THE NEW MOVEMENT.
Three countries, France, Hungary and Germany, share the honors in
having brought forth three of the greatest orchestral composers,
Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, who together founded the so-called "New
Movement."
I.
BERLIOZ[51] (1803-1869). The contributions of Berlioz
to the development of "program" music and to modern science of
orchestration loom up in gigantic proportions. He was practically
the first representative of the New Movement, but contrary to the
natural course of evolution, he was not only its founder but at once
its most radical exponent as well. Liszt in his younger days heard
some of Berlioz's compositions in Paris, and it was thus that the new
seed was transplanted into Germany where it was cultivated in concert
music by Liszt himself, who thereby in turn influenced Wagner's music
dramas. The difference in objective between the principles laid down
by Schumann and Berlioz was that the former aimed to portray a single
independent thought or image, whereas Berlioz's music was connected
with a series of events or ideas. His objective was to make the music
symbolic of images and conceptions that should be capable of being
expressed in words, and his pseudo-symphonies were accompanied by an
elaborate word exposition as a running commentary on the music. As
the result of his activity, the dawn of a new era in concert music
appeared in France. As the chief representative of her romantic
musical art, he combined dramatic and symphonic effects. As an opera
composer he was not successful, but he seized upon the orchestral
experiments of the contemporary operatic composers, and endeavored to
express theatrical ideas by means of the orchestra alone. Henceforth
the power of description was to be entrusted to music itself and not
to the accessories of the stage.
[Footnote 51: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 48 to
57.]
Berlioz represents the ultra-realistic school of instrumental
music. His works are the reflection of his own temperament and
individuality. His somewhat eccentric genius displayed itself
in grandiose, weird and picturesque effects, in exaggeration,
morbidness, vivid portrayal, and in extravagant orchestral demands.
The primary object was tone-color in its own right, an object that
was foreign to the more æsthetic ideals of the classicists. He was
the most daring orchestral writer that has ever lived, but his
originality was confined to the scoring rather than to the musical
substance of his works. When transcribed for pianoforte they lose
their fascination. He was a veritable poet in sound, and he sought in
every possible way to intensify characteristic expression.
To enlarge upon the details of Berlioz's instrumentation would be
futile, for his standard treatise is a familiar book of reference to
all music lovers. It is therefore permissible to make mention of only
the most important of his innovations. Moreover, in order to realize
the magnitude of Berlioz's achievements, one should keep clearly in
mind the exact extent to which orchestral evolution had advanced
before his day; for many effects that were then strikingly new are
now the property of all and excite no comment. The distinctive
features of his orchestration are power of musical description;
new combinations, new effects, new treatment; insight into the
characteristics of the instruments whereby their possibilities both
individual and collective are demonstrated; excessive polyphony and
complicated rhythm. He removed many prejudices even though many of
his experiments are impracticable.
The "Symphonie fantastique--An Episode in the Life of an Artist"
offers the best illustrations for studying his programmatic
methods. The dimensions of the orchestra are kept within bounds,
being augmented by but a few additional instruments such as two
opheicleides and two pair of kettle-drums.[52] No more poetic duet
or instrumental dialogue can be found than that between the oboe and
English horn in the third movement--"In the Fields"[53]--where they
represent two lovers in the guise of a shepherd and shepherdess. The
March to Execution,[54] and the Witches' Revel are fine examples
of dramatic intensity and accentuated volume of sound. "Lélio," a
symphonic poem with vocal music, which was intended as a sequel to
the "Symphonie fantastique," contains parts for four clarinets.
This was consistent with Berlioz's tendency to employ homogeneous
tone-color in full four-part harmony. The pianoforte is also
introduced into the Finale of the same work. The huge dimensions
of the Requiem or "Messe des Morts" are exceptional and should not
be cited as being typical of Berlioz's usual methods of scoring.
Tremendous combinations are brought into use for the Sanctus,
the Tuba mirum, and the Agnus Dei. They include twelve horns,
sixteen trombones, and eight pair of kettle-drums. Of uttermost
impressiveness is the Tuba mirum with its four separate orchestras of
brass instruments stationed at the four corners of the stage or of
the auditorium itself. The various types of instruments of percussion
received the most careful consideration even to minuteness of detail.
The Requiem presents one of the earliest examples of employing three
flutes. Berlioz selected the viola as the central figure for his
symphony "Harold en Italie."[55] Its functions are to impersonate
Childe Harold himself, to portray his impressions and emotions, to
supply the rôle, so to speak, of a vocal interpreter. The ravishing
effects elicited from the harmonics of divided violins combined
with those of the harp will be recalled in the Queen Mab scherzo of
"Roméo et Juliette." The score of the Biblical trilogy "L'Enfance du
Christ" contains some curious passages of interwoven viola and 'cello
parts. The charming ballet is performed by three flutes and a harp.
Berlioz's greatest work is unquestionably the dramatic legend "La
Damnation de Faust." Nothing can be daintier than the Dance of the
Sylphs; nothing sadder than the portrayal of Marguerite's remorse by
an English horn; nothing more brutal than the Chorus of Students,
accompanied by viola, double-bass, bassoon, horn and tuba--all in
unison.
[Footnote 52: Ex. 51.]
[Footnote 53: Ex. 49.]
[Footnote 54: Ex. 52, 53, 54.]
[Footnote 55: Ex. 56, 57.]
In conclusion, Berlioz must be accredited with having anticipated
many effects that were subsequently elaborated upon by Wagner.
Unfortunately the potency of Berlioz's music depends almost entirely
upon orchestral tone-color; on the other hand, the unadorned
substance of Wagner's music will withstand the closest scrutiny.
Berlioz frequently assigned to the orchestra and specially to the
strings a large number of independent parts which were further
enhanced by simultaneously contrasted rhythm. This contrast was,
moreover, applied to instruments of the same group, such as first
and second violins. The violins are divided at times into as many as
six and eight parts, the 'cellos into four, whereas in "Cinq mai" he
wrote five actual parts for the double-basses. He appreciated the
true value of the viola, and was the first to introduce the harp
into the symphonic orchestra. The wind-instruments are often split
up into what might be called separate little orchestras. Families of
affiliated tone-color are represented by three and frequently four
members. It was Berlioz that discovered the richness of pianissimo
brass effects, and the substitution of the tuba for the opheicleide
is due largely to him. He made divers experiments with many varieties
of instruments of percussion apart from those with kettle-drums. In
the Te Deum for three choirs, orchestra and organ, no less than five
pair of cymbals are required. His occasional demands for an enormous
apparatus were certainly extravagant; nevertheless he rarely used the
full force of their combined strength excepting in isolated cases.
II.
LISZT (1811-1886). It is not proposed to analyze Liszt's
rich and heavy orchestration, for the importance of his orchestral
works consists rather of the bearing they have upon the unfettered
form, the freedom of tonality and the novelty of treatment that
characterize the New German School. The scoring of his symphonic
poems is masterful, highly colored and ingenious. But although
it bears the unmistakable stamp of his own personality, the
orchestration embodies nothing conspicuously new. Beethoven and the
early romanticists, Berlioz, and above all Wagner were his models
in instrumentation. Favored by the opportunities afforded him in
consequence of his precocious genius when but a mere child, Liszt's
impressionable temperament seized upon the progressive tendencies of
the times, thereby strengthening the already half-formed conviction
that music should be descriptive, representative, reproductive,
realistic. After hearing Berlioz's "Episode de la vie d'un artiste"
he proceeded to develop his own talent along similar though
individual lines, and thus became the champion of German "program"
music. As has been previously stated, these doctrines of Berlioz
and of Liszt were destined to be reflected in Wagner's works, for
though the latter at first condemned such doctrines in no uncertain
terms, his opinions subsequently underwent a radical change. In his
monograph on Liszt's symphonic poems he says:--"Program-music does
not aim to override speech or the plastic arts and represent things
accessible to them only, but rather forms a special kind of union of
two independent factors: poetry and music."
Now although Beethoven's "Pastoral" symphony, Mendelssohn's "Fingal's
Cave" and Raff's "Lenore" were all in the direct evolutionary line
of descriptive music, Liszt soon perceived that classic forms were
indeed the ideal vehicle for abstract and purely æsthetic music, but
could not be successfully applied to portray a series of emotions,
events or ideas. This discovery led him to modify the cyclic form
of the symphony which became transformed into the symphonic poem
with its continuity of music, monothematic principle and absence of
conventional formulas. He retained all the symphonic expedients of
thematic development, but form was now subjective to the program. His
methods were simpler and can be more readily grasped than those of
Berlioz. The range of subject was cosmopolitan, and the introduction
of national traits, such as the Hungarian element, resulted in what
Dickinson calls "shaping and coloring the work through imagined
correspondences." Liszt's symphonic poem "Les Préludes" affords the
best illustration of his aims and ideals. "Eine Faust Symphonie"
embodies the suggestion of personal qualities by means of music. The
oratorios "Christus" and "Die Legende der heiligen Elizabeth" display
novel treatment as well as a departure from traditional forms.
III.
WAGNER[56] (1813-1883). The recorder of the history of music
and of orchestration can find no more inexhaustive topic than when he
approaches that of Richard Wagner's epoch-making innovations. What is
more, the literature in connection therewith is so voluminous, that
opportunity for even the slightest original deduction is denied him.
No alternative is left him other than to restate in condensed form
what the cardinal features of Wagner's ideals and reforms were. Such
a review is indeed indispensable if these pages are to be complete.
[Footnote 56: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 67 to
75.]
At the time that Wagner entered upon his career, German dramatic
art was largely under the subjection of Meyerbeer, for Weber had
not yet won universal popularity. The singer still reigned supreme;
dramatic orchestration was primarily realistic and bombastic. Wagner
himself betrayed in his earlier works how tempting and insidious the
influence of Meyerbeer's dazzling mannerisms and idiosyncrasies could
be. Moreover, in order to realize the full significance of Wagner's
artistic growth, one should not lose sight of his youthful enthusiasm
for Italian melody, even though his subsequent creations proved him
to be a Teuton through and through, both in sentiment and in art.
The highest ideals of German opera culminated in the music dramas of
Wagner. As musician, poet, dramatist, and master of scenic effects
and theatrical requirements, he grew to be the champion of national
art, a self-appointed reformer not alone of opera as an end to
itself, but as a means whereby the conditions of social life might
be inspired and uplifted. And the remarkable concentration of his
musical thought, his rare gifts as a poet, and his noble histrionic
conceptions proved him worthy of the task. The philosophical aspect
of this attainment embodies intimate connection between drama and
music; merging of voice and orchestra; intensification and completion
of the singer's thought by means of the orchestra; finally,
dramatic illusion whereby conditions of mind rather than dramatic
situations are portrayed. By developing the so-called _Leit-motiv_,
Wagner discovered a most potent factor for recalling past events,
for emphasizing those present, and for anticipating those of the
future. The _Leit-motiv_ was, moreover, particularly well adapted
to reveal the true conceptions of the composer himself. Vividness
of portrayal was enhanced by means of intricate combinations of
melodies and figures, free chromatic harmony, unfettered modulation,
and elaborately conceived dramatic as well as thematic development
toward some supreme climax. The application of the _Leit-motiv_
theorem was conducive to greater license in the treatment of vocal
interpretation. A fusion of _parlante_ and the _arioso_ was
the result, and in later works the comparatively unintelligible
enunciation of combined vocal forces was obviated by discarding the
chorus almost altogether.
Retrospection shows us that there were originally three distinct
divisions in opera: the _recitativo_, the _aria_, and the
_ritornello_. At first the _ritornello_ was but the repetition of the
cadence, but developed subsequently into a transitory period intended
to complete an unfinished vocal phrase or to describe the action on
the stage. Later, a union of these three distinct divisions resulted
in the _arioso_, or fragmentary _cantilena_ joined to _recitativo_.
The _parlante_ or musical declamation over a melodic phrase in the
orchestra originated in opera-buffa as developed by Piccini and
Paesiello; subsequently Spontini transplanted it into serious opera.
It is equivalent in spoken drama to melodramatic recitation. Wagner's
style is therefore nothing more than an additional link in the chain
of natural evolution.
The pith of Wagner's ideals may be summed up by saying that he
aimed to substitute a noble form of art in the place of mere
pleasure-giving and sensational fabrications. Music, poetic ideas,
action and stage setting were all to be worthy of the subject
intended for presentation. His choice of subject for dramatization
was restricted to such as could embody characters capable of being
treated morally and intellectually as well as æsthetically. Wagner
above all others defined the true mission of German national art and
guided her to a tangible realization of that mission.
IV.
Wagner's operas and music dramas may be divided into either of two
general classifications. The first treats of the musical contents
and structural form of his dramas, and of the evolution of his
philosophical ideas. The second relates solely to differentiated
style of orchestration and numerical distribution of instruments.
The first classification embodies three distinct groups. The first
of these groups contains all of Wagner's earlier attempts including
"Rienzi," which is modelled according to the French and Italian
"historic" school. With the exception of "Eine Faust Ouvertüre" which
belongs also to this category, only occasional indications of marked
genius are to be found in these works. The second group includes "Der
Fliegende Holländer," "Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin." These display a
radical change in style, form and treatment, pronounced originality,
continuity of music and a fusion of recitative and aria. The topics
chosen for dramatization treat of German myths, mediæval legends, and
chivalrous ideals. Indications of the _Leit-motiv_ principle, though
used in an unobtrusive manner, are in evidence. The musical forms
are not yet influenced by the profundity of thought and reflection
that characterizes the works belonging to the third group. The third
and last group includes "Tristan und Isolde," "Die Meistersinger von
Nürnberg," "Der Ring des Nibelungen," and "Parsifal." The complete
fulfilment of Wagner's philosophical theories are here exposed.
Wealth of harmony, characteristic rhythm and intensity of expression
are combined with poetic reasoning, depth of thought and vivid
dramatization. The centre of gravity, so to speak, is transferred
to the orchestra. _Sprech-singen_ is emphasized, whereas the
_Leit-motiv_ principle reaches its full development.
V.
The second classification, relating to differentiated style of
orchestration, is popularly divided into three groups, but a
division into four groups would seem more appropriate to the present
writer. Wagner's earliest orchestral attempts need not be taken into
consideration, and so the first group may include only "Rienzi," "Der
Fliegende Holländer" and "Tannhäuser." The scores of these works do
not display radical departure from contemporary methods excepting in
polyphonic treatment and individualistic coloring. The instruments
of wood are as yet represented only in pairs, although already a cor
anglais and a bass-clarinet are regularly employed. The addition of
a second piccolo flute, a second English horn and a third bassoon
is but exceptional. The numerical distribution of strings and the
constituency of the brass are normal. Entirely new tendencies are
discovered in "Lohengrin" and "Tristan und Isolde" which comprise
the second group, since each wood-wind family is now represented
by three instruments. The number of strings are augmented so as
to balance the wood-wind, as well as in consequence of their own
frequent subdivision; but the brass is the same as in Group I. The
magnitude of the Nibelungen Tetralogy gave rise to the adaptation of
the exceptional third group. The augmentation affects both the wood
and the brass. The wood-winds are divided into families of four each,
and the same principle is applied to the brass. Strings, harps and
battery are augmented in proportion. The reason for regarding "Die
Meistersinger" and "Parsifal" as representatives of a separate fourth
group is that in the former, Wagner reverted to the orchestra of
Groups I and II, whereas the number of instruments used in "Parsifal"
correspond to those in "Tristan." Notwithstanding, the orchestration
and the treatment of instruments for both "Die Meistersinger" and
"Parsifal" embody a composite style that frequently suggests certain
traits peculiar to the Tetralogy. They may, therefore, be rightfully
regarded as belonging to a distinct group by themselves.
We need not here concern ourselves again with the first mentioned
philosophical and æsthetic classification. On the other hand, the
purpose of these pages certainly demands some further analysis of the
second orchestral classification.
GROUP I. RIENZI; DER FLIEGENDE HOLLÄNDER; TANNHÄUSER.
Strings; 1 or 2 harps.
1 piccolo flute (sometimes 2); 2 flutes; 2 oboes; 1 English
horn (rarely 2); 2 clarinets; 1 bass-clarinet; 2 bassoons
(sometimes 3 bassoons or an additional contra-bassoon).
4 horns (of which at least 2 are chromatic); 2 chromatic
trumpets (often 3); 3 trombones (2 tenor, 1 bass); 1
bass-tuba.
2 kettle-drums (sometimes 3); further instruments of
percussion.
"Rienzi" was first given at Dresden in 1842. Of its orchestration
little need be said. Being influenced by Meyerbeer and the French
dramatic traditions, the scoring embodies much that is extravagant
and bombastic, though many instrumental passages of surprising beauty
are by no means absent. What might be called the composite of rich,
velvet tone-color peculiar to Wagner's orchestral palette is already
noticeable--a coloring that was not attained even by Spontini,
Meyerbeer or Halévy. "Der Fliegende Holländer" (Dresden, 1843)
revolutionized at one stroke the dramatic functions of orchestration
as well as the treatment of instruments, even if the combinations
themselves are not radically different from contemporary procedure.
In this transition work Wagner revealed the future path he was
destined to pursue. The innovation of continuity and alliance of
music, poetry, scenes and action proved that his latent powers had
already begun to unfold themselves. "Der Fliegende Holländer" is
the direct successor to Weber's romantic operas, and in detail and
color it resembles Marschner's "Hans Heiling." For the first time
he made use of the German myth. He drew freely upon a naturalistic
use of chromatics and of astounding brass effects for portraying the
tempest, called into requisition the most characteristic accents of
the wood-wind to depict the gloomy atmosphere of the Northern seas,
and elaborated upon Weber's use of the horns for romantic episodes.
His subsequent predilection for divided strings is already to be
found in a modified form. In a word, the entire work is imbued with
virile force and truthful expression. Its successor, "Tannhäuser"
(Dresden, 1845--Paris, 1861), follows along similar lines but
displays greater advance both in the handling of the mediæval legend
itself and in style of orchestration. Of decidedly modern effect
is the condensed declamatory style of Tannhäuser in the last act,
as well as the powerful sweep of the violins in the Overture, the
passage for 4-part violas in the March, and the important rôle
assigned to the harp throughout the opera. An admirable illustration
of writing for unsupported wood-wind accompanies the exit of
Elizabeth in the third act. Her grief and resignation could have
found no more faithful interpreter than that solo for bass-clarinet
beneath syncopated chords of gentle and tender-voiced flutes. The 12
horns on the stage in the first act, and the 12 trumpets for the
March in the second act are treated in a novel and interesting manner
that bears but slight resemblance to the previous experiments of the
"historic" school.
In thus briefly analyzing the general characteristics of this first
group, it is seen that in relation to practical instrumentation, only
the brass was especially affected. The incorporation of regularly
employed chromatic horns and trumpets afforded completeness and
freedom. The use of three trumpets, which is also to be found in the
scores of Mendelssohn and Schumann, balanced the trombones; and the
substitution of the tuba for the opheicleide yielded greater sonority
as well as a closer affinity in tone-color to that of the trombones
themselves.
GROUP II. LOHENGRIN; TRISTAN UND ISOLDE.
Strings; 1 or 2 harps (frequently 2 individual parts).
1 or 2 piccolo flutes; 3 flutes; 2 oboes and 1 English
horn (or 3 oboes); 2 clarinets and 1 bass-clarinet (or 3
clarinets); 3 bassoons.
4 chromatic horns; 3 trumpets; 3 trombones; 1 bass-tuba.
2 or 3 kettle-drums; instruments of percussion.
"Lohengrin" was first performed at Weimar in 1850 under the direction
of Liszt. It bears a striking relation to Weber's "Euryanthe," but
exhibits, nevertheless, entirely new tendencies. It breathes the
very atmosphere of chivalrous splendor, embodies ideal purity of
sentiment and expression, and supplants traditional form by means
of continuous and absolutely flexible melody. Conspicuous is the
reconstruction of the orchestra in that the strings are much divided,
and the wood-winds are represented by families of three instead of
two instruments. Both Meyerbeer and Berlioz had made use of such
triplets of uniform tone-color, but Wagner was the first to do so
consistently. Not only were the resources for obtaining variety of
individual and also of combined tonal effect thereby increased, but
the _ensemble_ of the full orchestra acquired greater firmness and
sonority as well. Striking and entirely new effects confront us on
every hand. The string writing is of surpassing beauty, whether
illustrated by the division of violins in their ethereal range, or
by passages assigned to divided violas and 'cellos combined with
the harp. It is, however, primarily the wood-wind that is treated
in a particularly novel manner. Familiar examples containing rare
tonal tints and intense depth of sentiment are those associated
with Elsa's first entry, or with the dramatic situation in the
earlier part of the second act, where the English horn, clarinet,
bass-clarinet, bassoons and 'cellos are most effectively combined.
The cathedral scene in the second act presents another complete
exposition of unsupported wood-wind. Not until 1859 was the score
of "Tristan und Isolde" completed, for Wagner was simultaneously at
work on the "Meistersinger" and the "Ring"; moreover, after the first
performance of "Lohengrin," fifteen dreary years elapsed before
"Tristan" was first presented, which finally took place in Munich in
1865. The exposition of this Keltic legend is marked by splendor of
color and musical intricacy. Although it ushers in the beginning of
Wagner's third creative period whereby the logical unfolding of his
ideas of reform is carried out, the work is properly included in the
second group of the "orchestral" classification, since the numerical
distribution of instrumental parts is practically identical with
that in "Lohengrin." However, the scoring is of a far higher degree
of intensity. It abounds in every conceivable shade of composite
tone-color, of striking contrasts, of inspiring outbursts. One of
the most magnetic features is the impassioned yet melancholy tint
that envelops the entire work as it were in its veiled embrace. The
attainment of this objective colors much of the orchestration, as
exemplified, for instance, by the predominance of violoncellos in
four parts as well as by the combination of oboe, English horn, horn
and bassoon _soli_ in the Vorspiel. Again, a subdued yet intense
impression is caused by the union of English horn, bassoon and
trombones in the first act during the scene between Tristan and
Isolde. Astounding skill is displayed in the development of thematic
treatment leading to ever alternating climaxes, anticlimaxes, and
monumental finales.
In the above second group, the orchestra is enlarged chiefly by the
introduction of triplets of wood-wind instruments. The English horn
and the bass-clarinet are employed as components of their respective
families rather than as solo interpreters. They are replaced by a
third oboe and a third clarinet in concerted _forte_ numbers of
extended length. No further purely practical innovations are to
be noted other than a logical augmentation of the string band and
progressive treatment of the brass.
(If the topics of this review were subject to despotic chronological
sequence, it would be necessary, at this point, to touch upon the
characteristics of "Die Meistersinger," for that work was first
performed at Munich in 1868, three years after "Tristan" and one year
before "Das Rheingold." As already suggested, however, the scoring of
"Die Meistersinger" is such as to make it advisable to include it in
a separate fourth group together with "Parsifal.")
GROUP III. DER RING DES NIBELUNGEN.
16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8
double-basses.
6 harps (exceptionally in 6 individual parts).
1 or 2 piccolo flutes; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn; 3
clarinets (at times a small clarinet); 1 bass-clarinet; 3
bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.
4 horns (often 8); 3 trumpets; 1 bass-trumpet; 3 trombones;
1 contrabass-trombone; 4 tubas (tenor and bass); 1
contrabass-tuba.
2 pair of kettle-drums; instruments of percussion.
The Tetralogy presents not only the culmination of Wagner's poetic
ideas and philosophical aspirations, but the final transformation in
orchestral resources as well. The première of "Das Rheingold" took
place in 1869 in Munich, followed in 1876 by the first performance
of the entire "Ring" at Bayreuth. The music of the "Ring" is so
inseparably welded to the drama that, apart from certain striking
exceptions, much of it loses its significance when performed as
"absolute music" away from the stage. At first sight the requisition
made for so mighty an aggregation of instruments must have been
indeed terrifying to a "Herrn Kapellmeister" of the old operatic
school, but closer inspection of the orchestration reveals the fact
that the glories of this noble tableau are obtained by masterful
contrasts of detached little groups of uniform tone-color, rather
than by cumulative tone quality and quantity. Space forbids more
than a cursory glance at a very few of these novel characteristics
in details of instrumentation. "Das Rheingold" shows, on the whole,
great reserve in the simultaneous employment of large forces. For
instance, the scene of the Rhine maidens is accompanied by the most
transparent orchestration. Many variations in the use of unmixed
tone-color could be cited, such as three oboes and English horn by
themselves; English horn with three bassoons; horns alone, or with
bassoons, or with bass-tuba. One of the most striking examples is
to be found in the fourth scene where the chord of the diminished
seventh is assigned to the lower notes of three clarinets and a
bass-clarinet. The same consistent use of homogeneous quartets marks
the deployment of the brass. The tubas appear entirely alone, as
do also the four trumpets in combination with the four trombones.
The final scene presents one of the exceptional instances of six
independent parts for harps. The first act of "Die Walküre" is, in
the opinion of the present writer, the most perfect specimen of
dramatic writing in the literature of music.[57] Here again, the
avoidance of massive scoring is particularly to be noted throughout
almost the entire act. And what other instruments could have
attained that maximum intensity of expression that characterizes the
deployment of five solo violoncellos[58] as interpreters of tender
longing and suppressed emotion? Some of the most impressive effects
are obtained by means of such comparatively simple combinations as
one solo oboe supported by two flutes, a clarinet and a bassoon,
further assisted by a second fragmentary melodic theme in the
'cellos. Instances of independent phrases for three clarinets and
bass-clarinet are again to be found, and in the third act, the
horns are employed in six real parts. A large majority of effects
and combinations that are conspicuous in "Das Rheingold" and "Die
Walküre" naturally reappear in "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung."
Further distinctive traits in "Siegfried" are the manifold division
of violins and violoncellos, the extensive arpeggio passages for
violas, the employment of viola harmonics, the important rôle
assigned to the double-basses, the composite tonal tint resulting
from a reunion of the clarinet quartet and four solo 'cellos, and
the use of bass- and double-bass tubas for impersonating the dragon.
Another prominent illustration of sonorous yet transparent scoring is
seen in the scintillating Forest Music in the second act and again
in "Götterdämmerung," to which a striking contrast is subsequently
afforded by the solemn and massive harmonies of the tubas in
Siegfried's Funeral March. Nor should the prominent function of
kettle-drums throughout the entire Tetralogy be overlooked.
[Footnote 57: Ex. 67 to 75.]
[Footnote 58: Ex. 67.]
In comparing the distribution of parts in the first, second, and
third groups, we have seen that in the first of these the orchestra
is normal, though the balance of the brass is improved. The
augmentation of the second group is effected by employing three
instruments in each family of the wood-wind. The third group,
however, embodies a readjustment of both wood and brass into families
of four. This requires a strong body of strings; incidentally,
more harps are employed, whereas both the number and variety of
instruments of percussion are increased. In addition to four trumpets
and four trombones there are as many as eight horns and five tubas.
Not only are these massed instruments never used simultaneously, but
their latent powers are further intended to be modified by Wagner's
plan for a partially concealed orchestra as at Bayreuth. To the brass
is primarily entrusted the important function of contrasting three
fundamental conceptions in the Tetralogy. Horns are symbolic of the
poetic, of distant visions, of reminiscences, of imagination, of
conscience. Trumpets and trombones represent a world of light midst
the gods and heroes. Tubas portray material force, human suffering,
fate.
GROUP IV. DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NÜRNBERG; PARSIFAL.
To classify these two works under one heading might at first sight
appear incongruous, for apart from the fact that some dozen years
separate the respective periods of their creation, the difference
between them in style and objective is as that of the antipodes.
The comic features and satirical purpose of the one bear absolutely
no relation to the mystical and devotional tone of the other. In
two respects, however, they have some points of affinity. The
orchestration of both is more like that of "Tristan" than of the
"Ring," and the harmonies are, to a certain extent, the adventitious
corollary of intricate polyphonic voice-leading. This is, of course,
particularly pronounced in "Parsifal," but it is in evidence in
"Die Meistersinger" as well. Both works prove that the exceptional
orchestral forces required for "Der Ring des Nibelungen" are by no
means necessary to obtain sonority, richness, exhaustless variety
and supreme dramatic intensity. Again, none of Wagner's dramas can
rival "Die Meistersinger" in musical power, whereas "Parsifal," as
the exponent of Wagner's religious views and his attitude toward
Christianity, is unsurpassed for nobility of subject and dignity of
treatment. With the performance of "Parsifal" at Bayreuth in 1882,
Wagner ended his stupendous lifework. His death followed barely seven
months later, but he had lived long enough to witness the attainment
of his ambitions and ideals.
VI.
It is needless to enlarge upon the hostile criticism evoked by
Wagner's theories, for his titanic achievements have remained
unscathed in the very face of even such violent attacks as were
hurled forth by Nordau and Nietzsche. Nevertheless, the present
writer cannot refrain from referring to the petty antagonism
Wagner had to endure as a consequence of the narrow-mindedness
and non-progressive spirit of many of his most distinguished
contemporaries. Even Rheinberger was not exempt from this defect,
and his attitude toward Wagner must be regarded as being the more
unaccountable since the memory of the Munich master is to be revered
not alone for the profound knowledge, the depth of feeling, and the
refinement that revealed themselves in his teaching and composition,
but for the nobility of his soul and the loftiness of his purpose
as well. And the close of Lobe's otherwise unprejudiced treatise on
instrumentation displays a glaring inconsistency in its strictures
upon Wagner's so-called overloaded orchestration. In his anxiety to
decry overzealous Wagner worship, Lobe made laborious efforts to
select examples that should support his adverse criticisms. This he
openly acknowledges, although he admits that not all of Wagner's
"Kraftbilder" are scored in so unfelicitous a manner. One of the
two such illustrations cited by him embodies the episodic climax in
"Lohengrin" where Elsa's ecstasy is portrayed in
[Music: Fänd ich Jubelweisen]
Lobe claims that the initial tones of Elsa's outburst are overpowered
and that further, her succeeding phrases are marred rather than
supported by reduplication of oboe and clarinet! No author can
convince his readers with such biased and absurd arguments.
To deliberately confine one's-self to such trivial points in
demonstration of Wagner's scoring is not in keeping with the dignity
of what is still a standard treatise. Even though it was published as
early as 1864, that was the very year in which Wagner was called to
Munich by King Ludwig II. By that time his works had already received
sufficient recognition to command the most careful consideration
even from pedants. Lobe's entire paragraph will bear repeating in
consequence of its very incongruity:--
"In diesem Beispiel _sehen_ wir als Hauptzeichnung die Melodie
Elsa's. Ihr Entzücken ist herrlich deklamirt, aber für wen? Kann
irgend ein Zuhörer von dem Eintritt _dieser Singstimme_, und
sie ist die wesentliche oder sollte es doch sein, auch nur eine
Ahnung bekommen? _Drei_ Flöten, _drei_ Oboen, _drei_ Klarinetten,
_vier_ Hörner, _drei_ Fagotte, _drei_ Trompeten, _drei_ Posaunen,
_Tuba_, _Pauke_, das Streichquartett, der König und der ganze
Frauen- und Männerchor schreien _fortissimo_ gegen die einzelne
Stimme des zarten Wesens Elsa! Dieser Riesenaccent aller vereinten
Orchester- und Chorstimmen verstummt nun zwar und die Folge der
Singmelodie Elsa's wird _etwas_ hörbar, aber von einem rein und
deutlich hervorglänzenden _Gesang_ kann nicht die Rede sein;
den die Mitsprache der ersten Oboe und ersten Klarinette im
Einklang--beiläufig bemerkt eine der fatalsten Verbindungen dieser
beiden Instrumente--sowie der andern Blasinstrumente verwischen und
verzehren den Klang der Singstimme und lassen gleichsam nur einen
Schatten derselben vernehmen."
VII.
In summing up the chief characteristics of Wagner's perfect
orchestration it is seen that although he was at first susceptible
to tone-color as an end to itself, he learned to subordinate it to
the demands of the musical and poetic ideas of the immediate dramatic
situation. Greatest of masters for the orchestra, Wagner brought
that organization to its highest point of evolution. Even though
the scores of "Lohengrin" and "Tristan" contain, with the exception
of bass-clarinet and bass-tuba, no instruments that had not been
employed by Haydn and Mozart, it was Wagner that emphasized solidity,
that made the orchestra firm and supple, that increased its melodic
as well as harmonic force, and used it for two definite purposes: to
render emotion and to portray action and situations. He was fortunate
in being aided by the rapid improvements that were taking place in
his day in the mechanism of instruments, as well as in the advance
in musical education and technical skill of orchestral performers.
His orchestration does not deviate from well-established and
approved traditions, but the grouping and treatment of instruments
are entirely new. The use of deep, sonorous basses never interferes
with harmonic clearness or with the outline of melodic and rhythmic
movement. The modern extreme development of unsupported wood-wind[59]
is entirely due to Wagner. When his predecessors had had occasion
to employ an English horn or a bass-clarinet, one of the oboe or
clarinet players usually undertook the part, thus depriving the
orchestra of possible effects for two oboes and English horn, or two
clarinets and bass-clarinet. This defect was remedied by both Berlioz
and Wagner in augmenting the wood-wind for the purpose of obtaining
harmonies of uniform tone-color. The addition of horns as regular
constituents of the second orchestral group[60] lent smoothness and
cohesion to the former somewhat thin and uneven quality of the
combined wood-wind. Some of the most mournful accents in Wagner's
orchestra are those obtained from the velvet harmonies of three
flutes in their lowest range. He regarded the clarinet[61] as the
most expressive solo wind instrument in the orchestra, and recognized
the latent efficiency of the bassoons whether as solo interpreters
or in independent harmonies, whether as bass to the wood-wind or
together with the horns alone.[62] The most radical changes are those
affecting the brass. Nevertheless, the principle of using three
or four instruments of the same family is in reality based upon
Gluck's and Mozart's euphonious distribution of three-part harmony
for trombones. Of incalculable value was the permanent employment
of valve-horns and valve-trumpets, the immense development in horn
writing, and the discarding of opheicleides. A world of majestic
light, as exposed by the homogeneity of trumpets and trombones, is
made to stand out in strong relief against the tubas' luxuriant
wealth of harmony, or the veiled yet picturesque tonal tints of
horns. The introduction of a complete group of tubas was certainly
an entirely new idea. Much of Wagner's warm and rich orchestration
is due to a substratum of soft brass harmonies that are apparently
not audible at all. No composer knew better than he how to obtain
the best effects from instruments of percussion without overstepping
the bounds of artistic refinement. His use of kettle-drums was more
practical than that of Berlioz; but it should not be forgotten
that when Meyerbeer or Berlioz needed a numerical variety of tones
or rapid changes in pitch, it was necessary to employ a number of
drums and several performers, whereas Wagner was able in later
years to attain the same object with fewer drums, in consequence
of the perfecting of the "machine-drum" which allows of almost
instantaneous change of pitch. The art of conducting received also
a powerful impetus from Wagner, and his untiring efforts to raise
the standard of the dramatic and concert stage were ably seconded by
Liszt and subsequently by von Bülow. When exercising the functions
of a conductor, one of Wagner's strong principles of interpretation
consisted in modifying a tempo in accordance with the momentary
character of the dominating melodic themes.
[Footnote 59: Ex. 70, 71.]
[Footnote 60: Ex. 71.]
[Footnote 61: Ex. 73.]
[Footnote 62: Ex. 69, 72.]
The bitterness of conflict over Wagner's works has expended itself;
hostile criticism is now exceptional. To-day Wagner stands forth
as the accepted champion of dramatic reforms, as the most eminent
composer of the nineteenth century, and as the greatest master of
orchestration in the annals of the world.
VIII.
In these days the "New Movement" is no longer new, for the trend of
modern music is ever progressive. For convenience, however, this
classification may include Cornelius, Bruckner, Lassen, A. Ritter,
Draeseke, Weingartner, Nicodé, finally Richard Strauss.
Cornelius (1824) would appear to be thus far the only writer for the
German stage since Wagner who has had something decidedly original
and lasting to say.[63] Being a protégé of Liszt, he became an
ardent partisan for Wagnerism. The cool reception of his "Barbier
von Bagdad" when first performed at Weimar in 1858 was the immediate
reason for causing Liszt to withdraw from that city in disgust.
This lack of appreciation is the more unaccountable in that but
eight years had elapsed since the residents of Weimar had welcomed
Wagner's "Lohengrin" with enthusiasm. "Der Barbier" was a worthy
successor to "Lohengrin"; not that the styles of these two operas
have even the remotest affinity to each other, but rather the very
originality of the "Barbier" should have commanded unquestionable
approval. However, the succeeding generation of theatre-goers has
been pleased to commend the work after a fashion, though it is to
be regretted that this appreciation has not become whole-souled and
universal. Not only is the music itself charming and vivacious,
and the plot highly ingenious, but the orchestration is brimming
over with mirth and good humor, portrays in the most subtle manner
the amorous as well as the sentimental situations, and brings into
requisition some very ludicrous traits of instrumentation. Moreover
the Finale, "Salamaleikum," is a most magnificent piece of _ensemble_
writing. Cornelius followed Wagner in writing all of his texts
himself. "Der Cid" is less spontaneous than its predecessor, but the
orchestration is that of a master, being imbued with genuine local
coloring together with profound melancholy, suppressed emotion and
heroic outbursts. It is interesting to conjecture what the outcome of
Cornelius' setting of "Gunlöd" would have been, for he left behind
him an unfinished text based upon the elder Scandinavian Edda.
[Footnote 63: See footnote on page 118 in reference to the sensation
recently created by Richard Strauss' opera "Salome."]
Anton Bruckner (1824) is commonly identified with the New
Movement, but he might with equal propriety be rated as a
classical-romanticist. Although he possesses many warm admirers,
the permanent value of his writings is open to question. His formal
structure, contrapuntal treatment, and thematic development bear the
impress of a scholarly touch, but in spite of certain leanings toward
Wagnerian principles, his heavy style and rather precise music have
a chilling effect upon the majority of listeners. The melodies are
not flowing, the rhythm is monotonous, and the orchestration, though
clever, lacks buoyancy and warmth.
The next four composers of this somewhat arbitrary list can be
summarily disposed of, since they have advanced the evolution of
orchestration to no perceptible degree. This statement is by no means
intended to belittle the sterling qualities of their musicianship.
All of them have won renown in their respective fields of activity,
and their creative efforts disclose broad culture, wide experience,
and a facile pen. Their instrumentation is invariably effective.
Eduard Lassen (1830) and Felix Draeseke (1835) took a prominent part
in propagating the tenets of Liszt and Wagner. Draeseke frankly
declared himself for Wagner, and assisted him by means of his
literary skill. Lassen succeeded Liszt as Generalmusikdirector of
the Weimar Opera. Similar to that of many another talented though
at first obscure aspirant, the success of his operas was due to the
enterprise of Liszt himself. During his later years Lassen devoted
himself almost exclusively to song-writing. As recently as two years
before his death, which occurred in 1903, he remarked to the present
writer that after having studied and conducted Wagner's works as
far back as forty odd years ago, he had come to the conclusion that
he himself had no further message to give to the dramatic world;
consequently he withdrew from the arduous contest. Alexander Ritter
(1833) was an able and painstaking composer, and wrote for the opera
as well as for the orchestra alone. His scoring was consistent with
his scholarship, but the substance of his productions embodies little
that is new. Weingartner (1853) is best known as a concert conductor.
His directing exercises a peculiarly magnetic fascination, and that
quite especially upon the ladies! His movements are wonderfully
graceful, and suggest, at times, a subtle hypnotic power flavoring of
Orientalism.
In turning to the magnum opus of Nicodé (1853), we find ourselves
face to face with one of the most interesting specimens of modern
orchestration--which is saying a great deal in this age when the
art of scoring has reached such stupendous virtuosity. "Das Meer,"
symphonic ode for solo voices, male chorus, orchestra, and organ,
may not reveal striking originality of subject-matter, but it is a
magnificent exposition of realism and discloses the author's keen
appreciation for the imaginative, the descriptive, the picturesque.
One could readily suppose that Nicodé might have been more or less
influenced by Rubinstein's "Ocean Symphony," but this is not at
all the case. Nicodé's primary aim was the acquisition of superb
and startling effects by means of tone-color pure and simple. His
technique is enormous. One of his strongest points is the ability to
procure scintillating tints by means of multiple division of strings
alone. By piling up a large number of independent and seemingly
irreconcilable melodic themes one on top of the other, a marvellous
effervescent polyphony is procured. The best example of pure tone
effect is revealed in the movement entitled "Phosphorescent Lights."
The modern symphonic orchestra is, of course, employed, being further
augmented by an additional harp, and two tenor-tubas with the usual
bass-tuba. The battery assumes gigantic proportions in that demand is
made for two pair of kettle-drums, one pair of cymbals, a bass-drum,
a triangle, a gong, and a set of bells. Even these additions do not
satisfy the composer, for behind the stage is concealed a brass band
of three trumpets, seven trombones and a bass-tuba.
IX.
RICHARD STRAUSS[64] (1864). It is universally conceded
that the greatest master of orchestration after Richard Wagner is
Richard Strauss. The latter's career thus far bears some affinity
to that of Mendelssohn as regards early artistic surroundings,
scholarly training in branches other than music, and exemption from
monetary anxiety. But whereas Mendelssohn's affluent circumstances
and prosperous career were undoubtedly detrimental to the development
of profound pathos and tragic intensity, Strauss has made the
demonstration that worldly cares and petty professional obstacles are
not the essential stimuli for herculean artistic growth embodying the
portrayal of experiences not personally experienced.
[Footnote 64: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 97 to
103.]
(=Biography.=) Strauss was reared in a schooling so orthodox
that not even his severest critics can venture to deny his mastery of
traditional usages,--indeed, in his earlier works Strauss has given
tangible proof of his ability to compose in conservative forms. He
is the son of a French-horn player of rare genius, whose memorable
performance of his son's horn concerto first taught the present
writer the latent possibilities of that instrument. Strauss is said
to have produced a polka at the age of six, whereas already during
his boyhood days he devoted his spare moments to writing orchestral
overtures, choruses, sonatas, and the like. Although enrolled as
a student at the Gymnasium and for one year at the University of
Munich, he was simultaneously given opportunity to develop his
musical talents along the prescribed lines of practical training.
His public career as a composer may be said to have begun when two
of his choruses were given at a school concert. In 1880 he succeeded
in having three of his songs sung at a public concert. He was then
only sixteen years old. These minor achievements, however, fall into
insignificance in comparison with the recognition awarded him in the
following year, when Benno Walther, concertmeister of the Munich
Opera, produced the string quartet, op. 2, in the course of the
annual series of chamber concerts. Walther's quartet was at that time
highly authoritative in musical circles. In the same year Hermann
Levi performed the symphony in D minor. Strauss next drew attention
to himself with a serenade, op. 7, for thirteen instruments, and
thereby interested no less a person than Hans von Bülow. This was
destined to influence Strauss' entire career, for in 1885 he was
engaged as musical director at Meiningen in a subordinate though
honorable position to von Bülow himself. It was von Bülow, therefore,
that gave Strauss his initial training as an orchestral conductor,
a branch of art in which he has now attained proficiency only
secondary to his powers as a composer. At Meiningen he was enabled to
assimilate not only von Bülow's magnetic technique and authoritative
interpretation, but was also led to grasp Wagner's ideals of
conducting. In addition he also appeared occasionally as a concert
pianist, and meanwhile completed his more or less conservative
symphonic phantasy "Aus Italien." Here, too, he came in contact with
the Wagnerian enthusiast, Alexander Ritter, an intimacy that had
much to do with the subsequent moulding of his first distinctively
original works, "Macbeth" and "Don Juan." Toward the close of 1885 he
succeeded von Bülow as conductor of the Meiningen Orchestra, retained
the post for one season, and then accepted a subordinate position in
his native city under Levi and Fischer at the Munich Royal Opera.
Like most prophets in their own country, he had to overcome the
prejudice of some of the older gentlemen of the orchestra who had
been colleagues of his father and had seen the son grow up. For
three years he was now occupied with the rather thankless task of
conducting lesser operatic performances, but devoted himself none the
less with untiring effort to the development of his creative talents,
which bore fruit in "Macbeth," "Don Juan" and "Tod und Verklärung."
In 1889 he was called to the Weimar Opera, first as subordinate to
Lassen, eventually as full-empowered potentate. He there married one
of the operatic singers, Pauline de Ahne, daughter of a Bavarian
general. While at Weimar he wrote his first opera, "Guntram." In 1894
Strauss returned to the Munich Opera in a capacity more responsible
than formerly. His services as a conductor of unusual ability were
by this time much in demand for special concert performances in
European musical centres. The atmosphere of his native city must
have been particularly inspiring to his creative Muse, for from
1894 to 1899 no less than four mighty orchestral works emanated
from his pen--"Till Eulenspiegel," "Also sprach Zarathustra," "Don
Quixote," "Ein Heldenleben." In 1899 he was called to the Berlin
Opera as an associate with Muck. It is here that he at present wields
the baton with unflagging zeal, in spite of his restless activity
as a composer. Thus far his most important contributions to the
twentieth century have been the opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia
Domestica."[65]
[Footnote 65: See footnote on page 118 in reference to "Salome."]
Such are the biographical outlines of an epoch-making composer, an
eminent conductor, and a well-trained pianist who has but entered
upon the fifth decade of his lifetime. Before proceeding to an
examination of the aims and ideals that are at the root of Strauss'
huge orchestral conceptions, some comparisons between him and his
predecessors as suggested by Richard Aldrich will bear citation:--
"At forty Strauss is the most commanding figure in the musical world
of to-day. It will be an interesting disclosure for future years to
make as to how much of his lifework he has already accomplished,
and whether the salient characteristics are already fixed and
contained in what he has done, or whether this is but a preparation.
We may be reminded that on their fortieth birthdays Mozart and
Schubert had put the final seal upon their work, Mozart five years
before, Schubert nine. Beethoven had given to the world his first
six symphonies, his 'Fidelio,' and the 'Leonore' overtures, the
'Coriolanus' overture, the 'Egmont' music, the five piano concertos
and the violin concerto, nine string quartets, including those
dedicated to Count Rasoumoffsky; the 'Kreutzer' and the earlier
violin sonatas, the 'Waldstein' and the earlier piano sonatas.
Wagner had written 'Rienzi,' 'The Flying Dutchman,' 'Tannhäuser,'
'Lohengrin,' 'Eine Faust Ouvertüre,' and had conceived and partly
executed 'The Ring of the Nibelung.' And yet these two had not
given the finest fruitage of their genius. What Strauss has done
in his younger manhood will not, perhaps, be counted of greater
worth. Whether, like these two at his age, he will go on to further
development may also be curiously questioned, and whether he will
turn aside from the path in which he has already started. On that
path he seems already to have reached the furthest confines of the
territory he has traversed."
X.
(=Classification of Compositions.=) Similar to the works of
most composers who have a genuinely original message to give to
the world, those of Strauss may be divided into distinct groups
of differentiated creative periods. He has progressed step by
step through various stages of development. Conforming at first
to the conservative romanticism founded upon traditional forms of
Mendelssohn and Schumann, he soon came to admire and emulate the
doctrines of Brahms--an influence that has never been effaced from
his subsequent writings even though his associations with von Bülow
and Ritter caused him to lean more and more upon Wagner and Liszt for
the dominating thought of his conceptions. With one stroke, however,
"Macbeth" and "Don Juan" went far beyond the tenets of the Weimar
coterie, though the succeeding productions "Tod und Verklärung" and
"Guntram" suggest what has been called a _reaction_ toward Liszt and
Wagner. But with "Till Eulenspiegel" and "Also sprach Zarathustra"
Strauss inaugurated a permanent and ever advancing method of
procedure distinctively individualistic and unprecedented, that has
so far culminated in the vast realistic tableaux of "Don Quixote" and
"Ein Heldenleben."
(_1st Period._) Reference has already been made to his youthful
efforts. After the small choruses, the songs, the string quartet,
op. 2, and the symphony in D minor, there appeared some interesting
experiments in various fields of composition. The list includes a
pianoforte sonata, op. 5; a sonata for violoncello and pianoforte,
op. 6; the serenade, op. 7, for wind-instruments, patronized by von
Bülow; a violin concerto, op. 8; "Stimmungsbilder" for pianoforte,
op. 9; the French-horn concerto, op. 11, already referred to; a
symphony in F minor, op. 12; a pianoforte quartet, op. 13; and
"Wanderers Sturmlied," for six-part mixed chorus and orchestra,
op. 14. This choral work has been called "a broadly flowing stream
of polyphonic vocal harmony against an elaborate and independent
orchestral accompaniment that was something quite unprecedented."
The above compositions comprise what might be termed the first of
Strauss' creative periods, having all been written before he was
twenty. They present a conventional though rapid development of and
graduation from the dominating influences of Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Brahms, as suggested above, and gradually point more and more toward
Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner.
(_2d Period._) The symphony in F minor, written in 1883, may be
looked upon not only as the culmination of these earliest attempts,
but also as the first of Strauss' really significant orchestral
compositions. Its maiden performance took place not in Germany but in
this country, when, in 1884, Theodore Thomas produced it in New York
with the Philharmonic Society.
Several years now elapsed before Strauss was ready to offer to
the world the first of his great symphonic tone-poems: "Aus
Italien"--sinfonische Phantasie, G-dur (op. 16, 1886). This was a
marked advance upon the previous symphony, but though it reveals the
subsequent path Strauss was to pursue, and embodies complex polyphony
and increased command over the technics of orchestration, it is
still dominated by Mendelssohn's and Schumann's subjective idea of
program-music.
(_3d Period._) Not until von Bülow and Ritter had fathomed the true
depth of their young associate's latent powers did he proceed to
evolve his conceptions in a language that has startled the entire
musical world.
"Macbeth"--Tondichtung nach Shakespeare's Drama (op. 23, 1887), is
the first of these vast color-pictures. Although "Don Juan" is to be
recorded as opus 20, Friedrich Rösch, the authoritative reviewer of
"Ein Heldenleben," places it after "Macbeth," although classifying
it also as opus 20. He gives the date of its completion as 1888.
Dr. Riemann's Dictionary of Music, which is the most accurate book
of its kind in existence, seems for once to be at fault in stating
the various dates at which Strauss penned his creations. "Macbeth,"
like its successors, at once displays a wealth of melodic utterance
in all the principal orchestral voices, a prolific number of themes
and sub-themes, and the most intimate acquaintance with the specific
characteristics of the various instruments as well as with orchestral
combinations and the resultant mixture of tonal tints thereby to be
obtained. Like Berlioz, Strauss secures dramatic effects by means
of vivid orchestration. The themes are arrayed in a kaleidoscopic
sequence of instrumental color rather than being subjected to
elaborate thematic treatment, and climaxes are reached by means of
dynamic effects instead of by melodic evolution. An elaborately
conceived program justifies the requisition for vast orchestral
resources. There is further evidence of genuine inspiration, of a
true gift for thematic development forming a marvellous filigree
of contrapuntally interwoven leading motives, of intellectual
power, philosophical reflection, poetic revery, and naïve humor.
The following themes from "Macbeth" demonstrate the wide range of
thematic conception Strauss possesses:
[Music: No. 1.[66]]
[Music: No. 2.]
[Music: No. 3.]
[Footnote 66: Most of these examples have been selected from the
transcriptions in skeleton form of Friedrich Rösch. Nos. 16 and 19
were suggested by Richard Aldrich. Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37 were prepared
by Strauss himself.]
The first consists of a flowing cantilena evolved on broad and
dignified lines. The second is a striking example of freely used
chromatic intervals. The third follows Wagner's precedent in
deploying instruments of brass in forceful and incisive utterance.
"Don Juan"--Tondichtung nach Lenau (op. 20, 1888), belongs to the
same creative period as "Macbeth" and follows the same general
outlines of philosophical, structural, and orchestral procedure.
The following four representative themes are suggestive not only
of "local" coloring but reveal the highest attribute of a genuine
composer in that their very nature suggests the general type of
instrument to be employed. Proof is thus to be had that Strauss
simultaneously conceives his subject-matter and the orchestral
garment in which it is to be attired.
[Music: No. 4.]
[Music: No. 5.]
[Music: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 7.]
(_4th Period._) "Tod und Verklärung"--Tondichtung (op. 24, 1889),
is classified with the opera "Guntram" for embodying a certain
reactionary trend on the part of the author. There is no lack of
intricate polyphony, daring harmonic combinations, complex rhythm,
startling contrasts, monumental climaxes, and clever orchestral
devices; but in these works Strauss has exercised more restraint
than in the preceding "Macbeth" and "Don Juan," whereas the acme
of his extreme realism was not reached until after he began his
following and mightiest series of symphonic poems beginning with
"Till Eulenspiegel." To quote the refined language of Herman Klein:
"In 'Tod und Verklärung' is depicted the death struggle of a man
before whose mental vision there passes the panorama of a wasted life
followed by the man's transfiguration, as his redeemed soul passes
out of earthly existence into a higher state." Of the three themes
from "Tod und Verklärung" appended below, it is interesting to note
that the first of these (No. 8) was subsequently interwoven into the
introductory theme of "Ein Heldenleben," and appears as the third
phrase of the _Motiv_ representing "Der Held." (See page 113, example
22, bars 6 and 7.)
[Music: No. 8.]
[Music: No. 9.]
[Music: No. 10.]
Strauss has not been so conspicuously successful with his operas
as with his orchestral works,[67] but the following themes from
"Guntram" disclose the general nature of his operatic conceptions.
[Footnote 67: See footnote on page 118 in reference to Strauss'
latest dramatic production.]
[Music: No. 11.]
[Music: No. 12.]
[Music: No. 13.]
[Music: No. 14.]
(_5th Period._) The most radical exposition of modern orchestration
is discovered in the fifth period of symphonic creations beginning
with "Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche"--nach alter Schelmenweise
in Rondo-Form (op. 28, 1895)[68] and culminating thus far in "Ein
Heldenleben." Of the following two themes from "Till Eulenspiegel,"
No. 16, representing the titular character, is a brilliant specimen
of horn-writing, as embodied in the Rondo.
[Footnote 68: Appendix, Ex. 102, 103.]
[Music: No. 15.]
[Music: No. 16.]
Flowing cantilena, perverted rhythmic effects and still another
illustration of virile horn-writing are presented in the following
examples from the musical exposition of Zarathustra's philosophy
under the title of "Also sprach Zarathustra"--Tondichtung frei nach
Nietzsche (op. 30, 1896).[69]
[Footnote 69: Appendix, Ex. 97 to 101.]
[Music: No. 17.]
[Music: No. 18.]
[Music: No. 19. Credo in unum Deum]
Among the most characteristic of Richard Strauss' pictorial themes
are the following two from his portrayal of Cervantes' rueful hero:
"Don Quixote"--phantastische Variationen über ein Thema ritterlichen
Characters (op. 35, 1897):
[Music: No. 20.]
[Music: No. 21.]
XI.
(=Æsthetics.=) Similar to the orchestral works of Wagner, those
of Strauss are worthy of exhaustive critical analysis. To carefully
examine them all, however, would require an entire volume by itself.
It is therefore proposed to select as typical only a few of the most
characteristic points from one of the most characteristic of Strauss'
orchestral works: "Ein Heldenleben"--Tondichtung (op. 40, 1898).
In order to appreciate the magnitude of his undertakings, let us
first see how he maps out and elaborates upon the programmatic theme
chosen for musical setting. The nuclear thought of "Ein Heldenleben"
is the simultaneous portrayal of a combined mortal and mental hero
belonging to both a worldly and a spiritual realm, or as Friedrich
Rösch expresses it: "Eine harmonisch gesteigerte Zusammenfassung
eines Volks- und Kriegshelden und eines von künstlerischer
Schaffensfreude beseelten Übermenschen aus dem Reiche der Phantasie."
The "program" of "Ein Heldenleben" contains six general divisions:
I. DER HELD.
II. DES HELDEN WIDERSACHER.
III. DES HELDEN GEFÄHRTIN.
IV. DES HELDEN WALSTATT.
V. DES HELDEN FRIEDENSWERKE.
VI. DES HELDEN WELTFLUCHT UND VOLLENDUNG.
No. I is comprised of two general groups of thematic material. The
first group is in reality one single and broadly constructed main
theme,--the synthesis of five distinctive motives. The second group
is made up of four contrapuntally interwoven and super-imposed
secondary themes. After these nine themes have been duly presented,
they are subjected to recapitulation and development. A tenth figure,
based upon previous material, is also introduced.
The first group of themes, given out by low stringed-instruments,
horns, etc., begins as follows:
[Music: No. 22.[70]]
[Footnote 70: See Ex. 8.]
The first theme of the second group is assigned to divided first
violins, beneath which wind-instruments intone the second theme.
[Music: No. 23.]
No. II contains five sharply contrasted and interwoven themes.
(No. 24.) The piercing accents of the wood-wind in their shrillest
and most blatant range are here drawn into requisition, and are
legitimately suggestive of Wagner's "Beckmesser" orchestration. The
section subsequently embodies five modified expositions from the
first leading theme of No. I.
[Music: No. 24.]
No. III is ushered in by a tender theme for solo violin:
[Music: No. 25.]
This is followed by an exposition of five themes of intentional
similarity, which depict the varying moods of the hero's courtship.
These themes are further enhanced by characteristic and contrasted
orchestral tone-color.
[Music: No. 26.]
The section further embodies some six motives that are either
reminiscences from former or anticipations of subsequent thematic
material. Rösch calls attention to an interesting passage at the
close of this section, a passage that cannot be justified by any
rules of harmony. He suggests that in modern orchestration many
seemingly irreconcilable harmonic combinations become perfectly
logical if the auditor train himself to follow the harmonic corollary
of complex counterpoint "horizontally" instead of "vertically." The
passage in question consists of a protracted chord, G flat major,
sustained by muted strings, while various instruments of wood
super-impose a number of independent themes whose concentrated effect
forms chords entirely foreign to the underlying key of G major. The
present writer, however, is inclined to regard this hazy film of
string-tone as nothing more than a tonic and dominant organ-point
with the third of the triad unobtrusively added.
The "program" of No. IV is symbolic of martial strife, the depictment
of which, subdivided into three parts together with an introduction,
extends almost to the end of the movement, when a coda in two short
divisions portrays victory and embodies a hymn of praise. From a
musical standpoint, No. IV may be looked upon as that section of the
entire symphonic poem in which the leading themes are subjected to
systematic and elaborate musical development. In addition, one finds
some ten new themes, such as a striking fanfare for trumpets behind
the scenes (No. 27) and other warlike strains, of which Nos. 28 and
29 represent the missiles of the enemy.
This fanfare (No. 27) exhibits one of the most remarkable mixtures of
three simultaneously combined keys that has ever emanated from the
mind of man:
[Music: No. 27.]
By examining the first trumpet part by itself:
[Music]
one discovers a perfectly harmless figure in the key of B flat major.
The second trumpet, however, holds tenaciously to the key of G flat
major:
[Music]
The third trumpet is unquestionably in the key of B flat minor, or,
at a pinch, in its relative major--D flat:
[Music]
The resultant cross-relation caused by such an amalgamation of
otherwise unoriginal figures excites a most remarkable impression.
The next two examples embody characteristic employment of wood-wind
instruments:
[Music: No. 28.]
[Music: No. 29.]
No. V is primarily noteworthy for the poetic fancy that impelled
Strauss to embody no less than twenty-four motives from his
preceding symphonic poems, as well as from "Guntram" and from
"Traum durch die Dämmerung." These themes are, of course, not
presented in a row, but are joined together or subtly interwoven
or contrapuntally super-imposed one over the other, and one might
again suggest that they must be listened to horizontally and not
vertically. Incidentally it might be added that this Division V of
"Ein Heldenleben" draws into requisition every single example given
above from No. 1 to No. 21 inclusive, with the exception Nos. 16 and
19. Wagner pointed the way for such a procedure by introducing the
opening bars from "Tristan und Isolde" into the "Meistersinger."
Strauss, however, went much further, and in the course of _Des Helden
Friedenswerke_ he has drawn freely upon "Macbeth," "Don Juan," "Tod
und Verklärung," "Till Eulenspiegel," "Zarathustra," and "Don
Quixote." He further elaborates upon two practically new themes (Nos.
30 and 31), although an anticipation of the second of these themes is
already to be found in Division III.
[Music: No. 30.]
[Music: No. 31.]
No. VI brings this noble creation to a fitting end. With the
exception of an episodic anti-climax, the movement is dominated by
calm and majestic peace, as exemplified by themes No. 32 (evolved
from No. 31) and No. 33.
[Music: No. 32.]
[Music: No. 33.]
Such are the vast dimensions of Richard Strauss' orchestral
tableaux! His other works are evolved on similarly broad lines. "Ein
Heldenleben," with its six well-defined divisions, includes no less
than seventy themes. The score makes demand for one hundred and five
instrumentalists:--
16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8
double-basses.
2 harps.
1 piccolo flute; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn (also
as 4th oboe); 1 E flat clarinet; 2 B flat clarinets; 1
bass-clarinet; 3 bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.
8 horns; 5 trumpets; 3 trombones; 1 tenor-tuba; 1 bass-tuba.
Kettle-drums; bass-drum; side-drum; military drum; cymbals.
XII.
Since composing what might be called the Tetralogy of mighty
productions that have been classified together as belonging to the
_5th Period_, Strauss has written two further important works: the
opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia Domestica." The latter is still
in manuscript,[71] and but recently had a hearing in this country
under the composer's personal direction. It is as yet too early to
suggest a sixth period in Strauss' style of writing.[72] What is
more, the two recent offerings have too little in common to justify
classifying them together. "Feuersnoth" has shared the fate of its
predecessor, "Guntram," in that it has been granted no more than a
respectful hearing, and is not to be compared as a work of art with
Strauss' symphonic undertakings. As to the "Symphonia Domestica,"
the very topic chosen for exposition gives rise to some misgivings
as to whether it justifies the expenditure of so much vital creative
energy. The subject and the elaborate means employed to depict it
would appear somewhat incongruous. The sub-title of this paradoxical
essay reads: "Ein Tag aus meinem Familienleben," and the orchestra is
required to expound upon the charmingly naïve topics of Papa, Mama,
and Bébé. Incidentally, one passage introduces the worthy aunts as
exclaiming in chorus, "Just like his father"; the uncles, "Just like
his mother." The "Symphonia Domestica" is further paradoxical in that
the score includes no definite programmatic commentary, and Strauss
himself has been quoted as saying emphatically, "This time I wish
my music to be listened to purely as music." The work is therefore
intended to be accepted not as a symphonic poem but as a symphony
"In einem Satz" like Mendelssohn's "Scotch" or Schumann's D minor
symphony. In the face of all this we find a program, and a positive
one at that, at the root of the matter! In reality, its only claim to
the title of "symphony" rests upon the general outlines of its formal
structure, which is comprised of three main divisions preceded by an
elaborate introduction. But it is assuredly not "absolute" music.
On the other hand, its thematic continuity is far more closely knit
together than that of the above-mentioned symphonies of Mendelssohn
and Schumann.
[Footnote 71: Since published.]
[Footnote 72: Since the above lines were written, a sixth period
was assuredly entered upon with the opera "Salome," first performed
at Dresden in the fall of 1905 under the magnetic baton of Schuch,
director of the Royal Opera. The work, which has since been given
throughout Europe and in New York, has universally created a
sensation to which nothing in the annals of the musical stage
furnishes a parallel unless it be the initial performances of
"Tristan und Isolde" in Munich in 1865. "Salome," by reason of its
overwhelming dramatic force, the sureness of Strauss' marvellous use
of representative themes, together with an orchestral color-scheme
beyond anything he has used before, not only marks an epoch in
the career of this still young composer and an epoch also in his
orchestration, but becomes a landmark in the form of opera as evolved
from and built upon the Tetralogy of Wagner.]
In the "Symphonia Domestica" we recognize the personal element
that asserted itself, though in an unobtrusive manner, in "Ein
Heldenleben." Humorous inclinations, characteristic of "Don Quixote,"
are also in evidence.
The Introduction is an exposition of the three principal themes. The
theme for the father is comprised of three contrasted sections (No.
34, a, b, c). The mother is characterized by a lively and perhaps
slightly undignified theme (No. 35). For the child's theme (No. 36)
Strauss makes use of an oboe d'amore. The tone of this practically
obsolete member of the wood-wind is veiled and tender, and the
instrument found favor with Bach who assigned to it an important
rôle in his mass in B minor,--in fact two oboi d'amore are employed
for accompanying the bass solo "Et in Spiritum Sanctum."
[Music: No. 34, a.]
[Music: No. 34, b.]
[Music: No. 34, c.]
[Music: No. 35.]
[Music: No. 36.]
The following sportive Scherzo or first main division proper presents
a sprightly development of the three primary themes and especially
of the child's theme. The movement is finally brought to a restful
ending.
The succeeding Adagio enlarges upon the father's theme and pictures
him alone as if in a revery. The music is reflective and dreamy, at
times restless and impassioned as well.
The Finale embodies a lively double-fugue (No. 37, a and b), of which
the principal theme consists of a diminution of the child's theme
(No. 36). The close of the work is calm and peaceful.
[Music: No. 37, a.]
[Music: No. 37, b.]
By thus analyzing the programmatic foundation of two of Strauss'
latest orchestral conceptions one can obtain at least a superficial
idea of the somewhat eccentric though intensely original range of his
imagination. The philosophical aspect of the "Symphonia Domestica"
is, of course, far simpler than that of "Ein Heldenleben" and its
companions, nor would it seem to possess the same scope or exert
the same fascination that his nobler and more serious works do. The
orchestration, however, leaves nothing to be desired. There is no
retrogression in the deployment of the instruments whether as solo or
in combination. Strauss is in command of an orchestral technique so
deep-rooted that it can never fail him. One would have supposed that
his works prior to the "Symphonia Domestica" had made requisition for
practically every legitimately available instrument in existence, but
the addition of an oboe d'amore together with four saxophones proves
that Strauss has an insatiable craving for ever novel tonal tints,
and whereas "Ein Heldenleben" requires 105 instrumentalists, the
symphony demands 108.
Before proceeding to sum up the cardinal features of Strauss'
orchestration, it is desired to call attention to his highly
commendable foresight in evolving his songs with pianoforte
accompaniment on comparatively simple lines, thereby greatly
enhancing their effectiveness for vocal utterance as well as their
adaptability for extensive rendition. It is a rare attribute of
genius to possess the faculty of colossal orchestral language and at
the same time of simple and pathetic song-speech.
XIII.
(=Instrumentation.=) The marvellous subtleties of Strauss'
instrumentation and the irresistible sweep and large contour of his
orchestration have already been so thoroughly aired by prominent
critics the world over, that there is little further to say beyond
epitomizing in a few brief sentences the general consensus of
opinion. Founding his art of scoring upon that of Berlioz and
Wagner, Strauss evidently has also made a careful study of the
means and methods of his eminent contemporary, Saint-Saëns, for the
performances of "Samson et Dalila" at the Berlin Royal Opera, when
controlled by Strauss' magnetic force, are a source of artistic
delectation. The fundamental reason that makes his scoring so
effective is his intimate acquaintance with the characteristics of
each individual instrument even to the minutest detail of mechanical
limitation or latent potentiality. Therefore his instrumentation pure
and simple as distinct from orchestration _en masse_ is unhesitating
and authoritative. In thus appreciating the imperative necessity
for an exhaustive study of the instruments themselves, Strauss has
done no more than to follow the precepts of his illustrious model,
Wagner. Strauss would be entitled to but little credit had he not
advanced beyond his master, for proportionately, Wagner established a
far greater number of unalterable precedents than Strauss has since
been able to add to. The criticism has been advanced that Strauss'
demands upon the technique of the performers are excessive, and that
he is given to force the instruments, and especially those of brass,
into unnatural registers. Such points, however, would appear to be
for the gentlemen of the orchestra to decide, and the enthusiasm and
grim determination with which they overcome seemingly insurmountable
difficulties at rehearsal, and the suavity and verve with which the
performances of his works by first-class orchestras are carried
through, may be looked upon as tangible proof that Strauss knows
what he is about. The performers may complain of the demands made
upon them, but they realize that the page before them bears the
impress of a master of instrumentation whose music is written with
special regard for the very instrument they are playing,--can and
must therefore be played. And they accordingly respect the author of
their arduous though fascinating task. Finally, if the now childlike
simplicity of Schubert's orchestration proved a stumbling block to
the Viennese orchestra only fifty odd years ago (as stated on page
75), and furthermore Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" shared the same
fate at a still more recent date, it will not be difficult to realize
that Strauss fifteen years ago taxed the virtuosity of the performers
with passages that are already no longer dreaded. As to the details
of instrumentation, he has strengthened and elaborated upon the
methods of his predecessors, assimilated the procedures of his
contemporaries, besides resuscitating various obsolete instruments
and initiating numerous novelties of his own.
The flexibility of execution that formerly was expected only of a
first violinist is now imposed upon all five sections of the string
band, and each member finds before him the pages of what looks like
a concerto.[73] To the wood-wind are assigned passages that Wagner
would have hesitated to write.[74] What Strauss demands from them,
Beethoven might have demanded from the strings. Most prominent of
all is the attention bestowed upon the deployment of the brass as
initiated by Wagner.[75] The trumpets are treated with unprecedented
freedom, and are expected to perform passages either of flowing
melody or of rhythmic intricacy in the fastest of tempos. The horns
are taught to display the agility of violoncellos. In four-part
writing, the fourth horn is much used as a deep bass-instrument
absolutely apart from the three upper horns. The trombones are
employed as much for unallied melodic utterance as for combined
harmonic effects, and the intricacy of their parts constantly
necessitates the use of three staves in the partitur. Incidental
mention might also be made of such devices for acquiring weird tonal
tints as obtained from muted trombones. Similar to Wagner's procedure
in the "Meistersinger" Vorspiel, the tubas--and particularly
the tenor tuba--are constantly detached from their conventional
association with the trombones, for the purpose of giving expression
to flowing cantilena. Novelty in the use of instruments of percussion
is restricted to rhythmic peculiarities and original combinations
with other instruments of more variable pitch; for Wagner's general
methods of handling the battery cannot be improved upon.
[Footnote 73: Appendix, Ex. 100.]
[Footnote 74: Ap. Ex. 102.]
[Footnote 75: Ap. Ex. 103.]
In a word, the three choirs of the orchestra have respectively
advanced one step higher. The string band are graduated to the plane
of so many virtuoso soloists. The wood-wind replace the strings and
are themselves replaced by the brass. The battery acquire prominence
such as the classicists formerly allowed to the trumpets and
trombones.
(=Orchestration.=) The numerical distribution of Strauss'
orchestra is, of course, consistent with the modern custom of
employing quartets of uniform tone-color. But he advances yet further
by making permanent Wagner's occasional incorporation into the
orchestra of a second harp, an E flat clarinet, a double quartet of
horns, five instead of four trumpets, and a tenor-tuba in addition to
the bass-tuba. The occasional addition of unusual instruments such as
an oboe d'amore and saxophones has already been referred to.
The sum total of Strauss' orchestration as a whole consists of what
has been termed its "exposed" quality, resulting in a "vast piece of
chamber music."[76] The extensive range of his imagination reveals
itself in constantly novel combinations and kaleidoscopic variety of
effects that are unprecedented. His command of dynamics is superb.
His synthesis of thematic counterpoint in all the voices of the
different choirs is at times so reckless that the euphony of its
harmonic corollary is endangered and the resultant effect presents
a chaos of cacophony unless the auditor accustom himself to follow
the Melos not vertically but horizontally. The orchestration is the
most vivid in existence. Realism is accentuated. The tonal tints are
scintillating and glowing. Every single instrument in the orchestra
has an indispensable rôle assigned to it. The scores abound in clever
orchestral devices, in startling contrasts, powerful crescendos and
exciting climaxes, and disclose the mind of a master possessed of
poetic fancy, natural humor, artistic culture, strong individuality,
philosophical insight and intellectual power.
[Footnote 76: Appendix, Ex. 97.]
The titanic achievements of Richard Strauss have caused him to appear
as the most conspicuous living musician, and in the arrangement of
a modern program, his works are at present the accepted companions
to those of his models in rich and massive orchestration, Wagner and
Liszt; to those of Brahms, conservator of classic models and loftiest
ideals; to Saint-Saëns' scintillating and unrivalled tableaux; to
Tschaikowsky's sombre tone-pictures, to Dvo[vr]ák's brilliant and
vivacious portrayals, to Grieg's poetic and popular conceptions.
XIV.
It is high time to bring this fascinating subject of modern German
progressiveness to a close; otherwise there is no knowing whither
this history might lead us. In these days even a secondary composer
is supposed to be thoroughly conversant with every subtlety in
the art of orchestration. Germany still leads the van; the number
of her eminent masters of modern instrumentation is legion. The
ambition of the ultra-modern school is to out-Wagner Wagner. It will
suffice to make mention of Max Schillings' "Ingwelde" or of Cyrill
Kistler's "Kunihild und der Brautritt auf Kynast" with its poem in
alliterative verse in strictly Wagnerian lines by Graf Sporck. The
same exaggerated sense of morbidness and pessimism has found its
way as well into other fields of German composition as discovered
in certain ones of Hugo Wolf's intensely modern and magnificent
songs, or in Max Reger's organ works of questionable worth with
their atrocious harmonic mixture, their intricacy of contrapuntal
treatment, and their extreme difficulty of execution.[77] These
restless signs of evolution are perfectly logical and eminently
proper. In many instances the results have been highly successful,
but again they have not. On the other hand, a number of living
German composers could still be cited who are possessed of
sufficient poise to accept the spirit of modern progression without
allowing their convictions to carry them to extremes. One of the
most successful of these is Humperdinck, whose "Hänsel und Gretel"
acquires its effectiveness primarily by means of the orchestra. The
exceedingly simple vocal parts are founded entirely on Volksmelodien;
_Leit-motiven_ add coherence to the opera as a whole, whereas the
scoring is amazingly complicated and elaborate though ever lucid and
euphonious.[78] Ludwig Thuille[79] has earned deserved success with
his charming "Lobetanz," and Kienzl has captivated the masses with
"Der Evangelimann," a work that is both dignified and uplifting in
spite of its eclectic appropriations from Meyerbeer, Wagner, Gounod,
and even Mascagni. Georg Schumann, also, is to be commended for the
"healthy" tendencies of his orchestral works, of which both the
symphonic chorale variations and the "Liebesfrühling" overture have
been heard in America.[80]
[Footnote 77: At the present moment Max Reger is exciting increased
comment by reason of his continued revolutionary ideas expressed
through the medium of the orchestra.]
[Footnote 78: Engelbert Humperdinck directed by invitation his opera
"Hänsel und Gretel" at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, during
the season 1905-1906.]
[Footnote 79: Ludwig Thuille died since the above lines were written.]
[Footnote 80: Gustav Mahler, from 1897 to 1907 director of the
Opera at Vienna, has of late invited comment throughout the musical
world because of the colossal form and daring orchestration of his
symphonies. His present activity in New York should give American
critics an excellent opportunity to estimate the importance of his
contributions to musical art. Leo Blech is commanding favorable
criticism particularly by his opera "Das war ich," while d'Albert's
highly effective operas "Die Abreise" and "Flauto solo" are being
performed on nearly every operatic stage in Germany. "Flauto solo"
is winning popularity only secondary, perhaps, to that of Lehár's
internationally favored operetta "Die lustige Witwe," which is at
present going the rounds of the United States under its Anglicized
title of "The Merry Widow."]
XV.
The reader will pardon the appendage of a few final remarks relating
to the progress of lighter German music during the nineteenth
century, for otherwise these records would not be complete. By
retracing a few of our steps we find that the more important
successors of Kreutzer (who was mentioned on page 73 of Chapter IX,
and lived from 1780 until 1849) were Lortzing, Nicolai, Flotow,
Suppé, and Johann Strauss junior. For charming originality and for
naturalness of expression Lortzing (1801) stands head and shoulders
above the remaining composers of this list. His works show the
unmistakable influence of Weber, and just this romantic tendency
accounts for the universal popularity of his "Czar und Zimmermann,"
this tendency being, moreover, still more marked in his best work:
"Die beiden Schützen." Nicolai (1810) wrote in the conventional
Italian style. "The Merry Wives of Windsor" is still one of the
popular comic operas of the day. Flotow (1812) earned notoriety
through "Stradella" and "Martha." His aims are not high, neither is
his music on a par with that of Lortzing; he displays, none the less,
a happy faculty for instilling warmth of sentiment into his works.
Suppé (1820) has acquired the nomenclature of "The German Offenbach"
by reason of his pleasing operettas and vaudeville. Johann Strauss
junior (1825) owes a world reputation to his sprightly "Fledermaus."
These are the men who have been instrumental in transplanting
the daintiness and refinement of modern light French opera into
indigenous German productions. The results have been directly
beneficial. Not only has this transplantation of exotic principles
tempered the general taste of the German public for an all too heavy
and sedate form of melodic and structural treatment, but quite
especially has German orchestration reacquired thereby much of that
lightness of touch it apparently had lost after the culmination of
Mozart's career. French instrumentation, in spite of certain of its
superficial tendencies, is assuredly a very important factor in the
evolution of orchestral music, and its continued development during
the second half of the nineteenth century affords a fruitful topic
for discussion as outlined in the next few pages.
(Summary on page 176.)