Dance Tunes Grow Up—Suites—Violin Makers of Cremona
In our range of musical mountains, we see just ahead of us one of the
mightiest giants of them all, Johann Sebastian Bach, dwarfing everything
around it and we must resist the temptation of skipping all the smaller
mountains, for there is no musical aeroplane by means of which we can
fly across and land safely on Mt. Bach. This grand old mountain, Bach,
is such a tremendous landmark in the growth of music, that when we reach
it we realize that everything that we have passed has been a journey of
preparation. Bach is not the only peak, for there are Mozart, Haydn,
Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, Wagner and others who stand out
against the musical horizon.
Before coming to Bach, however, we must bridge over the time when music
was still in its youth in the 16th and 17th centuries, to when it became
full grown and mature in the 18th. Music has now come of age: it has
perfected scales, notation, and developed form and instruments; it is
ready to go into the world and take its place with painting, sculpture,
poetry, drama and architecture as a full grown art!
Nothing through which music has passed has been lost, but it has been
built like the great Egyptian Pyramids by adding one huge block on top
of another. It has gone from the noise of primitive man with his drum,
to the attempts of the savage to sing and to make crude instruments, to
the music of the ancient nations in their religious ceremonies and
entertainments, to the Arab singer who handed his art to the western
world through the troubadours, to the people of all times and nations
who danced and sang for the joy of it. It passed from the Greek drama
and music schools where definite scales and modes were formed, to the
early Christian Church which kept it alive during the Dark Ages and
gradually invented ways to write it, and later to the “Golden Age” of
the Catholic Church. It had seen the rise of schools and the perfection
of the polyphonic system give way to the recitative and the aria, which
in turn brought about opera, oratorio, and instrumental music. It has
seen counterpoint give way to harmony, and yet the growth of music is
not complete and never will be, but constantly new forms will blossom
out of the old.
The 15th and 16th centuries were vocal. The 17th was instrumental and
opened the way for so-called modern music, that is, for Bach’s
compositions and all that followed.
BIRTH OF CHAMBER MUSIC
Gabrieli in the 16th century in Venice, sometimes wrote madrigals for
instruments instead of for voices, and he added instruments to accompany
the motets and masses (page 157); this led to composing works for groups
of instruments instead of playing madrigals that had been composed for
voices. The English often wrote on their compositions, “fit for voices
and for viols.” After they once started playing the part songs on viols,
the composers soon found out that they could write more interesting and
more difficult things for instruments than they could for voices; this
led to the writing of very florid music for instruments alone. This
florid part-writing, not unlike the Gloss of the Arabs, and the
improvisations of the soloists in the early Catholic Church, soon became
so overloaded with trills, fancy turns and runs that it had to be
reformed again.
In the 17th century, the lute, the popular instrument of the court and
the home for so many years, even centuries, suddenly found its rival in
the little keyboard instrument called the _spinet_ and _virginal_ in
England, and the _clavecin_ in France. In Italy and France, as in
England, there were famous performers and composers for these
instruments, and many volumes of charming music were written for it.
DANCE TUNES GROW UP INTO SUITES
One of the first requirements of art works of all kinds is contrast. The
line and the curve are found in primitive art, light must have shadow,
one wing of a building must have another to balance it, and a slow
serious piece of music is usually followed by a gay one for contrast.
The Arabs understood this law of contrast, for in their ancient songs we
find the seed of a form that has been most important in the growth of
music. They made little suites by putting two, three, four or more songs
together; each song had its mode, and one would be slow and sad, and the
next fast and gay. The principal music of the 17th century was the
Suite, a group of pieces which had grown out of the old folk dances.
(Chapter IX.) The 17th century composers, like the Arabs, feeling the
need of contrast, strung several of these dances together to form the
Suite. So Suites were written for clavecins and harpsichords, for
violins alone and for organs, for groups of stringed instruments and
other chamber music combinations. Some of these dances were in duple
time, some in triple; some were slow and some were fast; some were
stately and some gay. The different pieces forming a suite, had to be
written in the same key. These suites were known by different names in
different countries, such as _partitas_, _exercises_, _lessons_, _sonate
da camera_, _ordres_. In England the name _suite_ was given to this
form, then the Germans adopted it, and later the great Bach wrote suites
which he also called _partitas_. In Italy, the suite was called _sonata
da camera_ (chamber sonata) and _sonata da chiesa_ (church sonata) and
out of all this have grown the very important sonata, symphony and
chamber music quartet, trio, quintet, etc.
Here are some of the dance forms used in the suite:
Allemande (duple time or measure: moderately slow), Sarabande (triple
time: slow, stately), Loure (duple time: slow), Gavotte (duple time:
moderately fast), Musette (duple time: moderately fast), Bourrée (duple
time: a little faster than the Gavotte), Minuet (triple time: moderately
fast), Passepied (triple time: a fast minuet), Rigaudon (duple time:
slower than the Bourrée), Tambourin (duple time: fast), Pavan (duple
time: rather slow), Courante, Corrente (triple time: fast), Chaconne
(triple time: moderately fast), Passacaglia (like Chaconne, but more
stately) and Gigue (sometimes duple and sometimes triple time: very
fast: almost always the last movement of a suite).
The Italians of the 17th century wrote suites, and Italy still held the
place as leading the world in musical composition, just as it had in the
15th and 16th. We find the names of Frescobaldi, Michelangelo Rossi,
Legrenzi, Bononcini, Giovanni Battista Vitali, Alessandro Scarlatti and
his son Domenico, and going over into the seventeen-hundreds, Niccolo
Porpora, Padre Martini, Paradies, and Baldassare Galuppi, whom we know
through Robert Browning’s poem, _A Toccata of Galuppi’s_. Most of these
names you will find on the concert programs of today.
“SERIOUS” SCARLATTI AND OPERA WRITERS
Alessandro Scarlatti (1659–1725) is one of the most important Italian
composers of the 17th century, and although he did not have great
success during his lifetime, his compositions have outlived those of
other writers, whose works were popular during his day. He was called
“serious Scarlatti,” and it was probably the very seriousness with which
he looked upon his work that made him write without seeking public
approval. Besides composing pieces for the spinet and harpsichord, and
symphonies, sonatas, suites and concertos for different instruments, he
wrote 125 operas, and over 500 cantatas, oratorios and church music. He
was one of several Italians who continued the work of the first opera
writers. Francesco Cavalli (1599–1676), Giacomo Carissimi (1603–1674),
Luigi Rossi, Marc Antonio Cesti (1628–1669), Francesco Provenzale
(1610–1704), Stradella (1645–1682), Caldara (1670–1736), Lotti
(1667–1740), Marcello (1686–1739), Leo (1694–1746), and others carried
the ideas of Scarlatti into the 18th century. Many of these carried
Italian opera into England, Germany and France, where it became the
model for _their_ opera.
Stradella is quite as famous for his romantic love story, as he is for
the operas he left. This made an interesting libretto in the 19th
century for a German opera writer, Flotow, who was also the composer of
the well-known opera _Martha_.
“LA SERVA PADRONA” POINTS THE WAY
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), who died when he was only
twenty-six years old, was looked upon as a genius, and in his early
youth had written two works that were models for many that followed, a
_Stabat Mater_ and a comic opera, _La Serva Padrona_, which was played
recently in America under the title of _The Mistress Maid_. When this
little opera was performed in Paris (1752) it caused a very famous
musical quarrel known as the “war of the buffoons.” (Page 230.)
Jomelli (1714–1774), the composer of fifty-five operas, was a Neapolitan
but he lived in Germany for so many years, that he had more influence on
early German opera than on the Italian.
All the opera of this period, particularly the Italian, was very loosely
put together and was not opera as we have it today. Later Gluck brought
it to the point where it came of age.
METASTASIO—MAKER OF OPERA LIBRETTOS
These writers of the 18th century used the librettos of a poet and
dramatist, Metastasio (1698–1782), who had a strong influence in the
development of opera not only in his native Italy, but in other
countries. He supplied texts for 1200 operatic scores! He understood
music so well, that he was a great help to the composers who listened
with attention to his advice. His life covered practically all of the
18th century.
A CELEBRATED SINGING TEACHER AND COMPOSER
When you read of Haydn, you will see that he played accompaniments and
acted as valet to the eminent singing teacher Niccolo Porpora
(1686–1767). This famous Italian had many pupils in the opera houses all
over Europe, and was considered the greatest singing teacher in the
world. One of his pupils in Dresden was the young princess Marie
Antoinette before she became Queen of France. Porpora was a fine
composer, and wrote many operas, cantatas, masses, oratorios, and
sonatas of which form he was one of the inventors. Among his pupils were
Haydn, Marcello, Tartini, Leo, Galuppi, Padre Martini, Jomelli,
Pergolesi, Caffarelli and Farinelli. This list shows that he trained
composers as well as singers.
THE VIOLIN MAKERS OF CREMONA
Important changes, such as instrumental music coming into fashion, do
not happen without good reasons. We are so accustomed to the violin,
that we forget that there was a time when it did not exist, but until
about three centuries ago, there was none. We are always eager to have
new pianos, for the old ones wear out, but with violins the older they
are, the better! But they must be masterpieces to begin with. All the
famous violinists of the day like Kreisler, Elman, Heifetz, etc., have
marvelous old violins that cost fortunes, and most of them were made by
the violin makers of Cremona, a little town in northern Italy, the
birthplace of Monteverde.
The troubadours played the accompaniments to their songs on stringed
instruments called _violes_ or _vielles_, which were the grandparents of
the violins. In the 15th century bowed instruments were made similar in
range to the human voice; these were called _treble_ or _discant viol_,
_tenor viol_, _bass viol_ and the _double-bass_, and in England these
went into the “chest of viols” (Page 198). Many improvements were made
in the shape, size and tone of the instruments and by the middle of the
17th century the Italian makers were ready to create violins, perfect of
their kind, which have never been surpassed. The secret of the tone of
these instruments is said to be in the varnish which the Cremona makers
used, the recipe of which has been lost, but we met a violin maker
recently in Paris who had discovered it in an old Italian book, and he
has spent years in trying to reproduce it. The old Italian varnish and
the mellowing of the wood with time are two reasons why age makes the
old violins better.
For several centuries, practically all the lutes and the viols that
supplied Europe were made by colonies of instrument makers who lived in
Lombardy (North Italy) and the Tyrol (South Austria). Two towns in
Lombardy became especially famous for their violins, Brescia in which
Gaspara di Salo and Maggini lived, and Cremona which was the home of the
Amati, Stradivari and Guarneri families. In _The Orchestra and Its
Instruments_, Esther Singleton says: “It is thrilling to realize that in
this little town, in three workshops side by side, on the Piazza San
Domenico, all the great violins of the world were made and in friendly
competition by the three families.” This covered the period from 1560 to
1760. These men worked together with just one object in life,—to turn
out of their shops the most perfect instruments that could possibly be
made! With what care they selected the wood! How they worked to make the
tone of each instrument as beautiful as possible! Now you will know when
you hear of an Amati violin, or a Stradivarius, a Guanerius or a
Maggini, that they are worth their weight in gold and are among the
rarest art treasures of the world. These were not the only violin makers
in Lombardy, for there were long lists of them, and there were also many
in the Tyrol. One of the most famous of these was Stainer who lived at
Innsbruck. “It is said that this old maker used to walk through the
wooded slopes of the Tyrolean mountains with a hammer in his hand and
that he would knock the trunks of the trees and listen to the
vibrations. When he found a tree that suited him, he had it cut down to
use in making his instruments.” (Esther Singleton.)
These instrument makers made not only violins, but also lutes,
mandolins, guitars, violas, violoncellos, and double-basses. The
Italians were the first to develop the last two. The ’cello, as we call
the violoncello for short, was the child of an instrument named the
_viola da gamba_ (translated leg-viola because it was held against the
leg), which for many years was the most popular of all bowed
instruments. We do not find many examples of the instruments even in
museums for they were made over into ’cellos when the latter came into
fashion. There is one _viola da gamba_ in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, however, which was imported from France by the Sisterhood of the
General Hospital in Montreal before the conquest of Canada, and was used
in the convent choir many years before there were any organs and pianos
in the New World. The first ’cello to attract attention was made in 1691
by a famous wood carver and presented to the Duke of Modena. A member of
the Amati family in the 16th century was the first to turn the _viola da
gamba_ into a violoncello. The ’cello and the double-bass were made more
successfully by Bergonzi than by the Cremona makers, although Maggini,
Amati and Galiano made very fine ones.
The viola is a descendant of the _viola d’amore_. These and the later
violas, used in the string quartets, orchestras, and as solo
instruments, were made by a Tyrolese named Gaspard Duiffaprugcar in the
16th century. His instruments are marvelous works of art. In the back of
one is a riddle in Latin: can you guess the answer? “I was living in the
forest; the cruel axe killed me. Living, I was mute; dead, I sing
sweetly.” When madrigals and motets were first played on stringed
instruments, the principal melody was given to the tenor viol, the
ancestor of the viola, even today called the alto or the tenor, but
after the violin came into general use, the viola was treated like a
step-child, for it is too large for a violin and too small for a
violoncello. We have Mozart to thank for discovering that the viola had
something beautiful and important to say as a solo instrument especially
in passages where he needed a tender, sad or melancholy voice. You will
read later that Beethoven, too, loved the poor neglected viola. He,
Berlioz and Wagner used the instrument to great advantage.
In 1572 Pope Pius V sent Charles IX, King of France, a present of
thirty-eight bowed instruments made by the first Amati. During the
French Revolution, the mob broke into the palace at Versailles, and all
but two violins and a ’cello were destroyed! What a loss to art such
destruction was!
SHOWING OFF THE NEW INSTRUMENTS
With this development of exquisite instruments, came the desire to use
them and to write new compositions to show them off. These instruments
gave unlimited possibilities for technic and tone, and created the
school of Italian violinists and composers of the 17th and 18th
centuries. If polyphonic music had still been in the lead, the
development of solo instruments would have been impossible, but in
trying to find new forms, the first opera inventors had broken the
backbone of polyphony, and had replaced it with monody, or single line
melody. Then, too, folk dances had taken the public fancy and had been
made into suites, which could be played on solo bowed instruments with
accompaniments, on spinets and organs, or on groups of instruments. The
_sonata da camera_ was really a suite of dances and was the first form
used by these new composers for violin. About the middle of the 17th
century, instrumental performances without any vocal music came to be a
part of the services of the Catholic Church for the priests were quick
to see in the violin playing, a refining influence. Here the _sonata da
camera_ or “room sonata” was turned into the more serious _sonata da
chiesa_ or “church sonata” gradually losing its dance character, and
thus became the seed of the sonata form of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven.
Giovanni Battista Vitali (1644–1692) is the first great master of the
violin sonata; after him, Torelli (1657–1716) added a new and important
kind of violin composition,—the Concerto. He called his compositions,
_Concerti da Camera_ and _Concerti Grossi_, which names and form were
used by Vivaldi, Corelli, Handel and Bach. This _Concerto Grosso_ was a
_sonata da chiesa_ accompanied not by a single instrument as was the
habit with the _sonata da chiesa_ and the _sonata da camera_, but by a
group of bowed instruments to which a lute, organ and, later, a
harpsichord were added.
At this time, all musicians were, as a matter of course, violinists,
just as today all great composers can play the piano. One of the
greatest of these composer-violinists was Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713),
whose works are often played by violinists of our own time, and have
served as models for composers. He was one of the first to try to write
music that should show off the beauty and possibilities of the violin.
The “Golden Age” of the Italian violin composers dated from 1720 to
1750, and was the time of Locatelli, Pugnani, Nardini, Veracini, Tartini
and Vivaldi who added oboes and horns to the orchestral accompaniment of
the _Concerti Grossi_. Corelli and Vivaldi were the models used by the
German school of violinists who appeared about this time. Tartini was
the musical authority of his century, and no violinist felt sure of his
place as an artist until he had been heard and approved by Tartini. He
was the composer of the famous piece called _The Devil’s Trill_.
Although Vivaldi was not looked upon with great esteem in his own time,
he was used as a model by Johann Sebastian Bach.
Padre Martini, recognized by all Europe as the greatest authority on
musical subjects, lived in Bologna where he was visited by such
musicians as Grétry, Gluck, Mozart and one of the sons of Bach. Padre,
or Father, Martini was a Franciscan monk, a fine composer, a learned
historian, a master of counterpoint, and the owner of a musical library
of 17,000 volumes! He helped everyone who sought him, and was loved by
the entire musical world.
Once a year a great music festival was held in Bologna by the
Philharmonic Society and new works by the Bolognese composers were
performed. One hundred musicians took part in the orchestra and the
choruses, and each composer conducted his own work. It was an honor to
be present at this annual festival, and Italian and foreign musicians
came from all over Europe to attend it. Young composers sometimes became
famous over night here, for the critics were all invited and serious
decisions were made as to the value of new music. Dr. Burney, a famous
English musical historian of the 18th century, tells of meeting Leopold
Mozart and his young son, Wolfgang Amadeus, at one of these festivals.
Through the kind scheming of Padre Martini were they admitted!
Rome, in the 18th century was still the great music center, and guided
the religious music of the world. It had wonderful collections of old
music which attracted students from all over; it had seven or eight very
famous theatres, where _opera seria_ and _opera buffa_ were given.
(Today we call them grand opera and comic opera.) The Roman public was
very difficult to please and because of the severity of their judgments,
opera writers suffered every time their new works had first
performances. Just think how you would feel if you had composed an
opera, and by accident had put in a melody that sounded something like
one that Mozart, Wagner, Puccini or Verdi had composed, if the whole
house should break into shouts of “Bravo, Mozart!” or “Bravo, Wagner!”
or “Bravo, Puccini!!” etc. This is what used to happen in Rome, but no
doubt it was a good thing because it stopped a habit the composers had
in those days, of helping themselves to each other’s melodies.
DOMENICO SCARLATTI
But here we must pause for a moment to tell you of the life and work of
Alessandro Scarlatti’s son, Domenico, who was born in Naples in 1685,
the same year as Bach and Handel. When you recall how many operas the
father wrote, it seems queer that his son did not follow in his
footsteps. The truth is that he did write operas for the private theatre
of the Queen of Poland in Rome, and also sacred music while he was
chapel master of St. Peter’s, but he became immortal as a composer of
harpsichord music. In the influence he had in the growing up of piano
music, he can be compared to Chopin and Liszt, and is a founder of piano
music style, an honor, which he shares with the French Couperin and
Rameau, his contemporaries. The difference is that the two Frenchmen
have a delicacy and grace that recall their period of wigs and satins
and laces, while Scarlatti’s works have strength, vigor and daring that
take them out of any special period and place them beside the great
piano compositions of all time.
Scarlatti’s sonatas are sonatas in the Italian sense of a _sound-piece_;
they are not, like the suites, in several movements, but each is in one
movement, which forecasts the modern sonata form with its two main
contrasting themes and development.
The “serious Scarlatti” understood his son’s talent, for he sent him at
the age of 20 to Florence to a member of the powerful de Medici family
with this letter: “This son of mine is an eagle whose wings are grown;
he ought not to stay idle in the nest, and I ought not to hinder his
flight.”
Three years later Handel and Scarlatti met in Rome in an organ and
harpsichord competition, and while Handel won as organist, even
Scarlatti declaring that he did not know that such playing existed, no
decision was made as to which was the better harpsichord player. This
contest seems to have caused no hard feelings for the two young men of
the same age became devoted friends.
Scarlatti had a trick of crossing his hands in his compositions. Who
does not remember with joy his first piece in which he had to cross his
hands? But sad to relate as he grew old, he became so fat that he could
no longer cross hands with comfort, so in the last compositions the
crossing of hands is noticeably absent!
It is hard to know where an inspiration is next coming from, but
wouldn’t you be surprised were you a composer, if your pet cat presented
you with a perfectly good theme? This happened to Domenico Scarlatti!
His cat walked across the keyboard, and the composer used his musical
foot prints as the subject of a very fine fugue! Maybe Zez Confrey’s
_Kitten on the Keys_ is a descendant of this pussy’s piece.
The Scarlattis were the last of the great Italian instrumental
composers. For two centuries Italy had been the generous dispenser of
culture, and like an unselfish mother had sent her children out into the
world to carry knowledge and works to all the nations of Europe. The sun
of Italy’s greatness was setting just as it began to rise in Germany.