after Spohr and
Weber had already entered the lists. These two early romanticists
were shortly succeeded by Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, by the
classical-romanticists, headed by Raff and Brahms, and by the
originators of the New Movement, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner. Recent
development of differentiated types of orchestration discloses
the unique fact that almost every country of musical prominence
is represented by a single orchestral writer of unusual ability
whose success was dependent upon the initiatory work of one single
predecessor. Italy is represented by Spontini and Verdi, France
by Berlioz and Saint-Saëns, Bohemia by Smetana and Dvo[vr]ák,
Scandinavia by Gade and Grieg, Russia by Glinka and Tschaikowsky,
Germany by Wagner and Richard Strauss.
The above epitome presents the historical aspect of orchestral
development. Due credit has been given to those men who particularly
helped to forge the connecting links in the evolutionary chain,
irrespective of the intrinsic value of their own instrumentation. In
antithesis to the above historical aspect, the following synopsis
presents the purely practical aspect of orchestration proper as
developed by thirteen men whose contributions thereto would appear
to be of chief importance. They are named in chronological order
without regard to evolutionary sequence or nationality. It is from
their works that the specimens of orchestral scoring in the appendix
to this book have been chosen. These thirteen representatives are:
Monteverde, Scarlatti, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Berlioz,
Mendelssohn, Wagner, Saint-Saëns, Tschaikowsky, Dvo[vr]ák, Richard
Strauss. Monteverde aimed to obtain expressive and dramatic
effects, established the orchestra on a permanent basis of stringed
instruments played with a bow, and realized the necessity for an
individualistic and differentiated style of writing for voices
and instruments. Scarlatti divided his strings into four parts,
properly dispersed and balanced, readjusted the relation of
the wind instruments to the rest of the orchestra by employing
them in pairs, strengthened and extended the structure of his
opera-symphonies. Haydn established a perfectly balanced orchestra
as a whole, realized the value of the wood-wind in their capacity
of lending warmth and color to the orchestral canvas, employed them
systematically in pairs, and regulated the proportion of the brass
to the strings and wood. Mozart infused into the orchestra vitality
and warmth, exploited the proper functions of the wood-wind with
especial attention to those of the clarinet, and was the first to
consistently mix the tonal colors of the orchestra. The evolution
of the classic orchestra culminated in the symphonic writings
of Beethoven. His scoring not only embodies the ideals of his
predecessors, but treats each instrument also with characteristic
individuality, subordinated, however, as a means for faithfully
depicting the details of the composition proper. He pointed the way
for the subsequent romanticists, and his descriptive music proves
that even with comparatively simple means gorgeous tone-painting can
be attained. Weber initiated a novel style of dramatic orchestration
and contributed substantially to the independence of the wood-wind.
Berlioz was the first of the great modern symphonists and represents
the ultra-realistic school of orchestral program-music. He combined
both dramatic and symphonic principles but also applied tone-color in
its own right. His unique genius disclosed itself in the discovery
of new combinations, new effects, new treatment, and in his power of
musical description. The orchestration of Mendelssohn is invaluable
for its finish of detail. It is buoyant, transparent, delicate, and
perfectly balanced. Wagner brought the art of dramatic orchestration
to its highest point of evolution. His orchestration does not deviate
from well-established and approved principles, but the grouping and
treatment of instruments are entirely new. He emphasized solidity,
made the orchestra firm and supple, increased its melodic as well
as harmonic force, and used it for two definite purposes: to render
emotion and to portray action and situations. Saint-Saëns' methods
emphasize the prevailing custom of his countrymen to combine French
traditions and advanced German principles. Clear and compact form,
comparative simplicity of thematic treatment, elaborate, rich, varied
and above all scintillating orchestration constitute the cardinal
features of his conspicuous attainments. The ideal representative
of Greater Russia is Tschaikowsky. He secured a gloomy eloquence of
instrumentation by drawing upon the lower accents of the orchestra,
but was also a master of magnificent and stirring effects. Dvo[vr]ák
evolved his music from the Bohemian folk-song and was a master of
vivacious and refined orchestration. His scoring is appropriate,
consistent, varied, warm and brilliant. It abounds in beautiful
combinations. It is rich but never overburdened. Richard Strauss
is proving himself a worthy successor to Wagner as a result of
his marvellous insight into the specific characteristics of each
individual instrument and of his genius for combining them in a
bewildering network of contrapuntally interwoven melodic themes. He
possesses an hitherto unheard of orchestral technique, and taxes
both the executive ability and the artistic attributes of the
instrumentalists to the utmost. He makes use of elaborately conceived
programs necessitating vast orchestral resources, is an extremist in
the realm of realism, and secures powerful dramatic effects by means
of vivid orchestration.
Orchestration in its present development would seem to have reached
its highest possible attainment of effectiveness and virtuosity. The
problem of the future, therefore, deals not so much with material
increase of orchestral resource, as with what manner of thought
and music the orchestra is destined to portray. What are to be
the musical ethics of the twentieth century composers? The most
subtle thinkers of the world have generally taken an idealistic
view of the social mission of musical art. Eminent psychologists of
Germany, France and England, who otherwise represent distinctive and
frequently antagonistic schools of philosophy, all agree on this
point, as illustrated by a few quotations selected from the writings
of Hegel, Schopenhauer, Emile Montegut and Herbert Spencer. Music,
according to Hegel, should "fill the heart and bring to consciousness
everything developed and undeveloped which human feeling can carry,
experience and bring forth, in its innermost and most secret parts;
whatever the human heart in its manifold possibilities and moods
desires to express or excite; and especially whatever the spirit has
in its idea of the Most Essential and High; the glory of the Honored,
the Eternal and the True." Schopenhauer declared that music "never
expresses phenomena, but solely the inner being, the essence of
phenomena, the will itself. It expresses, therefore, not this or that
single and particular joy, this or that sorrow, or pain, or horror,
or exultation, or hilarity, or repose of mind itself; but, as it were
_in abstracto_, the essentials of these without their concomitants,
therefore without their motives. Nevertheless, in such quintessence
we understand it perfectly. Hence our fancy is so easily excited
by it and tries to clothe this invisible spirit world, that speaks
to us so immediately and eloquently, with flesh and blood, _i.e._
to embody it in an analogous example." Emile Montegut expresses
himself to the effect that this magic sound of what is called music
"pierces the material barriers which limit human words; it gives
to hearts the means of communicating among themselves; it creates
a language of which the most ignorant and the poorest perceive all
the power and all the sweetness. Music speaks, and suddenly the
hearts which were chilled with consciousness of their own isolation
are thrilled with tenderness and radiant with happiness." Herbert
Spencer believed that "music ought to take rank at the head of the
fine arts because it is the one which adds most to human happiness.
Not content with exciting powerfully our better instincts, it awakens
sentiments lying dormant in us, of which we had not conceived the
possibility, of which we do not understand the sense. This obscure
presentment of an unknown happiness, which music awakens in us, this
confused dream of an ideal and new life, all this is but a prophecy
of something which music itself ought assuredly to accomplish." In
contrast to the above enthusiastic utterances, how material and
unsatisfying are the dreary speculations of such men as Leibniz! The
latter looked upon music as being but the "_exercitium arithmeticae
occultum nescientis se numerare animi_"! The ideal mission of music,
therefore, ever has been and surely should continue to be that of
uplifting. It should present a moral synonymous for the æsthetic,
the pure, the spiritual. It should reveal the highest ideals of the
living soul. It should, according to Browning, express truth, not of
the mind--knowledge, which is absolute, but of the soul--shifting.
Music above all other arts interprets the innermost thoughts of
the soul. It is being constantly re-created, whereas all other
arts are but the images of what is already created. The imitative
arts--sculpture and painting, can no longer be all-satisfying to the
self-consciousness of an age influenced by the subjective thought of
such men as Goethe and Schiller. Why, therefore, should modern music
be reared solely upon a similar realistic basis of imitation instead
of upon an idealistic one of representation? The fundamentals of
music rest upon an acoustic element dependent upon absolute pitch.
Since, however, an isolated tone cannot suggest a definite idea or
image, it is necessary, in order that music should mean something, to
connect a series of tones so as to produce melody, to combine several
tones so as to form chords, and to group these chords so as to obtain
contrasts of tonality and modes. This accomplished, there must be
added rhythmic life, variety of tone-color, and dynamic contrast.
Finally, the whole fabrication must be fitted into a framework of
structural form based upon the science of logic. But all this is
not enough. There exists an underlying psychological principle
that cannot be disregarded. Appreciation for acoustic effects and
the realizations of intellectual reflection are but the stepping
stones to something higher. The first requirement of a composer is
intuition or the spontaneous expression of musical instinct--an
element more essential to musical creation than to any other branch
of art. Further requisites are imagination, emotion, inspiration, and
above all spirituality. There is a tendency among recent exponents
of the most advanced school to declare that the possibilities of
purely æsthetic music have been exhausted. Morbidness and pessimism
dominate the creative conceptions of these recent experimentalists.
They are leaning more and more toward the expression of concrete
ideas concealing vague abstractions. The present writer is heartily
in sympathy with the most catholic application of all legitimate
resources so long as the primary object of musical utterance be not
lost sight of. It goes without saying that descriptive, imitative,
realistic and even morbid music has its proper place in the poetic
conceptions of our contemporary tone-masters. Exception only is
made to music that is primarily intellectual or pessimistic. On the
other hand, it need not be primarily pleasure-giving. In a word, all
such objectives should be made subjective to a purer motive. The
portrayal of lesser sentiments and passions is legitimate only in so
far as to form a background for the nobler, which are thereby thrown
into relief. The ideal mission of music is to reflect the loftiest
sentiments of the composer's soul, and to awaken similar experiences
in the mind of the auditor so as to inspire and uplift him. Such were
the ideals of Beethoven. May his example continue to be emulated!
APPENDIX
OF
MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
MONTEVERDE 191
SCARLATTI 194
HAYDN 197
MOZART 203
BEETHOVEN 208
WEBER 215
BERLIOZ 224
MENDELSSOHN 232
WAGNER 238
SAINT-SAËNS 247
TSCHAIKOWSKY 254
DVO[vR]ÁK 260
RICHARD STRAUSS 267
MONTEVERDE.
(Page 16)
[Music: No. 1. L'Orfeo: Atto I--Toccata, (_che si suona avanti il
levar de la tela tre volte con tutti li stromenti_.)]
[Music: No. 2. L'Orfeo: Atto II--Ritornello. (_Questo Ritornello fù
sonato di dentra da un Clavicembano, duoi Chitaroni, e 2 Violini
piccioli alla Francese._)]
[Music: No. 3. L'Orfeo: Atto III. (_Orfeo canta al suono del Organo
di legno solamente._)
Ei dorme, e la mia cetra, se pietà non impetra nel indurato core,]
[Music: No. 4. L'Orfeo: Atto IV--Sinfonia.]
[Music: No. 5. L'Orfeo: Atto V. (_Apollo ed Orfeo ascende al cielo
cantando._)
Saliam, Saliam cantand' al cielo,]
SCARLATTI.
(Page 22)
[Music: No. 6. La Rosaura: Prologo-Sinfonia.]
[Music: No. 7. La Rosaura: Atto I--Scena II.
(_Climene._)
Langue, geme, geme, quest'anima, amante, langue,]
[Music: No. 8. La Rosaura: Atto II--Scena II.
(_Rosaura._)
Se due petti ardon d'amore, se due petti ardon d'amore è il penar,]
[Music: No. 9. La Rosaura: Atto II.--Scena IV.
(_Climene sola._)
ma non sia, chi di mia fede il candor tenti, tenti offuscar il candor
tenti, tenti offuscar.]
HAYDN.
(Page 47)
[Music: No. 10. Symphony in D, No. 2: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 11. Symphony in D: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 12. Symphony in D: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 13. Symphony in D: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 14. Symphony No. 3: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 15. Symphony No. 4: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 16. Symphony No. 5: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 17. Symphony No. 6: Adagio.]
MOZART.
(Page 50)
[Music: No. 18. Jupiter Symphony: Menuetto.]
[Music: No. 19. Jupiter Symphony: Finale.]
[Music: No. 20. Jupiter Symphony: Finale.]
[Music: No. 21. Symphony in G minor: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 22. Symphony in E flat: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 23. Symphony in E flat: Menuetto.]
BEETHOVEN.
(Page 53)
[Music: No. 24. Fifth Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 25. Fifth Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 26. Fifth Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 27. Fifth Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 28. Fifth Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 29. Fifth Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 30. Fifth Symphony: Finale.]
[Music: No. 31. Pastoral Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 32. Pastoral Symphony: Shepherd's Song.]
[Music: No. 33. Seventh Symphony: Allegretto.]
[Music: No. 34. Seventh Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 35. Seventh Symphony: 3d Movement.]
WEBER.
(Page 71)
[Music: No. 36. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 37. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 38. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 39. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 40. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 41. Der Freischütz: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 42. Der Freischütz: Act I--Scene II.
CORO. O lass Hoffnung dich beleben, und vertraue, vertraue dem Geschick!]
[Music: No. 43. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene II.
Agathe.
Leise, leise, fromme Weise, schwing' dich auf zum Sternenkreise!]
[Music: No. 44. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene IV.]
[Music: No. 45. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene IV.]
[Music: No. 46. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene IV.]
[Music: No. 47. Der Freischütz: Act III--Scene III.
Aennchen.
Du zürnest mir?]
BERLIOZ.
(Page 89)
[Music: No. 48. Symphonie fantastique: Rêveries.]
[Music: No. 49. Symphonie fantastique: Scène aux champs.]
[Music: No. 50. Symphonie fantastique: Scène aux champs.]
[Music: No. 51. Symphonie fantastique: Scène aux champs.]
[Music: No. 52. Symphonie fantastique: Marche au supplice.]
[Music: No. 53. Symphonie fantastique: Marche au supplice.]
[Music: No. 54. Symphonie fantastique: Marche au supplice.]
[Music: No. 55. Symphonie fantastique: Ronde du Sabbat.]
[Music: No. 56. Harold en Italie: Sérénade.]
[Music: No. 57. Harold en Italie: Orgie de Brigands.]
MENDELSSOHN.
(Page 75)
[Music: No. 58. Midsummer Night's Dream: Overture.]
[Music: No. 59. Midsummer Night's Dream: Scherzo.]
[Music: No. 60. Midsummer Night's Dream: Scherzo.]
[Music: No. 61. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 5.]
[Music: No. 62. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 63. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 64. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 65. Midsummer Night's Dream: Notturno.]
[Music: No. 66. Midsummer Night's Dream: Notturno.]
WAGNER.
(Page 93)
[Music: No. 67. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 68. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 69. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 70. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene II.]
[Music: No. 71. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene II.]
[Music: No. 72. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.
SIEGLINDE.
Ein Greis in grauem Gewand;]
[Music: No. 73. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.]
[Music: No. 74. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.
SIEGLINDE.
Dich grüsste mein Herz mit heiligem Grau'n, als dein]
[Music: No. 75. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.]
SAINT-SAËNS.
(Page 131)
[Music: No. 76. Le Rouet d'Omphale.]
[Music: No. 77. Le Rouet d'Omphale.]
[Music: No. 78. Le Rouet d'Omphale.]
[Music: No. 79. Phaéton.]
[Music: No. 80. Danse Macabre.]
[Music: No. 81. Danse Macabre.]
[Music: No. 82. La Jeunesse d'Hercule.]
TSCHAIKOWSKY.
(Page 155)
[Music: No. 83. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 84. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 85. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 86. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 87. Symphonie pathétique: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 88. Symphonie pathétique: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 89. Symphonie pathétique: Finale.]
DVO[vR]ÁK.
(Page 147)
[Music: No. 90. Symphony No. 5 in E minor: "From the New
World."--First Movement.]
[Music: No. 91. Sym. in E minor: First Movement.]
[Music: No. 92. Sym. in E minor: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 93. Sym. in E minor: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 94. Sym. in E minor: 4th Movement.]
[Music: No. 95. Sym. in E minor: 4th Movement.]
[Music: No. 96. Sym. in E minor: 4th Movement.]
RICHARD STRAUSS.
(Page 106)
[Music: No. 97. Zarathustra: (»das Grablied.«)]
[Music: No. 98. Zarathustra: (»von der Wissenschaft.«)]
[Music: No. 99. Zarathustra.]
[Music: No. 100. Zarathustra: (»das Tanzlied.«)]
[Music: No. 101. Zarathustra.]
[Music: No. 102. Till Eulenspiegel.]
[Music: No. 103. Till Eulenspiegel.]
INDEX
Adam, 129, (59).
Adam de la Hale, 3.
(Aldrich, R.), 107, (110).
Allen, N.H., 173.
Ambrosius, 2.
Archer, 172.
Arensky, 154.
Atherton, 172.
Auber, 62.
Aulin, 151.
Bach, 29.
Bach, Em., 33.
Balakireff, 154.
Balfe, 157.
Bardi, 6.
Bargiel, 79.
Barnby, 158.
Beach, 169.
Beck, 168.
BEETHOVEN, 53, (Music, 208).
Bellinger, 171.
Bellini, 59.
Bennett, 157, (77).
Benoit, 136.
Bergmann, 170.
BERLIOZ, 89, (Music, 224).
Berton, 59.
Bird, A., 168.
Bizet, 133.
Blech, 123.
Blodgett, 173.
Boccherini, 41.
Boëtius, 2.
Boieldieu, 61.
Boise, 173.
Boïto, 142.
Bonvin, 162, 169.
Borodin, 154.
Brahms, 82.
Bridge, 158.
Bristow, 163.
(Browning), 187.
Bruch, 86.
Bruckner, 104.
Bruneau, 137.
Buck, 165.
Bullard, 172.
Buonamici, 143.
Buononcini, 32.
Buxtehude, 25.
Byrd, 4.
(Byron), 71.
Caccini, 7.
Cambert, 20.
Campra, 35.
Cannabich, 43, 44.
Carissimi, 19.
Catel, 59.
Cavalieri, 7.
Cavalli, 19.
Cesti, 19.
Chabrier, 133, (129).
Chadwick, 166.
Chaminade, 136.
Charpentier, 137.
Chausson, 137.
Cherubini, 59.
Chopin, 59, (78, 160).
Cimarosa, 41.
Clari, 21.
Claude le Jeune, 4.
Coleridge-Taylor, 160.
Colonne, 139.
Converse, C.C., 164.
Converse, F., 170.
Coombs, 173.
Corelli, 21.
(Corneille), 20.
Cornelius, 104.
Corsi, 7.
Couperin, 25.
Cowen, 159.
Cui, Cesar, 154.
Cutter, 173.
Czibulka, 146.
d'Alayrac, 58.
d'Albert, 124.
dall'Abaco, 43.
Damrosch, F., 171, 173.
Damrosch, L., 164.
Damrosch, W., 169.
(Dannreuther), 156.
Dargomizski, 153.
David, Félicien, 126.
Debussy, 137.
de Koven, 169.
Delibes, 129.
Destouches, 35.
(Dickinson), 38, 78, 92.
d'Indy, 128.
Dittersdorf, 42.
Donizetti, 59.
Doppler, A., 146.
Doppler, K., 146.
Draeseke, 105.
Dubois, 135.
Dufay, 3.
Duni, 37.
Dunstable, 4.
Durante, 32.
DVO[vR]ÁK, 147, (Music, 260).
Eddy, 172.
Elgar, 160.
(Elson), 162.
Emery, 164.
Enna, 151.
Erkel, 146.
Farwell, 162.
Fauré, 137.
(Ferris), 141.
Field, 59.
Fischer, Franz, 107.
Flotow, 124.
Foerster, 168.
Foote, 165.
Franck, César, 127.
Franco de Cologne, 2.
(Francoeur), 44.
Franz, 78.
(Frederick the Great), 34.
Frescobaldi, 5, (25).
Froberger, 25.
Fuchs, Anton, 138.
Gabrieli, A., 5.
Gabrieli, G., 5.
Gade, 150, (77).
Galilei, 7.
Gericke, 171.
Gevaërt, 136, (51, 56).
Gibbons, 7.
Gilchrist, 168.
(Gilman, L.), 167.
Gilmore, 172.
Glazounoff, 154.
Gleason, 168.
Glinka, 153.
Gluck, 38.
Godard, 127.
(Goethe), 187.
Goetschius, 173.
Goldmark, 85, (145).
Goldmark, R., 170.
Gomez, 142.
Goodrich, A.J., 173.
Goodrich, J.W., 172.
Gossec, 43.
Gottschalk, 163.
Goudimel, 4.
Gounod, 130.
Gow, 173.
Graun, 34.
Gregories, The, 2.
Grétry, 40, (44).
Grieg, 150.
(Grove), 75.
Guido d'Arezzo, 2.
Guilmant, 136.
Habeneck, 138.
Hadley, 170.
Halévy, 62.
Hall, 172.
Hallström, 149.
Händel, 30.
Hanscom, 173.
Hasse, 34.
HAYDN, 47, (Music, 197).
(Hegel), 186.
(Henderson), 155, 156, 160.
Henry, 166.
Henschel, 171.
Herbert, 170.
Hérold, 62.
Hiller, F., 77.
Hiller, J.A., 42.
(Hipkins), 10.
Holmès, 136.
(Howard, A.A.), 11.
Howland, 166.
Hucbald, 2.
(Hughes), 162, 164.
Humperdinck, 123.
Huss, 170.
Innes, 172.
Isaak, 4.
Isadore, 2.
Isouard, 58.
Jadassohn, 80.
Jensen, 79.
Johannes de Muris, 2.
Johns, 172.
Jomelli, 41, 42.
Joncières, 136.
Jordan, 173.
Josquin des Près, 3.
Keiser, 33.
Kelley, 168.
Kerl, 25.
Kienzl, 123.
Kistler, 123.
(Klein, Herman), 111.
(Krehbiel), 148.
Kreutzer, 73, (59).
Kuhnau, 25.
Lachner, 80.
Lalo, 127.
Lamoureux, 139.
Lang, B.J., 171.
Lang, M.R., 172.
(Langhans), 19, 71.
Lassen, 105.
Lasso, 4.
Lavoix, 136, (20, 43, 60).
Legrenzi, 21.
Lehár, 124.
(Leibniz), 187.
Leo, 32.
Leoncavallo, 143.
Lesueur, 61.
Levi, 106, 107, 134, 147.
Lewis, 162, 169.
Lindblad, 149.
Listemann, 171.
Liszt, 92, (103, 104, 145).
(Lobe), 101.
Locke, 172.
Loeffler, 170, (9).
Logroscino, 32.
(Lorenzo the Great), 6.
Lortzing, 124.
Lotti, 32.
(Louis XIV of France), 20.
(Ludwig II of Bavaria), 101.
Lulli, 19.
Lund, 171.
Macdougall, 173.
MacDowell, 166.
Macfarren, 157.
Mackenzie, 158.
Mahler, 123.
Maillart, 129.
Marschner, 73.
Marston, 173.
Mascagni, 143.
(Mason, D.G.), 150.
Mason, L., 163.
Mason, W., 163.
Massenet, 134.
Mattheson, 33.
(Matthews, W.S.B.), 173, (82).
McWhood, 173.
(Medici), 6.
Méhul, 60.
MENDELSSOHN, 75, (Music, 232).
Merbecke, 4.
Merulo, 5.
Meyerbeer, 64, (9).
(Molière), 20.
Mollenhauer, 171.
Monsigny, 37.
(Montegut), 186.
MONTEVERDE, 16, (Music, 191).
Mosonyi, 146.
Morley, 4.
Moszkowski, 80.
Mouret, 36.
MOZART, 50, (Music, 203).
Muck, 107, 171.
Mussorgski, 154.
(Napoleon), 63.
Naumann, 35.
Neidlinger, 172.
Nevin, 172.
Nicodé, 105.
Nicolai, 124.
(Nietzsche), 101.
Nikisch, 171.
(Nordau), 101.
Normann, 149.
Norris, 173.
Notker, 2.
Ockeghem, 3.
Onslow, 126.
Pachelbel, 25.
Paesiello, 41.
Paine, 164.
Paladhile, 136.
Palestrina, 4.
Parker, 167.
Parry, 159, (4, 38, 145).
Parsons, 173.
Pasdeloup, 139.
Paur, 171.
Pergolesi, 32.
Peri, 7.
Perrin, 23.
Philidor, 37.
Piccini, 40.
Ponchielli, 142.
Porpora, 32.
(Praetorius), 12.
Pratt, 173.
(Prout), 71, 74, 84.
Puccini, 143.
Purcell, 24, (30).
(Pythagoras), 10.
(Racine), 20.
Raff, 81.
Rameau, 36.
Reber, 126.
Reger, 123.
Reincken, 25.
Reinecke, 79.
Reyer, 127, (133).
Rheinberger, 86, (101).
(Richter, Jean Paul), 71.
(Riemann), 10, 34, 80, 109, 153, 164.
Rietz, 77.
Rimski-Korsakoff, 154.
Ritter, A., 105, (107).
(Ritter, Dr.), 162.
Rogers, 172.
(Rösch), 110, 113, 115.
Rossini, 64.
Rousseau, 37.
Rubinstein, 155, (81).
Rübner, 173.
Sacchini, 40.
SAINT-SAËNS, 131, (Music, 247).
Salieri, 40.
Sammartini, 42, 43.
(Savanarola), 6.
Sax, 12, 63.
SCARLATTI, 22, (Music, 194).
Scarlatti, D., 25.
Scharwenka, X., 170.
Scheel, 171.
Scheidt, 25.
(Schiller), 187.
Schillings, 123.
Schoenefeld, 168.
(Schopenhauer), 186.
Schubert, 74.
Schuch, 118.
Schumann, 78.
Schumann, Georg, 123.
Schütz, 17.
Seidl, 171.
Serow, 153.
Sgambati, 143.
Shelley, 172.
Sherwood, 164.
Sibelius, 151.
Sinding, 151.
Smetana, 147.
Smith, G., 172.
Smith, W.G., 173.
Södermann, 149.
Sousa, 172.
Spalding, 173.
(Spencer), 186.
Spohr, 70.
Spontini, 63.
Stamitz, 42, 44.
Stanford, 160, (159).
Steffani, 21.
Stennhammer, 151.
Story, 173.
Strauss, J., 124.
STRAUSS, RICHARD, 106, (Music, 267).
Striggio, 7.
Strong, 172.
Stubbs, 172.
Suk, 147.
Sullivan, 158.
Suppé, 124.
Svendsen, 150.
Sylvester, 2.
Tallys, 4.
Telemann, 33.
Theile, 33.
Thomas, Ambrose, 129.
Thomas, A. Goring, 159.
Thomas, Theodore, 170, 171, (109).
Thuille, 123.
Tomlins, 171, 173.
Torelli, 21.
TSCHAIKOWSKY, 155, (Music, 254).
van der Stucken, 169.
van Malder, 44.
Verdi, 140, (59).
Viadana, 7.
Vidal, 136.
Vivaldi, 21.
Volkmann, 79.
von Bülow, 103, 106, 107.
WAGNER, 93, (72, 92), (Music, 238).
Walther, Benno, 106.
Wanhal, 44.
Warren, R.H., 172.
Warren, S., 172.
WEBER, 71, (Music, 215).
Weingartner, 105.
White, 166.
Whiting, 172.
Whitney, 172.
Widor, 136.
Willaert, 3.
(Willeby), 159, 160.
Wolf, 123.
Wolf-Ferrari, 144.
Zeck, 169.
Zerrahn, 171.
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