DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS
GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The study of the organs concerned with the
reproduction of the species is essential in order to acquire a knowledge of
their several functions. It is only through an understanding of these
functions that we can prepare ourselves to correctly recognize, and
successfully treat, or prevent, such diseases as may involve the organs of
generation. A knowledge of the structure and function of the generative
organs of the female is of greater importance from the standpoint of
disease, than is a similar knowledge of the generative organs of the male.
The female is concerned with the complete reproductive process, which may
be divided into four stages. These are _copulation_, _fecundation_,
_gestation_ and _parturition_. The male is concerned only with _copulation_
and _fertilization_ of the ovum by the spermatozoa, while the female must
protect and nourish the embryo and foetus until it has become sufficiently
developed to live independently of the protection and nourishment afforded
it within the womb. When the final stage of gestation is reached, birth or
the act of parturition occurs.
GENITAL ORGANS OF THE FEMALE.--The female generative organs are the
ovaries, fallopian tubules, uterus, vagina, vulva and mammary glands.
_The ovaries_ are analogous to the testicles of the male. Their function is
to secrete ova. This pair of glands is suspended from the superior region
(sublumbar) of the abdominal cavity by folds of the lining membrane.
Leading from the ovaries, but connected with the surface of these glands
only during the period of oestrum or heat, are the fallopian tubules. Their
function is to carry the ovum from the ovaries to the uterus.
_The uterus or womb_ is a membranous sack situated in the sublumbar region
and at the inlet to the pelvic cavity. It is held in position by numerous
folds of the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity. We may divide the
womb into three divisions, cornua, body and cervix.
The cornua or horns are long and cylindrical in shape. This portion of the
womb is greatly developed in animals, like the sow and bitch, that give
birth to several young. In the impregnated animal the wall of the cornua
that contains one or several foetuses, and the body as well, becomes
greatly thickened and the lining membrane more vascular.
The body is short in all domestic animals and connects the horns with the
cervix or neck. The latter is represented by a narrow portion that projects
backward into the vagina. In the cow the cervix is less prominent than in
the mare and the tissue that forms it, quite firm. In the cow the opening
in the cervix, the os, is very small.
_The vagina_ is a musculo-membranous canal that leads from the womb. In the
mare and cow it is about one foot in length. Its function is to take part
in copulation and parturition.
_The vulva_ is the external opening of the maternal passages. It shows a
vertical slit enclosed by lips, and interiorly it forms a passage that is
continuous with the vagina. This passage is about six inches long in the
larger animals. The different features that should be noted are the
clitoris, a small erectile organ located at the inferior portion of the
opening, the meatus urinaris, the external opening of the urethra, situated
in a depression in the floor of the vulva, and the hymen, an incomplete
membranous partition that may be found separating the vulva from the
vagina.
_The mammary glands or udders_ secrete the milk that nourishes the young.
The glands vary in number. The mare has two, the cow four (Fig. 17), the
ewe two and animals that give birth to several young, eight or more. Each
gland is surmounted by a teat or nipple. The glandular tissue consists of
caecal vesicles that form grape-like clusters around the milk tubules. The
milk tubules from the different portions of the gland converge and form
larger tubules that finally empty into small sinuses or reservoirs at the
base of the teat. Leading from these sinuses are one or several milk ducts
that open at the summit of the teat.
GENITAL ORGANS OF THE MALE.--The genital organs of the male are the
testicles, the ducts or canals leading from the testicles, the seminal
vesicles, the glands lying along the urethra, and the penis.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Photograph of model of udder of cow: milk duct;
milk sinuses; and glandular tissue.]
_The testicles_ are the glandular organs that secrete the spermatozoa, the
essential elements of the seminal fluid. These glands are lodged in the
scrotal sack, situated between the two thighs.
Lying along the superior border of the testicle is a mass of ducts, the
_epididymis_. The _vas deferens_ is the canal or duct that passes
from the epididymis to the region of the bladder and terminates near its
neck by emptying into the seminal vesicles.
_The seminal vesicles_ are two membranous pouches situated just above the
bladder. They act as receptacles for the seminal fluid. Two short ducts,
the _ejaculatory_, carry the seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles to the
urethra.
_The prostate gland_ is situated near the origin of the urethra. _Cowper's
glands_ lie along the course of the urethra and near the origin of the
penis. These glands empty their secretions into the urethra and dilute the
seminal fluid.
_The penis_ is the male organ of copulation. It originates at the arch of
the ischium and extends forward between the thighs. It may be divided into
fixed and free portions. The free portion is lodged in the prepuce or
sheath, but at the time of erection protrudes from it.
STERILITY, IMPOTENCY.--Fecundation does not always follow intercourse of
the male and female. Impotency in the male and sterility in the female
frequently occur.
_The causes_ are quite varied. A normal copulation may be impossible
because of injuries to, and deformities of, the parts and tumor growths.
Deformed genital organs and obstructions of the os by growths and scar
tissue are causes of sterility in the female.
Failure to breed is commonly caused by faulty methods of feeding and care.
Over-feeding and insufficient exercise may result in the body tissues
becoming loaded with fat. This may cause a temporary sterility, but if
persisted in, as is frequently the case in show animals, the sterility
becomes permanent because of the genital glands failing to secrete ova and
spermatozoa, or the lack of vitality of the male and female elements. Old
age and debility from disease or poor care may induce loss of sexual desire
and an absence of, or weakened spermatozoa in, the seminal fluid. The
refusal of the male to serve certain females is sometimes noted.
Tuberculosis may affect the ovaries and cause permanent sterility. In
inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb and vagina, the secretions
are abnormal and may collect in the womb and the passages leading to it.
These secretions destroy the vitality of the spermatozoa, and this
condition may be considered a common cause of sterility in the larger
animals. Many vigorous young males are made impotent by excessive
copulation. The excessive use of the male at any time may result in failure
to impregnate a large percentage of the females that he serves.
Barren females do not become pregnant after frequent intercourse with the
male. Young sterile females may not come in heat. Sometimes unnatural
periods of heat are manifested, the animal coming in heat frequently or
remaining in heat for a longer period than usual. This sometimes occurs in
tuberculosis of the ovaries. In chronic inflammation of the maternal
passage there is more or less discharge from the vulva. Both sexes may be
overly fat or weakened and debilitated by disease. Deformity of the
generative organs and growths may be found on making an examination.
Absence of, or lack of vitality of the spermatozoa may be determined by
microscopic examination of the seminal fluid.
_The treatment_ is largely preventive. It is very important that breeding
animals be kept in proper physical condition by avoiding the feeding of too
heavy or too light a ration, and allowing them sufficient exercise. The
male is more often affected by the latter cause than the female. This is
because the average stockman does not consider exercise given under the
right conditions an important factor in maintaining the vigor of the male.
Young males should not be given excessive intercourse with the female. Such
practice is certain to seriously affect the potency of the animal. The
excessive use of the stallion can be avoided by practising artificial
impregnation of a part of the mares that he is called to serve. Sterility
caused by growths and closure of the os may be corrected by an operation.
Chronic inflammation of the maternal passages should be treated by
irrigating the parts with a one per cent warm water solution of lysol, or
liquor cresolis compound. The parts should be irrigated daily for as long a
period as necessary. Fat animals should be subjected to a rigid diet and
given plenty of exercise. Following this treatment a stimulating ration may
be fed for the purpose of encouraging the sexual desire. In weak and
debilitated animals, the cause should first be removed and a proper ration
fed. Cantharides and strychnine are the drugs most highly recommended for
increasing the sexual desire.
SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.--The signs which characterize pregnancy are numerous
and varied. For convenience we may classify the many signs of pregnancy
under two heads, probable and positive. Under the head of probable signs,
we may group the following symptoms of pregnancy: cessation of heat;
changes in the animal's disposition; increase in the volume of the abdomen
and tendency to put on fat. The positive signs are the change in the volume
of the udder; the secretion of milk; the movement of the foetus and
presence of the foetus in the womb, as determined by rectal examination or
by the feel of the abdomen.
_The probable signs_ are not reliable, and should be considered only in
connection with some positive sign. Persons who base their opinion of the
condition of an animal that is supposed to be pregnant on probable signs,
are frequently mistaken. It has frequently happened that animals whose
condition was not at all certain have given birth to young, without giving
rise to what may be termed characteristic probable signs.
The earliest probable symptom is the cessation of heat. In the large
pregnant animals, irregular heat periods may occur, but in the majority of
cases we may safely consider the animal impregnated if several heat periods
are passed over.
It has been generally observed that the disposition of the pregnant animal
is changed. They become more quiet and less nervous and irritable. The
tendency of pregnant animals to put on fat is frequently taken advantage of
by the stockman, who may allow the boar to run with the herd during the
latter period of fattening.
The increase in the volume of the abdomen may be considered a _positive_
sign of pregnancy in the small animals, but in the mare and cow it can not
be depended on. Animals that are pregnant for the first time, do not show
as great an increase in the volume of the abdomen as do animals that have
gone through successive pregnant periods. The volume of the abdomen may
vary greatly in the different individuals, and can not be depended on as a
positive indication of pregnancy during the first two-thirds of the period
of pregnancy in the larger domestic animals.
Comparatively early in pregnancy, the presence of a foetus can be
determined by feeling the uterus through the wall of the rectum. In the
small domestic animals the feeling of the abdomen gives the best results.
In the cow this method of diagnosis is practised during the latter periods
of pregnancy. The examiner stands with his back toward the animal's head,
and on the right side of the cow and the left side of the mare. The palm of
the hand is applied against the abdominal wall, about eight or ten inches
in front of the stifle and just below the flank. Moderate pressure is used,
and if a hard, voluminous mass is felt, or if the foetus moves, it is a
sure sign that the animal is pregnant. It is not uncommon for the foetus to
show some movement in the morning, or after the animal drinks freely of
cold water. The increase in the volume of the udder occurs at a
comparatively early period in animals that are pregnant for the first time.
The secretion of milk and the dropping of the muscles of the quarters
indicate that parturition is near. The Abderhalden test for determining
whether or not an animal is pregnant is now practised.
HYGIENE OF PREGNANT ANIMALS.--Pregnant animals that are confined in a
pasture that is free from injurious weeds and not too rough or hilly, and
where the animals have access to clean water and the necessary shelter,
seldom suffer from an abnormal birth. Here they live under the most
favorable conditions for taking exercise, securing a suitable diet and
avoiding injury. It may not be possible in managing breeding animals to
provide such surroundings at all times, but we should observe every
possible hygienic precaution, especially if the animal has reached the
later periods of pregnancy.
All pregnant animals are inclined to be lazy, but, if permitted, will take
the necessary exercise. Pregnant mares are usually worked. Such exercise
does no harm, providing the work is not hard or of an unusual character.
Cows are usually subject to more natural conditions than other domestic
animals.
Protecting pregnant animals against injuries resulting from crowding,
slipping and fighting is an important part of their care. Injuries from
crowding together in the sleeping quarters and about feeding-troughs, or
through doors and climbing over low partitions are common causes of injury
in pregnant sows. Crowding together in the stable or yard, or through
doorways, fighting, and slipping on floors, or icy places sometimes results
in injury. It is rare, however, for cows to abort from an injury, but
parturition may not be completely free from disagreeable complications.
Under the conditions mentioned retention of the fetal membranes is common.
Ewes frequently suffer from too close confinement during late winter. Sows
are often subject to the most unhygienic conditions. This is shown in the
heavy death-rate in sows and pigs. During the late winter and early spring
the conditions may be such as not to permit of exercise. Stormy, snowy,
muddy weather is common at this season of the year. Persons caring for ewes
and sows should see that they take sufficient exercise. It may be necessary
to drive them about for a short time each day. At such times it may be
advisable to give them a laxative dose of oil, or give a laxative with the
feed. When there is any indication of constipation, this should be
practised.
Pregnant animals should be fed carefully. We may feed animals that are not
in this condition in a careless fashion, but if pregnant, over-feeding, the
feeding of a fattening ration, or spoiled feed, and sudden changes in the
feed can not be practised with any degree of safety. A bulky ration of dry
feed and drinking impure, or too little, water may cause constipation,
acute indigestion and abortion. The ration fed should contain the necessary
inorganic and organic elements for the building up of the body tissues of
the foetus.
At the end of the parturition period, separate quarters should be provided.
The mare or cow should be given a comfortable clean stall away from the
other animals. The ewe should be provided with a warm room if the weather
is cold. It is always best to give the sow a separate pen that is dry and
clean, and away from the other animals. All danger from injury to the
mother and young should be guarded against.
ABORTION.--The expulsion of the foetus at any time during the period of
gestation, when it is not sufficiently developed to live independently of
the mother, is termed abortion. Abortion may be either _accidental_ or
_infectious_. Accidental abortion is more commonly met with in the mare and
sow than the infectious form. In ruminants the opposite holds true.
_The causes of accidental abortion_ are faulty methods of feeding and care.
Injuries, acute indigestion, mouldy, spoiled feeds, chilling resulting from
exposure and drinking ice-cold water, nervousness brought on by fright, or
excitement and general diseases are the common causes of abortion.
_Infectious abortion_ is most common in cows. Other domestic animals that
may be affected are the mare, sow and ewe.
_It is caused_ by a specific germ. The _Bacillus abortus_ of Bang is the
cause of abortion in cows, but the specific germ that produces abortion in
other species of animals has not been proven. In this country, Keer, Good,
Giltner and others have proven that the Bang bacillus of abortion is
infectious for other species of animals, and outbreaks of this disease have
been said to occur among breeding ewes pastured and fed on infected
premises. Its infectiousness for the females of other species has never
been proven in natural outbreaks.
The disease-producing germs are present in the body of the foetus, the
fetal membranes, the discharge from the maternal passages, the faeces and
milk of aborting animals. The male may carry the infection in the sheath,
urethra and on the penis. The natural avenues of infection are the maternal
passages and digestive tract.
It is very seldom that abortion is carried from one herd to another by
means other than through the breeding of animals free from abortion to
animals affected by this disease. The purchase of a bull or cow from an
infected herd and breeding them to animals that are free from disease, is a
common method of spreading the disease. After serving the diseased animal,
the male may carry the bacillus of abortion into the maternal passages of
the next cow he serves. There are numerous cases on record where the bull
was a permanent carrier of the Bacillus abortus and infected nearly every
animal served. The distribution of the disease in the herd following the
introduction of a cow, sow, or ewe that has aborted before or after being
purchased, takes place through contact of the other animals with the virus
that may be present on the floor, or in the manure, or by taking the virus
into the digestive tract along with the feed and drinking water.
Experimental evidence indicates the latter avenue of infection.
The stallion is the most common source of infectious abortion in mares. An
infected stallion may distribute the disease to a large percentage of the
mares that he serves. For this reason nearly all of the mares in a certain
locality may abort.
In case the infection occurs at the time of service, the abortion usually
takes place during the first half of the period of pregnancy. Cows that
become pregnant without recovering from the inflammation of the lining
membrane of the genital tract, may abort at a very early period. McFadyean
and Stockman from the artificially inoculated cases of infectious abortion
in cows, showed that the period of incubation averaged 126 days.
_The symptoms of accidental abortion_ are extremely variable. Animals that
abort during the early periods of pregnancy may show so little disturbance,
that the animal can be treated as if nothing had happened. During the
latter half of pregnancy, and especially when the accident is caused by an
injury, the symptoms are more serious. Loss of appetite, dulness,
restlessness, abdominal pain and haemorrhage are the symptoms commonly
noted. If the foetus is dead, it may be necessary to assist the animal in
expelling it. In the latter case, death of the mother may occur.
A slight falling of the flanks, swelling of the lips of the vulva and a
retention of the fetal membranes, or discharge from the vulva may be the
only symptoms noted at the time abortion occurs.
_The symptoms of infectious abortion_ vary in the different periods of
pregnancy. At an early period, the foetus may be passed with so little
evidence of labor that the animal pays little attention to it. The
recurrence of heat may be the first intimation of the abortion. All cases
of abortion are followed by more or less discharge from the vulva. This is
especially true if the fetal membranes are retained. In such cases, the
discharge has a very disagreeable odor. In most cases the foetus is dead.
When born alive, it is weak and puny, and usually dies or is destroyed
within a few days. When the attendant fails to give the animal the
necessary attention, or is careless in his manipulation of the parts,
inflammation of the womb, caused by the decomposition of the retained
membranes, or the introduction of irritating germs on the ropes,
instruments and hands, may occur. Death commonly follows this complication.
It is very important that the infectious form be diagnosed early in the
outbreak. For all practical purposes we are justified in diagnosing
infectious abortion, if several animals in the herd abort, especially if it
follows the introduction of new animals. Methods of serum diagnosis, the
agglutination and complement-fixation tests, are now used in the diagnosis
of this disease.
_The preventive treatment_ of the accidental form consists in avoiding
conditions that may result in this accident. Pregnant animals should not be
exposed to injuries from other animals or from the surroundings. Animals
which show a predisposition to abort should not be bred. We should see that
all animals receive the necessary exercise and a proper ration.
If the animal indicates by her actions that abortion may take place, we
should give her comfortable, quiet quarters. It is very necessary to keep
her quiet, and if restless, morphine may be given. A very light diet should
be fed and constipation prevented by administering a laxative. The
necessary attention should be given in case abortion occurs.
The enforcement of _preventive_ or _quarantine measures_ is very important
in the control of infectious abortion. This is especially true of breeding
herds and dairy cows. Breeders do not recognize the importance of keeping
their herds clean or free from disease. It is a well-known fact among
stockmen that abortion and other infectious diseases have been frequently
introduced into the herd through the purchase of one or more breeding
animals. Because of the prevalence of infectious abortion among cows, it is
advisable to subject newly purchased breeding animals, or a cow that has
been bred outside of the herd, to a short quarantine period before allowing
them to mix with the herd. The breeding of cows from neighboring herds to
the herd bull is not a safe practice. In communities where there are
outbreaks of this disease, animals that abort, or show indications of
aborting, should be quarantined for a period of from two to three months.
The separation from the herd should be so complete as to eliminate any
danger of carrying the disease to the healthy animals on the clothing and
farm tools. If this method of control were practised at the very beginning
of the outbreaks, the disease could be checked in the large majority of
herds.
The foetus and membranes should be destroyed by burning. In case the animal
does not pass the fetal membranes, they should be completely removed. In
the cow, it is advisable to wait twenty-four hours before doing this. The
animal's stall should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. It is very
advisable to give the entire stable a thorough disinfecting. For this
purpose a three or four per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound
may be used. It is advisable to apply it with a spray pump. The floor and
feed troughs should be sprinkled daily with the disinfectant. All manure
should be removed to a place where the animals can not come in contact with
it. It is not advisable to confine the cows to a small yard. The more range
they have the easier it is to control the disease.
_Individual treatment_ is very necessary. In infectious abortion the mucous
lining of the womb and the passages leading to it become inflamed. This
should be treated by irrigating the parts with a warm water solution of a
disinfectant that is non-irritating. This treatment should be repeated
daily for a period of from two to four weeks. We must be very careful not
to irritate the parts. A one-half per cent water solution of liquor
cresolis compound may be used.
Animals that abort should not be bred until they have completely recovered.
Small animals that have no special value as breeding animals should be
marketed. Cows and mares should not be bred for a period of at least three
months.
Infected males should not be used for service. The male should receive the
necessary attention in the way of irrigating the sheath before and after
each service.
PHYSIOLOGY OF PARTURITION.--Parturition or birth, when occurring in the
mare, is designated as foaling; in the cow, calving; in the sheep, lambing;
and in the sow, farrowing. A normal or natural birth occurs when no
complications are present and the mother needs no assistance. When the act
is complicated and prolonged, it is termed abnormal birth. The length of
time required for different individuals of the same species to give birth
to their young varies widely. It may require but a few minutes, or be
prolonged for a day or more. The cause of this variation in the length of
time required for different animals to bring forth their young, can be
better understood if we study the anatomy of the parts and their functions.
Throughout the pregnant period the _expulsion of the foetus_ is being
prepared for. As the foetus develops there is a corresponding development
of the muscular wall of the womb. The last period of pregnancy is
characterized by the relaxation of the muscles and ligaments that form the
pelvic walls, and a relaxation and dilation of the maternal passages. In
addition, degenerative changes occur in the structures that attach the
foetus to the womb, the normal structures being gradually destroyed by a
fatty degeneration. This results in a separation between the fetal and
maternal placenta. The contents of the womb begin to affect the organ in
the same manner as a foreign body, irritating the nerve endings and
producing contractions of the muscles. These contractions of the muscles
help greatly in breaking down the attachments until finally the labor pains
begin in earnest, and the foetus is gradually forced out of the womb,
through the dilated os and into the vagina and vulva.
_A normal birth_ is possible, only when the expelling power of the womb is
able to overcome the resistance offered by the foetus and its membranes,
the pelvic walls and the vagina and vulva.
[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Photograph of model of uterus of cow containing a
foetus: foetus; umbilical cord; placenta; horn containing foetus; and
opposite horn. Note the difference in the development of the two horns.]
The relative size of the foetus to the inlet of the pelvic cavity and its
position are the most important factors for the veterinarian and stockman
to consider (Fig. 18). On leaving the womb, the foetus passes into the
vagina and vulva. This portion of the maternal passages is situated in the
pelvic cavity which continues the abdominal cavity posteriorly. The pelvic
walls are formed by bones and ligaments that are covered by heavy muscles.
As previously mentioned, the ligaments and muscles relax toward the end of
pregnancy in order to prepare the way for the passage of the foetus. Before
entering the pelvis it is necessary for the foetus to be forced through the
inlet to this cavity. This is the most difficult part of the birth, as the
bones that form the framework of the pelvis completely enclose the entrance
to it. It is only in the young mother that the pelvic bones give way
slightly to the pressure on them by the foetus. It can be readily
understood, that when the young is large in proportion to the diameter of
the pelvic inlet, it is difficult for it to pass through. This occurs when
mothers belonging to a small breed, are impregnated by a sire belonging to
a large breed of animals. It may also occur if the mother is fed too
fattening a ration and not permitted sufficient exercise.
The part of the foetus that presents itself for entrance into the pelvic
cavity and its position are of the greatest importance in giving birth to
the young. Either end of the foetus, or its middle portion may be presented
for entrance. The _anterior_ and _posterior presentations_ may be modified
by the position that the foetus assumes. It may be in a position that
places the back or vertebrae opposite the upper portion of the inlet, or
the floor or sides of the pelvic cavity. These positions may be modified by
the position of one or both limbs, or the head and neck being directed
forwards instead of backwards. In the _transverse presentations_, the back,
or the feet and abdomen of the foetus may present themselves for entrance
to the pelvic cavity. These presentations may show three positions each.
The head may be opposite the upper walls of the inlet, the foetus assuming
a dog-sitting position, or it may lie on either side.
In order to overcome the friction between the foetus and the wall of the
maternal passages, these parts are lubricated by the fluids that escape
from the "water bags." If birth is prolonged and the passages become dry,
birth is retarded. The hair offers some resistance in a posterior
presentation. Young mares that become hysterical have abnormal labor pains
that seem to hold the foetus in the womb instead of expelling it.
CARE OF THE MOTHER AND YOUNG.--Although birth is generally easy in the
different domestic animals, it may be difficult and complicated, and it is
of the greatest economic importance that special attention be given the
mother at this time. It is very necessary for her to be free if confined in
a stall. If running in a pasture or lot, the necessary shelter from storms,
cold or extreme heat should be provided. Other farm animals, such as hogs,
horses and cattle, should not be allowed to run in the same lot or pasture.
When parturition commences, the mother should be kept under close
observation. If the labor is difficult and prolonged, we may then examine
the parts and determine the cause of the abnormal birth. Unnecessary
meddling is not advisable. Before attempting this examination, the hands
should be cleaned and disinfected, and the finger nails shortened if
necessary. The different conditions to be determined are the nature of the
labor pains, the condition of the maternal passages, and the position and
presentation of the foetus. In the smaller animals this examination may be
difficult. In prolonged labor the parts may be found dry and the labor
pains violent and irregular, or weak. The foetus may be jammed tightly into
the pelvic inlet, it may be well forward in the womb, the head and fore or
hind limbs may be directed backwards, or one or more of these parts may be
directed forward in such a position as to prevent the entrance of the
foetus into the pelvic inlet. Sometimes the foetus is in a transverse
position. The parts that present themselves at the pelvic inlet should be
carefully examined and their position determined. The necessary assistance
should then be given. Any delay in assisting in the birth may result in the
death of the young or mother, or both. On the other hand, unintelligent
meddling may aggravate the case and render treatment difficult or
impossible. There is no line of veterinary work that requires the attention
of a skilled veterinarian more than assisting an irregular or abnormal
birth.
The attendant must guard against infecting the parts with irritating germs,
or irritating and injuring them in any way. The hands, instruments, and
cords must be freed from germs by washing with a disinfectant, or
sterilization with heat. The quarters must be clean in order to prevent
contamination of the instruments and clothing of the attendant by filth.
Extreme force is injurious. For illustration, we may take a case of
difficult birth caused by an unusually large foetus. Both presentation and
position are normal, the forefeet and head having entered the pelvic
cavity, but the shoulders and chest are jammed tightly in the inlet, and
the progress of the foetus along the maternal passages is retarded. By
using sufficient force, we may succeed in delivering the young, but by
pulling on one limb until the shoulder has entered the pelvis, and
repeating this with the opposite limb we are able to deliver the young
without exposing the mother to injury. It may be necessary to change an
abnormal presentation, or position, to a normal presentation, or as nearly
normal as possible. This should be done before any attempt is made to
remove the foetus.
Following birth the mother should not be unnecessarily disturbed. The
quarters should be clean, well bedded and ventilated, but free from
draughts. If the parturition has been normal, a small quantity of easily
digested feed may be fed. If weak and feverish, feed should be withheld for
at least twelve hours. The mare should be rested for a few weeks. The young
needs no special attention if it is strong and vigorous, but if weak, it
may be necessary to support it while nursing, or milk the mother and feed
it by hand. If the mother is nervous and irritable, it may be necessary to
remove the young temporarily to a place where she can hear and see it,
until a time when she can be induced to care for it. The principal
attention required for young pigs is protection against being crushed by
the mother. The cutting off and ligation of the umbilical cord at a point a
few inches from the abdomen, and applying tincture of iodine or any
reliable disinfectant is very advisable in the colt and calf.
RETENTION OF THE FETAL MEMBRANES.--The foetus is enveloped by several
layers of membranes. The _external envelope, the chorion_, is exactly
adapted to the uterus. The _innermost envelope, the amnion_, encloses the
foetus. Covering the external face of the amnion and lining the inner face
of the chorion is a double membrane, _the allantois_. The envelopes
mentioned are not the only protection that the foetus has against injury.
It is enveloped in fluids as well. Immediately surrounding it is the
_liquor amnii_, and within allantois is the _allantoic fluid._
[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Placenta of cow.]
_The placenta_ is a highly vascular structure spread out or scattered over
the surface of the chorion and the mucous membrane of the uterus, that
attaches the foetus and its envelopes to the womb (Fig. 19). It is by means
of this vascular apparatus that the foetus is furnished with nourishment.
The fetal and maternal placentas are made up of vascular villi and
depressions that are separated only by the thin walls of capillaries, and a
layer of epithelial cells. This permits a change of material between the
fetal and maternal circulation. The arrangement of the placenta differs in
the different species. In the mare and sow, the villi are diffused. In
ruminants, the villi are grouped at certain points. These vascular masses
are termed cotyledons. The maternal cotyledons or "buttons" form appendages
or thickened points that become greatly enlarged in the pregnant animal.
Toward the end of the pregnant period, the attachments between the fetal
and maternal placentulae undergo a fatty degeneration and finally separate.
This results in contractions of the muscular wall of the uterus, and the
expulsion of the foetus and its envelopes. In the mare, it is not uncommon
for the colt to be born with the covering intact. This does not occur in
the cow. Usually the envelopes are not expelled until a short time after
birth in all animals, and it is not uncommon for them to be retained. This
complication is most commonly met with in the cow.
In the mare the _retention of the fetal envelopes_ or "afterbirth" is
commonly due to the muscles of the womb not contracting properly following
birth. Abortion, especially the infectious form, is commonly complicated by
a retention of the fetal membranes. Any condition that may produce an
inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb may result in retention of
the "after-birth." Injuries to the uterus resulting from the animal
slipping, fighting and becoming crowded are, no doubt, common causes of
failure to "clean" in cows.
_The symptoms_ are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made. A
portion of the membranes is usually seen hanging from the vulva, and the
tail and hind parts may be more or less soiled. The latter symptom is
especially prominent if the membranes have been retained for several days,
and decomposition has begun. In such case, the discharge from the vulva is
dark in color, contains small pieces of the decomposed membrane and has a
very disagreeable odor. In the mare, acute inflammation of the womb may
result if the removal of the "after-birth" is neglected. Loss of appetite,
abnormal body temperature, weakness and diarrhoea may follow. Such cases
usually terminate in death. Retention of the fetal membranes is a very
common cause of leucorrhoea.
_The treatment_ consists in removing the fetal envelopes before there is
any opportunity for them to undergo decomposition. In the mare, this should
be practised within a few hours after birth has occurred, and in other
animals, from one to forty-eight hours. In warm stables and during the warm
weather, treatment should not be postponed later than twenty-four hours.
The only successful method of treatment is to introduce the hand and arm
into the uterus, and break down the attachments with the fingers. In the
larger animals, the use of the arm must not be interfered with by clothing.
Every possible precaution should be taken to prevent infection of the
genital organs with irritating germs. It is advisable in most cases to
flush out the womb with a one per cent water solution of liquor cresolis
compound after the removal of the fetal envelopes.
LEUCORRHOEA.--This is a chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane lining
the genital tract, that is associated with more or less of a discharge from
the vulva. It is common in animals that abort, or retain the "after-birth."
The discharge may be white, sticky, albuminous, and without odor, or it may
be chocolate colored and foul smelling. The tail and hind parts are usually
soiled with it. In chronic inflammation of the womb the discharge is
intermittent. In mild cases the health of the animal is in no way impaired.
Sterility is common. Loss of appetite and unthriftiness occur in severe
cases.
_Treatment_.--Mild cases readily yield to treatment. This consists in
irrigating the maternal passages with a one-half per cent warm water
solution of liquor cresolis compound. This treatment should be repeated
daily and continued for as long a time as necessary.
MAMMITIS.--Inflammation of the mammary gland or udder is more common in the
cow than in any of the other domestic animals. In all animals it is most
frequently met with during the first few weeks after birth.
_A predisposing cause_ in the development of mammitis is a high development
of the mammary glands. The following _direct causes_ may be mentioned:
incomplete milking, or milking at irregular intervals; injury to the udder
by stepping on the teat; blows from the horns and pressure caused by lying
on a rough, uneven surface; chilling of the udder by draughts and lying on
frozen ground; and infection of the glandular tissue by _irritating germs_.
The latter cause produces the most serious, and, sometimes, a very
extensive inflammation. This form of inflammation may spread from one cow
to another, causing the milk to be unfit for food, and bringing about the
loss of one or more quarters of the udder.
_The symptoms_ occurring in the different forms of mammitis differ. The
inflammation may involve one or more of the glands, and may affect either
the glandular or the connective tissue. In some cases the gland may appear
congested for a few days before the inflammatory changes occur. The part
becomes hot, swollen, tender and reddened. It may feel doughy or hard. If
the connective tissue is involved (interstitial form), there is apt to be a
high body temperature, the udder may be much larger than normal, is tender
and pits on pressure. Loss of appetite usually accompanies this form of
mammitis. Very little or no milk is secreted. Sometimes, the milk is
greatly changed in appearance, is foul smelling and contains pus. In
congestion of the udder and rupture of the capillary vessels, the milk may
contain blood.
Mild inflammation of the udder responds readily to treatment. The
interstitial form may terminate in abscesses and gangrene. The replacement
of the glandular tissue by fibrous tissue in one or more quarters is not
uncommon. Death seldom occurs.
_The preventive treatment_ consists in avoiding conditions that may favor
or cause an inflammation of the gland. Animals that have highly developed
mammary glands should be fed a light diet just before and following
parturition. Following parturition, a dose of Epsom or Glauber's salts may
be given. If the young does not take all the milk, the udder should be
milked out as clean as possible. Massaging the udder by kneading or
stroking may be practised.
The following _treatment_ is recommended: The application of a thick
coating of antiphlogistin once or twice daily is a useful remedy. If the
udder becomes badly swollen, it should be supported with a bandage.
Extensive inflammation may be treated by the application of cold in the
form of packs of cracked ice. Irrigating the gland with a four per cent
water solution of boric acid is an important treatment for certain forms of
mammitis. Abscess formation or suppuration should be promptly treated by
opening and treating the abscesses. If gangrene occurs, it may be necessary
to remove a part, or the whole of the udder.
The giving of milk discolored with blood may be treated by applying
camphorated ointment twice daily.
SORE AND WARTY TEATS.--Irritation to the teats by filth, cold, moisture and
injuries cause the skin to become inflamed, sore and scabby.
_Preventive treatment_ is the most satisfactory. Sore teats may be treated
by applying the following ointment after each milking: vaseline ten parts
and oxide of zinc one part. Pendulous warts may be clipped off with a sharp
pair of scissors. Castor oil applied to the wart daily by rubbing may be
used for the removal of flat warts.
"MILK-FEVER" OR POST-PARTUM PARALYSIS.--This is a disease peculiar to cows,
especially heavy milkers that are in good condition. It most commonly
occurs after the third, fourth and fifth calving. The disease usually
appears within the first two or three days after calving, but it has been
known to occur before, and as late as several weeks after calving. The
cause is not certainly known. The Schmidt theory is that certain toxins are
formed in the udder, owing to the over activity of the cells of the
glandular tissue.
[Illustration: FIG. 20.--A case of milk-fever.]
_The symptoms_ are characteristic of the disease. At the very beginning of
the attack the cow stops eating and ruminating, becomes uneasy, switches
the tail, stamps the feet, trembles, staggers when forced to walk and
finally falls and is unable to get up. At first she may lie in a natural
position; later, as the paralytic symptoms become more pronounced, the head
is laid against the side of the body and the animal seems to be in a deep
sleep (Fig. 20). In the more severe form the cow lies on her side,
consciousness is lost and the paralysis of the muscles is marked. The
different body functions are interfered with; the urine is retained,
bloating occurs, respirations are slow, pulse weak and temperature
subnormal or normal.
_Preventive treatment_, such as feeding a spare diet during the latter
period of pregnancy, is not always advisable. Heavy milkers should be given
one-half pound of Glauber's salts a day or two before calving, and the dose
repeated when the cow becomes fresh. Cows affected with milk-fever seldom
die if treated promptly.
The _treatment_ consists in emptying the udder by milking and injecting air
or oxygen gas into the gland until it is completely distended (Fig. 21).
The milk-fever apparatus should be clean, and the air injected filtered.
Before introducing the milking tube into the milk duct, the udder should
first be washed with a disinfectant, and a clean towel laid on the floor
for the gland to rest on. After injecting the quarter, strips of muslin or
tape should be tied around the ends of the teats to prevent the escape of
the air. If the cow does not show indications of recovery in from four to
five hours, the treatment should be repeated.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Milk-fever apparatus: pump; filter; rubber tubing;
and milk tube.]
It is very necessary to give the cow a comfortable stall and protect her
from any kind of exposure. No bulky drenches should be administered. If she
lies stretched out, the fore parts should be raised by packing straw under
her. This is necessary in order to prevent pneumonia, caused by
regurgitated feed entering the air passages and lungs. It is very advisable
to give her the following mixture for a few days after the attack: tincture
of nux vomica two ounces, and alcohol six ounces. One ounce of this mixture
may be given four times daily in a little water.
QUESTIONS
1. Name the generative organs of the female.
2. Name the generative organs of the male.
3. Give the causes of sterility or impotency in the male and female.
4. Give the treatment of impotency in the male and female.
5. Describe the probable signs of pregnancy; positive signs of pregnancy.
6. Describe the hygienic care of the pregnant female in a general way.
7. Name the different forms of abortion; give the causes.
8. Describe the preventive treatment of infectious abortion.
9. Give a general discussion of the physiology of parturition.
10. What are the common causes of difficult birth?
11. What parts of the foetus may present themselves at the inlet of the
pelvic cavity? What are the different positions of the foetus?
12. What attention should be given the mother at the time of parturition?
13. What attention should be given the young immediately after birth?
14. Give the causes of retention of the fetal membranes; state the method
of removing them.
15. Give the causes and treatment of inflammation of the udder.
16. Give the cause of milk-fever; give the treatment.