There is another currant borer, an European, which is confined to

young shoots; as it is not the larva of a beetle, but of a butterfly,

it will be treated in its proper place.

=Bostrichus bicaudatus=, or the Apple-twig Borer, affects the small

twigs, and when numerous, will produce an effect like that called

twig-blight, by causing the death of the part and the withering of the

leaves, at mid-summer. A small hole will be found near the axil of a

leaf; this turns with the twig, and often extends several inches along

the pith. The insect is a small, chestnut-brown beetle, 0.25 to 0.35

of an inch long, and is characterized by two projections or horns at

the hinder end. Has been found rather common from Michigan to Kansas.

REMEDY.--Kill, when found.

=Scolytus pyri=, or the Pear-blight Beetle, affects twigs of pear,

apple, and other fruits, which wither and die at mid-summer. Small

perforations, like pin holes, will be found, and issuing from them

small cylindrical beetles of a deep brown or black color.

REMEDY.--not known.

=Lucanus dama=, or Horn-beetle, is a large insect, the larvæ of which

are said to feed upon the trunk and roots of old apple and other

trees. The perfect insects are of a dark mahogany color, smooth, and

polished. Like other Stag-beetles, they fly at night, are not very

harmful, and are believed to be several years in reaching the perfect

state.

=Leptostylus aculiferus=, bores under the bark of apple trees. It is a

short, thick, brownish-gray beetle, with thorns upon its wing-covers;

hence, the scientific name of needle-bearer. Length, 0.35 inch;

season, August. The larvæ are small worms, occurring in multitudes

under the bark, and making long-winding burrows.

=Tomicus mali=, or the Apple-bark Beetle, is described by Dr. Fitch as

new. He says, it is a small, smooth, black or chestnut-red,

cylindrical beetle; the larvæ feed under the bark, and then enter the

wood, killing the young tree.

=Conotrachelus Nenuphar=, (_Herbst_), is the noted and notorious and

yet little known Plum Weevil, that is such an abomination to plum

planters, and which has proved very injurious to our peaches and is

even accused of producing deformities in our pears and apples.

The egg is deposited in the fruit, where it soon hatches and feeds,

approaching the stone. This causes the fruit to fall, and when the

grub has attained its full size it descends into the ground to perform

its transformation. The perfect insect, a small, dark-gray beetle,

either crawls up the stem, or flies to the trees. Mr. Walsh reminds us

that Dr. Trimble has found these insects hybernating in sheltered

places.

REMEDIES.--It is lamentable that we have been able to do so little to

prevent the ravages of this insect. The plan of shaking off, and

destroying the affected fruits, promises the best results, by

diminishing the next crop. It was suggested by David Thomas, of New

York, but is most successfully practised by Dr. E.S. Hull, of

Illinois, who has invented an inverted umbrella on wheels, which

receives the insects, as well as the defective fruits, when it is

bumped against the trees. By the use of this, he is enabled to harvest

splendid crops of stone-fruits.

=Pomphopoea Sayi=, (or _Cantharis pyrivora_, of _Fitch_), is called by

him the Pear Blister-fly. He describes it as a long blistering beetle,

of a green-blue color; found on a pear tree about the first of June,

eating the young fruit voraciously.

=Euryomia Inda=, or the Indian Cetonia, is a beetle about six-tenths

of an inch long. The head and thorax dark, copper-brown, thickly

covered with short, greenish-yellow hairs; wing-cases light

yellowish-brown, changeable, with metallic tints. These are called

flower-beetles, because they consume the pollen, and bury themselves

in our flowers; but in the autumn, they consume our choicest fruits,

especially peaches.

=Lachnosterna fusca=, (_Froelich_), is the White Grub, or May Beetle.

A heavy brown insect, an inch or more in length, which makes its

appearance with the first warm evenings, when the Black Locust begins

to open its fragrant blossoms, to which these beetles are attracted.

They also attack the foliage of other trees, particularly the cherry,

which they entirely strip of leaves and fruit. Though very destructive

in the perfect form, these insects are most to be dreaded while in the

larval condition, which is supposed to continue for some years. They

then work under cover, and can only be traced by the ravages they

commit. Every strawberry grower is familiar with the large White Grub

that so often destroys his hopes of a crop, by killing the plants

when in full growth and fruitage, by cutting off all the fibres.

REMEDY.--The full-grown insects are very busy in the evening, but

become stupid and lethargic before morning, clinging to the leaves and

twigs, when they may be shaken down, caught on sheets, gathered, and

destroyed. If let alone, they will fall to the ground toward day

break, and secrete themselves in the grass and soil until night. All

that can be killed in this stage of their existence, the better, as

this will prevent the deposition of innumerable eggs. The White Grubs

must be destroyed one at a time in cultivated grounds; kill them

whenever found. Encourage chickens and birds to follow the plow and

spade, as they will consume great numbers. Hogs will find and eat them

greedily, and may be allowed to root them out even from a meadow, if

badly affected; for, though a harsh remedy, it is not so bad as the

disease.

=Pelidnota punctata=, or the Spotted Pelidnota, is a large yellowish

insect, with a black dot on each side of the thorax, and three others

on the outer side of each wing-cover. It is found in the day time,

upon the leaves of the grape vine. Like the rest of the tribe, these

insects are voracious, and the grubs may also feed upon the roots of

the grape; therefore they had better be destroyed, though as their

numbers are seldom large they are not found to be very injurious.

=Haltica chalybea=, or the Grape Vine Flea-beetle, appears early in

the season, and eats holes in the buds and leaves. It is small, 0.16

inch long, oval; shining, deep greenish-blue, or deep green, or

purple. This insect spends the winter in the earth about the roots of

the vine, and feeds upon them.

=Anomala lucicola=, or the light-loving Anomala, is found on the grape

vine in July. It resembles the May Beetle, but is smaller, being 0.35

inch long.

These are not all the beetles that feed upon the grape vine.

=Macrodactylus subspinosa=, or the Rose-chafer, is another

melolonthian beetle, which is exceedingly destructive to grapes and

various other plants in many parts of the country, in May and June.

This insect is smaller than the others of its group, but is equally

destructive as a leaf-eater, on account of its numbers. On the grape,

it cuts off the young bunch of buds and blossoms, and thus seriously

diminishes the crop, as well as by destroying the foliage. It is of a

buff-yellow, with black feet, about 0.33 inch long. They continue to

ravage vegetation about a month, and then retire into the ground, an

inch deep, and deposit their eggs, which hatch in about twenty days,

and the young grubs feed upon tender roots, attaining their full size,

three-quarters of an inch, before winter, when they descend deeper to

hybernate.

The Rose-beetle has many natural enemies, among which are the

Dragon-flies; but we must depend upon human efforts for their

destruction, an almost hopeless task, for their name is legion, but so

much the greater necessity for the effort, and as they are sluggish,

they may easily be caught and thrown into hot water, or otherwise

destroyed.

=Tree Pruners= are the larvæ of beetles that excavate a burrow in

small limbs of trees, so as to make a section almost across their

substance; most of them then bore upward into the limb, and await the

action of the winds to break off the part and waft them to the ground,

where they pass through their change to the perfect insect. They

exercise a wonderful instinct in leaving just fibres enough to support

the branch until they are ready for their descent, but it often

happens that the twig breaks off partially and hangs by a thread,

dying, of course; we see the brown leaves on the trees, and this is

the first indication of the presence of the insects. If we examine the

fallen spray, we shall be surprised to observe the cause of its

falling. In the case of the oak tree, the damage is done by the

_Elaphidion villosum_, (Fabricius), a long-horned beetle. The larva

remains in these twigs until the next season, hence the importance of

gathering and burning all that fall to the ground.

An insect of somewhat similar habits often cuts off stout shoots of

the Hickory, making a very neat section of a small limb, leaving only

the bark, so that it readily breaks off with the wind; and a similar

effect has been observed in strong annual shoots of the pear, toward

the end of summer. The fallen piece and the stump are cut as neatly as

by the shears, but no perforation is discovered along the axis, in

which the larva could be concealed; hence we have but to suffer the

trimming thus performed without our will, and look upon it as a sort

of natural shortening-in of our trees.

=Blister-flies, or Beetles.=--There are several species of these

insects, each of which appears to have its favorite pasturage. They

are exceedingly voracious, but confine themselves chiefly to the

destruction of herbaceous vegetation, and are therefore obnoxious to

the farmer and gardener, who know them as the potato insects, than to

the fruit-grower. Their appetites are not very discriminating,

however, and when they are abundant they may consume the foliage of

our trees. These Blister-flies belong to the genus _Lytta_, and are

used as a substitute for the Spanish-fly of Europe, as they are

possessed of blistering qualities in no mean degree. They are wholly

different from the new potato destroyer of the West, the _Doryphora

10-lineata_, which is hemispherical, and is a leaf-eater, in the

larval as well as in the perfect state.

REMEDY.--Catch and kill all that can be found in the garden, or potato

field; scald, dry, and sell to the apothecary.

Before closing this section, it is but due to our many insect friends

in this order, to introduce a few of them to the reader. There are

several large families that are really serviceable to man; some of

these are called Scavengers, because they consume large quantities of

decaying matter that might prove noxious to us, were it allowed to

decay upon the surface of the ground. Among these are the

Dung-beetles, and the Carrion-beetles: others are carnivorous, and

some of these are called _Cicindelidæ_, or Tiger-beetles, from their

voracious consumption of other insects, which they devour in great

numbers, both in their larval and in their perfect form. These day

beetles are large, brightly colored, and very active in their

movements, as they run about in the sunny paths and roads, and cannot

fail to attract attention. Few persons are aware, however, of the

valuable aid they are rendering to man, nor of the credit that is due

to them for the preservation of our crops from the invasion of other

insect foes. Too often they are either unobserved and overlooked, or

even treated with the aversion and cruelty of men who ignorantly

attempt to stamp out all insect life, as though these creatures were

intruders upon their preemption. The intelligent observer of nature

will soon learn to respect each aid, which has been so wisely

furnished to assist him in his labors as a cultivator of the soil, and

all may admire the Wisdom that has provided at the same time such

beautiful and such useful creatures for the work.

=Calosoma scrutator=, is well named the handsome, for it is one of our

most beautiful insects of this class. This, and the red-spotted _C.

calidum_, may be seen upon trees, seeking caterpillars, upon which

they feed. One of our most intelligent horticulturists has so high an

appreciation of these insects, that he will not allow them to be

disturbed, and whenever he sees any caterpillars in his orchard, he

takes these beetles to the tree, and gives himself no further concern,

knowing that the Calosoma will soon destroy every worm.

=Coccinelidæ=, or Lady-birds, are most valuable aids to the

cultivator, who is constantly liable to have his crops destroyed by

the various species of Aphides. These little hemispherical beetles are

familiar to every one, and known to the children as Lady-birds; but

all may not know their value, nor be so well acquainted with the larvæ

of these insects, which are the chief agents in the destruction of our

troublesome plant-lice. Most persons would be very apt to crush these

curious, diminutive, lizard-looking creatures, even at the time they

were attacking the Aphides, instead of leaving them to carry on the

warfare more effectually without our aid.

These little friends have had a superstitious regard shown to them in

many countries, which indicates that a glimmering idea prevailed

respecting their usefulness. The Germans call them the _Marienkaefer_,

or Lady-beetles, of the Virgin Mary. The French call them _Vaches de

Dieu_, the Lord's cows, and our own children are all familiar with the

nursery rhyme about the Lady-birds. These insects find their way to

trees or plants that are infested with their proper food, the Aphides.

These beetles hide under the leaves that cluster in sheltered nooks

about or between the large roots of forest trees, where they can be

found on any mild winter day, and may be carried to the green-house or

to the window plants that are infested with plant-lice. They will not

only devour these pests, but will soon lay eggs that hatch and produce

the larvæ which are so voracious as to clear the plants in a

short-time. A little attention to the habits of these insects may

spare us great losses from the plant-lice.

=ORTHOPTERA.=--GRASSHOPPERS.

The insects of this order have an imperfect transformation. The eggs

hatch at once into young insects, that resemble their parents in form

and habits, excepting that they do not get their wings till they

approach the adult state. The young consume food voraciously, and the

perfect insects are not only still more hungry, but, having increased

powers of locomotion, they are more widely destructive. These are the

true _Locusts_, and though chiefly injurious to the farm and garden,

infesting the meadows and corn-fields, the grasshoppers, when winged,

often attack the foliage of our young orchard trees toward the end of

summer. But when we contemplate the invasion of the great western

plague, belonging to this order, which rivals that terrible scourge,

the Locust of the eastern continent, in numbers and voracity, we may

well dread their increase and appearance in other parts of the

country. The grasshoppers that have invaded Kansas and other Western

States are, like all the rest of this group of _Orthoptera_, true

Locusts.

This order is called _Orthoptera_, from their straight wings; it

embraces several groups, cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers, or

locusts, etc., which are all injurious, except the _Mantis_, which is

predacious, and therefore useful.

=HEMIPTERA.=--BUGS AND HARVEST-FLIES.

This order contains many insects that are injurious to the nurseryman,

to the orchardist, and to the gardener. They are characterized by

having a proboscis instead of a mouth with jaws; they can suck, but

they cannot bite. The proboscis is often horny, and armed with two

pair of bristles, when it becomes a more formidable weapon for attack.

Bugs have four wings; they do not pass through the usual metamorphoses

of insect life; but are born with legs and feeding apparatus like the

perfect insects, except that some have no wings. Bugs are all

injurious to man, excepting such as are predacious, which are

serviceable by destroying other insects. Many are very small; and yet

their countless numbers and wonderful fecundity enable them to do

immense damage, as is true of the _Aphides_ and _Coccidæ_, the

_Tingis_, the _Tettigonia vitis_, called the Thrips by our

vine-dressers; and still more so of the Chinch-bug of the Western

prairies, which destroys whole crops of our most important cereals.

The colored juice of some bugs is used in the arts. The coccus of the

prickly pear, in Central America, is gathered and dried to form the

cochineal of the shops.

Hemipterous insects are divided into two groups. True bugs, called

_Hemiptera heteroptera_, having the wing-covers opaque at the base,

and laid horizontally, and crossing each other obliquely at the end,

overlapping; and the Harvest-flies, such as Plant-lice and Bark-lice.

These, the _Hemiptera homoptera_, have the wing-covers of one texture

throughout, not horizontal, but more or less sloping, and not crossing

one another behind. Among these, which all feed upon plants, some very

troublesome pests will here be noticed.

=COCCIDIANS.=--BARK-LICE.

=Aspidiotus conchiformis=, or the Apple Bark-louse, is very numerous

in many parts of our country, particularly north of latitude 40

degrees. It commits sad devastations in some sections. Individually,

it is but a little scale; but these animals are wonderfully prolific

and soon cover every twig of the tree, obstructing its transpirations,

and abstracting its vital juices; the leaves, and even the fruit are

overrun with these miserable scales, but the twigs are their favorite

resort. These scales are oblong, shaped like an oyster shell; flat

and brown, often crowding upon one another. In the winter and spring,

they contain or cover a number of small, round, white eggs, which

hatch out in the spring, in May, attach themselves to the bark, and

absorb the juices: various remedies have been suggested, and more or

less thoroughly tested. The restoration of the thrifty growth of the

tree is considered essential to success; and without this, all

remedies are looked upon as unavailing. Some orchardists think that

thorough drainage and cultivation of the land would alone banish the

lice, but this can hardly be hoped. Strong lye, or solutions of

potash, or soda, white-wash, and sulphur, have been used, and tobacco

boiled in lye, soft-soap and tar mixed with linseed oil, which makes a

kind of varnish. Mr. Walsh tells us that applications, to destroy this

insect, are better made in May or June, as the eggs are protected by

the scale in winter, and it is impermeable to watery solutions. This

pest has been imported from Europe. Walsh recommends the use of

Lady-birds to check the Bark-lice.[25]

=Lecanium pyri=, (_Fitch_), or the Pear Bark-louse, is a hemispherical

brown scale, as large as a split pea. They may be found in summer on

the under side of the limbs, and are the remains of dead females,

which cover the eggs and young brood. This insect would be very

injurious, were it to increase in numbers considerably. Let young

trees be examined in June, when the scales may easily be found,

removed, and destroyed.

=Lecanium persici=, or the Peach Bark-louse, is described, by Fitch,

as similar in size to the above, found on smooth bark near a bud; it

is blackish, uneven, shining, with a pale margin.

Another pear tree bark-louse was described by the lamented A.O. Moore,

of New York, as a white, papery scale, giving a claret-colored juice

when scraped. This, in the winter, consists of a defunct mother and

her brood of eggs, the breaking of which gives the color. Alkaline

washes are recommended to be applied in the spring. Mr. Walsh thinks

this insect cannot be the same as that mentioned by Dr. Harris, on p.

222 of his report, under the name of _Coccus cryptogamus_, (_Dalman_),

who found it upon the Aspen, and therefore he has named it _Coccus?

Harrisii_.[26]

=Lecanium vitis=, (_Linn._), or the Vine Bark-louse, is mentioned by

Fitch as having been found on grape vines in June. It is hemispherical

and brown. A cottony substance was extruded from one end of the scale,

and this increased until July, when minute insects crept out and

scattered over the bark, upon which they fixed themselves. This insect

is not very common, but its first appearance should be closely

watched, and its destruction promptly effected.

=APHIDES.=--PLANT-LICE.

These are the most extraordinary insects, being found upon almost all

parts of plants, and there is scarcely a species which does not

support one or more kinds peculiar to itself. Then they are so

exceedingly prolific! Reaumur proved that one individual, in five

generations, may become the progenitor of nearly six thousand millions

of descendants. Most of these insects, which we find so abundant upon

our trees, are wingless females. Winged insects, both male and female,

appear later in the season, and after laying their eggs, they soon

perish. Some lay in the fall, others wait till spring. When these eggs

hatch, the brood consists wholly of females, which are wingless, and

do not lay eggs, but are viviparous and produce from fifteen to twenty

young lice in the course of a day. This second generation are also

wingless, and at maturity produce their young, and so on to the

seventh generation, without the approach of a single male, until the

autumn, when a brood of males and females appears, which are both

winged at maturity, and then the eggs are laid for the next year's

brood, and the parents die.[27]

The injuries occasioned by plant-lice, are much greater than would at

first be expected, from an observation of the small size and extreme

weakness of the insects; but these make up by their numbers what they

lack in strength individually, and thus become formidable enemies to

vegetation. By their punctures and the quantity of sap they draw from

the leaves, the functions of these important organs are deranged, or

interrupted, the sap is withdrawn or contaminated, and unfitted to

supply the wants of vegetation. Plants are differently affected; some

wither and cease to grow, their leaves and stems become sickly, and

die from exhaustion. Others, not killed, are greatly impeded in their

growth; the tender parts, which are attacked, become stunted and

curled. The punctures of the lice appear to poison some plants,

producing warts or swellings, which are sometimes solid, sometimes

hollow, containing within them a swarm of lice, descendants of a

single individual.[28] These last are often seen upon the leaves of

the Elm, and upon some Poplars, and other trees; but I have not found

any upon the foliage of our cultivated fruits, unless it be those on

the grape.

=Aphis mali=, or the Apple Leaf-louse, is a small, green insect

without wings, accompanied by a few black and green ones having wings.

These are all crowded together upon the green tips of twigs, and under

the leaves, sucking the sap. The eggs remain in deep cracks of the

bark during the winter, and hatch as soon as the buds expand in the

spring. The most successful treatment is to scrape off the loose bark,

and to apply to the stems of the trees alkaline or lime washes. Many

of our familiar little winter birds consume these eggs. In the spring

and summer, alkaline solutions may be used with advantage, syringed or

sprinkled upon the affected shoots and foliage.

The smell of these insects is peculiar, which, indeed, is generally

characteristic with bugs. Each sort seems to derive a special flavor

from the tree or plant upon which it feeds. Most insects of this

family secrete copiously a sweetish fluid, called the honey dew, which

is ejected from two little horns or nectaries, that project, one on

each side of their bodies. This sweet material attracts a great many

flies, and other insects, particularly ants, which are the constant

attendants of these creatures, and are said to protect them from their

enemies in order to obtain their sweet secretion. Some entomologists

have called _Aphides_ the Ants' cows.

No one, who is acquainted with the _Aphides_, and the various insects

which prey upon them, will ever permit a valuable plant to suffer

injury from these pests. He will collect some of the _Aphis'_ enemies

alive, carry them to the affected plant, and set them free to do their

work; there they will remain while the food lasts. The _Aphides_ have

more numerous, more active, and more inveterate enemies than insects

of any other group--these are the means by which their wonderful

fecundity is kept in check. Among them are the Aphis-lions, which are

the larvæ of the Golden-eyed and Lace-wing flies, belonging to the

order _Neuroptera_. They are reddish-brown, with a dark stripe down

the middle, and a cream-colored one on each side; bodies long, narrow,

and wrinkled transversely. Their jaws are long, curved like sickles,

projecting forward from their heads horizontally.[29]

The _Coccinellidæ_, mentioned as useful members of the order

_Coleoptera_, on a previous page, are among the most active enemies of

the _Aphides_. The eggs are laid in clusters of twenty to forty on the

under side of a leaf, to which they are closely glued; they are oval,

and light yellow. They hatch into small blackish larvæ, which are

active, and which boldly attack an _Aphis_ much larger than

themselves, leaving only the empty skin. They consume hundreds while

in the larval state, about two weeks, when they attach themselves by

the tail, and go into the pupa state. One of the largest of these

Lady-birds is the _Mysia 15-punctata_; the larva is a clear white,

the middle of the back tinged with red, and two or three black spots

on each segment--nearly a hundred species of Lady-birds are found in

this country. The perfect insect, as well as the larvæ, feed upon

_Aphides_, and instead of being destroyed, they should be cherished

and encouraged.

Besides these, there are other inveterate enemies of the plant-lice in

the _Syrphidæ_, which are two-winged flies, resembling the common

house-fly, but handsomer. They deposit their eggs where _Aphides_

exist; the maggot, which hatches from these, seizes upon the first

_Aphis_ that comes within his reach, and sucks its fluids. A

medium-sized worm will consume a hundred lice in an hour. They are

always found in a colony of _Aphides_.[30]

=Aphis prunifoliæ=, or the Plum Leaf-louse, is black, with pale green

abdomen. It is found on the under side of the leaves, which become

wrinkled and distorted. It is not so abundant as some other species,

but its habits are similar.[31]

=Aphis cerasi=, (_Fabric._), or the Cherry Plant-louse, is very

common, very numerous, and very black. They appear with the first

expansion of the leaves, and continue or are renewed when destroyed,

and remain until mid-summer, when they generally disappear. Their

numbers are almost incredible, and they give a young cherry tree a

wretched appearance. On the under surface of a small leaf,

three-fourths of an inch long, Mr. Fitch counted one hundred and

ninety lice, on one side only of the midrib. Their natural enemies

come to the rescue to check their wonderful increase, and sometimes

will utterly rout the _Aphides_ in a single week.[32]

The remedies advised for the apple tree _Aphides_, are equally

applicable to those of the cherry, and their natural enemies are the

same and equally efficacious; but _Aphides_ have internal foes

likewise, that may be named here. The Ichneumon-flies are parasitic,

their larvæ feed upon the substance of the _Aphides_. The genus

_Aphidius_ is particularly provided to furnish parasites to these

insects, in which they deposit a single egg selecting a louse of the

proper size to sustain their progeny: the egg hatches to a larva,

which exhausts the _Aphis_ by the time it has attained its growth,

when the poor creature fastens itself securely to the leaf, and dies,

leaving its carcase a secure resting place for the pupa of the

Ichneumon. These parasitic-insects, which feed internally upon the

_Aphides_, are as effective in their destruction as the Aphis-lions,

or any other class of their enemies.[33]

=Aphis persicæ=, or the Peach Tree-louse, punctures the leaves of this

plant, and Dr. Fitch[34] thinks, is the common though not the only

cause of the curl in the peach tree leaves. Our intelligent

orchardists have found these insects occasionally in the curled leaves

of the peach, but do not agree with this distinguished entomologist,

in considering them a cause of that malady.

=Aphis vitis?=, or the Vine _Aphis_, is often quite troublesome on

vigorous young shoots of the grape vine, both wild and cultivated,

particularly the former. These insects soon cripple the growth of the

shoot. The species is not known to be different from that of Europe.

This insect is briefly mentioned by T. Glover, in Patent Office Rept.

for 1854, p. 79. Dr. Fitch describes as a grape leaf-louse, the

_Pemphigus vitifolia_, which inhabits the gall-like excrescences upon

the foliage of some varieties, particularly those with thin leaves.

=Aphis ribis=, (_Linn._), is the _Aphis_ of the currant. It causes the

leaves to present a blistered appearance above; the lice are found on

the under side; the wingless are pale yellow, the others have glossy

wings, mostly black, with abdomen light green.[35]

=Aphis lanigera=, now called _Eriosoma_, or the Woolly _Aphis_, was

first described in 1801 as infesting the apple trees in Germany. It

has been noticed in England in 1787, and has since acquired the name

of American Blight, from the erroneous supposition that it had been

imported from this country; but it was known to French gardeners for a

long time previous.

The eggs of this insect are microscopic, and are enveloped in a

cottony substance. They are deposited in chinks of bark, and crotches

of limbs, at or near the surface of the ground. When first hatched,

the insects are covered with short down; as they grow, the down

increases in length. When fully grown, they are one-tenth of an inch

long; the head, antennæ, sucker, and skins, are blackish, the abdomen

of a honey-yellow color. Their punctures produce warty excrescences,

the limbs become sickly, the leaves turn yellow and drop off, and the

whole tree perishes as the insects spread over it. The remedies

appear futile on badly affected trees. Young trees were treated by

painting over the affected parts with a mixture of melted resin and

fish oil, in equal parts, applied warm. Sir Joseph Banks removed them

with a stiff brush. Spirits of tar, turpentine, oil, and soft soap,

have been recommended. After scraping off the rough bark, wash the

tree with alkaline solution, apply the same to the main roots after

laying them bare of earth.[36]

=Phemphigus pyri=, _Eriosoma pyri_, (_Fitch_), or _Pemphigus

Americanus?_, (_Walker_), is the Apple-root Blight. It produces a

similar condition in the roots, and was also called the American

Blight in England. It is composed of warty excrescences upon the

roots, containing in their crevices minute lice, having their bodies

covered with a white cottony substance. Removal of the earth, and the

application of soapsuds, has been recommended as a probable remedy for

the injuries done by this insect.[37]

=Psylla Pyri.=--Some _Aphides_ have the power of leaping, like the

leaf-hoppers, but they differ from those insects in having very large

transparent upper wings, which cover the sides of the body like a

steep roof. The genus embracing these insects, is called _Psylla_. One

of the species was observed by Dr. Harris, upon a pear tree. They live

by suction, and having gorged themselves, the juice runs down on the

bark, producing a blackish color; young trees suffered excessively. As

Dr. Phumb, of Salisbury, Conn., had observed them in 1833 on some

imported pear trees, of which he lost several hundred in a few years,

Dr. Harris suspected the insect to be the _Psylla pyri_, of Europe.

Kollar recommends brushing off the insects, and crushing them under

foot; and also advises to destroy the winged females in the spring.

This being tedious and uncertain, it is recommended to wash the twigs

with a brush, dipped in a mixture of strong soapsuds and flowers of

sulphur, before the buds expand, to deter the insects from laying

their eggs. A weaker solution, or the whale oil soap, might kill the

young insects after they have fastened upon the bark, if applied with

a syringe.[38]

=Cicada septendecim=, or the Seventeen-year Locust, as it is

erroneously called, is no Locust at all, but should be called

_Cicada_, because, as already stated, when considering the order

_Orthoptera_, the true Locusts, are, what we call Grasshoppers.

This insect is remarkable for the long period of its pupal existence,

which is subterranean, and during which it feeds upon the juices of

roots. In its perfect state, it does not eat, and is neither able to

bite nor to sting. The injury it does to our orchards is effected by

its piercer in depositing its eggs, causing twigs to break and fall

off. There are several Harvest-flies that belong to this order.

=Tree Hoppers=, being members of the same order, feed upon the juices

of plants, through their suckers, and are thus injurious; but their

numbers are not sufficient to render them of much consequence.

=Palæothrips mali=, (_Fitch_), is the name of an insect described by

Dr. Fitch[39] as infesting apple trees in the month of August, where

they were attacking the fruit. They excavated a little hollow near the

blossom end of the apple about the size of a pea, which was occupied

by small insects. Until the habits of the insect are more thoroughly

understood, it will be difficult to advise any remedies.

There is quite a number of insects in this class that affect the grape

vine, some of which may become troublesome, and we should watch their

habits. The following accounts are condensed from Dr. Fitch's Report:

=Raphigaster sarpinus=, or the large Green Tree-bug, is grassy-green,

edged with yellow, and a black point at every joint of the abdomen;

found in September.

=Pentatoma ligata=, or the Bound Tree-bug, is also grassy-green, but

more widely bordered all round, except the head, with pale red, and

has a pale red spot on the middle of its back and on the apex of its

scutel; antennæ green.

=Arma modesta=, or the Modest Tree-bug, is tawny, yellowish-gray,

thickly dotted with brown punctures; the wing-covers are red at the

apex of their leathery portion, and have a brown spot at the tip of

the hyaline portion; the under side is whitish, with a row of black

dots along the middle, and another on each side.

=Thelia univittata=, (_Harris_), or the Single-striped Treehopper, is

chestnut-brown, shaped like a beech-nut, with a perpendicular

protuberance on the fore part of its back, higher than wide. It is

tawny white in front, a white stripe along the back to the tip; length

0.37 inch; July and August.

=Ceresa bubalus=, or Buffalo Treehopper, is of a light grass-green,

freckled with whitish dots; with a sharp short point on each side,

projecting like horns.

=Ceresa taurina=, is like the preceding, but the space between the

horns is concave.

=Acutalis dorsalis=, is a small, triangular, shining Treehopper, with

a smooth round back; it is greenish-white, with a large black spot,

from the anterior corners of which a line runs off to each eye.

Plentiful about the last of July, a few remaining until October.

=Erythroneura vitis=, (_Harris_), or the Vine-leaf hopper, is pale

yellow, with two broad blood-red bands, and a third dusky one on the

apex. Swarms of these small insects occur in August, and often bleed

the foliage so as to injure it seriously.

=Erythroneura tricincta=, or the Three-banded Leaf-hopper, is like the

preceding species, but the bands are narrower.

=Erythroneura vitifex=, or the Vine-destroying Leaf-hopper, is

yellowish-white; the wing-covers have oblique confluent, blood-red

bands, and a short, oblique, black line on the middle of their outer

margin. The thorax commonly has three red stripes, the middle one

forked anteriorly and confluent, with two red stripes on the crown of

the head. When the wing-covers are closed, they look red, with a

cream-colored spot, shaped like a heart placed anteriorly, and on the

middle, a large diamond-shaped spot, with a small red spot in its

centre.

These insects are sometimes seen in such numbers upon the grape vines

in September, that, when the leaves are disturbed, they fly out and

resemble a shower of snowflakes. The young resemble their parents,

but are destitute of wings.

A REMEDY is much needed.

=Erythroneura vulnerata=, (_Fitch_), or the Wounded Treehopper, is

tawny yellowish, sometimes tinged with red; the wing-covers have white

spots and veins, and on the middle of the outer margin an oblique

black streak, between two creamy white spots; the hind one smaller,

and an oblique blood-red line at its end; tips smoky-blackish; length

0.12 inch; September.

=Otiocerus Coquebertii=, is a slim fly of yellowish-white color, with

a bright carmine-red stripe along each side of the body and wings,

which are widely forked behind. Length 0.42 inch; July until autumn,

on the wild grape vine.

There are a great many insects of this order, which are familiar to

most country residents on account of their unpleasant smell. These are

the true bugs, and belong to the sub-division called _Heteropterous

Hemiptera_. The Squash-bug is a familiar illustration of these

insects; it is called the _Coreus tristis_, from its sad dull color;

they are quite destructive to all plants of the Squash family.

=Reduvius trinotatus=, is one of this order, which is a valuable aid

to the horticulturists, because its sucker is armed with sharp

instruments, that enable it to pierce and consume other insects, many

of which are destroyed by it. This insect has been introduced into the

West for the sake of its valuable services.

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.

The insects of this order are very numerous, and in their larval or

caterpillar state they are often very destructive. In the perfect form

of butterflies and moths, they commit little or no depredations,

because their jaws have been transformed into a sucking apparatus.

They consume, in their perfect state, little else than honey.

The order has been divided into three great sections: Butterflies,

_Papiliones_; Hawk-moths, _Sphinges_; and Moths, or _Nocturnes_. Of

these, the _Ægeridæ_ constitute a very distinct family, resembling

bees and wasps rather than butterflies; their caterpillars also

differ, being borers, and nearly naked. Butterflies are produced from

caterpillars that are not generally very injurious to our crops.

Hawk-moths are large insects, and have great power of flight; their

caterpillars are large and voracious. It is the moths proper, a very

numerous family, which do us the most harm, and which will demand the

largest share of our attention. They vary much in size and appearance.

Some of the females are destitute of wings.

The _Arctians_ or Woolly Bears, are a very numerous division of the

tribe of _Bombyces_ or Spinners, so called from the name of the

Silk-worm; some of these will be mentioned.

=Orgyia leucostigma=, or the Vaporer Moth, is a very beautiful

caterpillar, frequently seen upon our fruit trees, though not confined

to them. They feed separately, and therefore we can best destroy them

in the egg. Fortunately, these may easily be found during the winter,

for the female, being wingless, never quits her cocoon, but deposits

the eggs in a mass upon the outside of it. The whole contrivance is

one of the many illustrations of the wonderful instinct of insects.

When about to spin, the worm secures two or more leaves, by entwining

her silk about their stems, and also around the woody twig upon which

they grow; she then attaches them together by bands of silk, and spins

her cocoon between them. She thus secures a winter resting place for

her eggs, and her progeny, when they hatch the next summer, are upon

the tree that furnishes them their appropriate food. These dead leaves

will attract our attention during the winter, and should be gathered

and burned. Many of the caterpillars are destroyed by a little

Ichneumon-fly.

=Orgyia antiqua=, or the Rusty Vaporer Moth, of Europe, has been

introduced into this country, and has been quite destructive to

thorn-hedges in Rhode Island. They may become troublesome to our

orchards.

Several of these _Arctians_, or Tiger-moths, may be seen about our

houses on a summer evening, as they are chiefly nocturnal. One of the

most common is

=Arctia phalerata=, or the Harnessed Moth, so called from the markings

on its wings. Another distinctly marked one is _Callimorpha

militaris_, now called _C. Lecontei_. Beautiful illustrations of these

are given in Dr. Harris' Report.

=Spilosoma Virginica=, is the beautiful White Moth, or "Miller," that

we see in May; it is the imago or perfect insect of a large hairy

caterpillar, of a yellowish color, frequently seen in our gardens, and

quite destructive to vegetation.

=Hyphantria textor=, or the Fall Web-worm, is very troublesome upon

shrubs and trees during the summer and fall. They are called the

Web-worms from their habit of feeding gregariously in large numbers,

and spinning a web that envelopes the leaves and the whole branch, as

they devour the foliage.

This insect commits sad ravages upon our cultivated trees of various

kinds, for it is not a choice feeder, consuming but one species, like

many other insects. Their most common pasture is the mulberry, and the

related Osage Orange is frequently attacked. The Elder bushes appear

very attractive to them, and are often covered with their unsightly

webs. Elms suffer very much; our favorite fruit trees are attacked;

apples, pears, cherries, quinces, and, occasionally, even the peach

trees are eaten by them. Even the repulsive Ailantus, which has often

been recommended as a wormless tree, is greedily devoured by these

caterpillars, notwithstanding its disagreeable odor.

The eggs, from two to three hundred in number, are deposited on the

under side of a leaf, near the end of a twig. These soon hatch, and

the larvæ commence feeding on the upper surface, spinning their

threads from side to side, and then, attaching two or three leaves

together, they soon make a web. They continue feeding and spinning

along the twig, as they consume the tender portion of the leaf,

leaving the mere skeleton.

The caterpillars are small, of a pale yellow color, with a broad

blackish stripe on the back, and another beneath. They are thickly

clothed with whitish hair; the head and feet are black. Worms of the

same nest vary in size and colors. When about an inch long, they

disperse, and spin their cocoons. The moth is milk white, without any

markings on its wings, and is 1.25 to 1.35 inch in width. (Vide

Harris, p. 358).

Though called the Fall Web-worm, these caterpillars appear about

Cincinnati in the end of May quite abundantly, and from that time

until October, they are more or less frequent; most so in August. In

the North, they may be later; I have seen large tracts of forest

defoliated on the lake shore, in August, 1865.

REMEDIES.--For the destruction of these pests we must resort to

hand-picking, when they are in the caterpillar state. The twig or

branch should be taken off, and the worms crushed or burned. It is

fortunate for us that they are gregarious and that they spin a web,

for we can detect them while they are yet young, and when confined to

one or two leaves, so that the whole brood may be destroyed with very

little effort. Birds, and some insects, aid us in keeping them in

check.

=Clisiocampa decipiens=, (_Walker_), or _C. Americana_, (_Harris_), is

commonly known as the Tent-caterpillar, or Nest-caterpillar. The larvæ

are not indiscriminate feeders, but prefer the foliage of certain

members of the _Rosaceous_ family of plants. Their natural food

appears to be the common wild cherry, but they attack the apple so

vigorously, that they are often called the apple tree worm. Mr. Fitch

thinks they do not feed upon the peach; but I have frequently found

them upon this tree since 1855. The moth appears to be endowed with

wonderful instinct in depositing her eggs; selecting a terminal shoot

that has completed its growth, they are placed to the number of 200 or

300 around it in a broad ring or sheath, and covered with a sort of

varnish that protects them.

Very early in the spring, when the buds of the apple have just begun

to swell, the eggs hatch, and the little worms traverse the twig,

spinning a slender thread; when they reach another branch, they halt

in the bifurcation, and, moving about, soon create a slight web with

the silken threads, and from this they emerge in search of food,

spinning a thread along their route, and when they return, they travel

about, and thus enlarge their web.

REMEDIES.--These insects may be attacked in the egg or in the larval

state. The former are so arranged as to be conspicuous on the naked

spray at any time during the winter--whenever seen, they should be

broken or cut off, and carried to the fire. In the early spring, we

must watch for the little tents in the bifurcations of the limbs, and

remove the nests with all the worms; this may be done when they are

small, by using the thumb and finger; if larger, it is a disagreeable

task, but no orchardist should hesitate when he recollects that six

hundred leaves is a day's ration for one colony. They can easily be

gathered in their web, thrown upon the ground, and crushed with the

foot. Mr. Needham, of Massachusetts, has invented, what he calls, a

caterpillar scourge; it is a little cone of wood, clothed with a piece

of wool-card. This is attached to a pole: when thrust into the web,

the whole nest is gathered by the card-teeth and brought down. An old

dry mullein stalk has often been used for the same purpose, and some

recommend burning the nest, or shooting it; but I have more faith in

thumb and finger work, believing it to be more thorough.

Among the natural enemies of these caterpillars are the Tiger-beetles,

which a successful orchardist of Illinois uses systematically for

their destruction. He catches a beetle, and puts it upon a tree

containing a nest of the Tent-caterpillar, after which he finds the

worms soon disappear.

=Gastrophaca Americana=, (_Harris_).--The Lappet-caterpillars are

found on apple trees. The worms are flat, and when at rest on a limb,

they often escape observation from their gray color resembling the

bark. A fringe of hairs, along their sides, gives them this flat

appearance. They feed only at night. Dr. Harris found some in

September that measured two and one-half inches in length, and above

half an inch in breadth.

SATURNIANS, CERATOCAMPIANS, ZEUZERIANS.

=Platysamia (Attacus) cecropia=, (_Linn._), the Cecropia Emperor Moth,

is found as a large cylindrical, pale green worm, three or four inches

long, and as thick as one's thumb, and having two rows of pale blue,

projecting points along each side, and two rows of pale yellow ones

upon the back, with four larger, bright orange, or red ones

anteriorly, all ending in little black prickles. The moth is large;

its wings dark gray; each has a large white, crescent like spot in the

centre, margined with red, and a red band crossing both wings. Appears

in June; width five to seven inches.

There are others of this family of noble moths whose names have been

indicated above, but they are not very destructive to the orchard.

Then come, in Dr. Harris' classification, the _Zeuzerians_, a group of

moths which, like _Ægerians_ among the Sphinges, pierce the roots and

stems of trees. Among these is _Xyleutes (Cossus) robiniæ_, or the

Locust-tree Boring-moth.

The Saturnians are a group of large, naked caterpillars, which are

generally short, thick, clumsy, and cylindrical; they are leaf eaters,

and some of them, when young, keep together in families, but separate

as they become older, when they spin large silky cocoons sometimes

among leaves, which they secure by silk to the twigs, sometimes

attaching them to the stems and limbs, and at others at, or beneath,

the surface of the ground. This group contains some of the largest and

most beautiful moths, with large woolly bodies, and widely extended,

highly colored and ornamented wings. They lay a great many eggs; some

females deposit several hundreds. Still they are seldom so numerous as

to commit serious devastations.

"Among these are the _Telea Polyphemus_, _Tropæ aluna_, _Callosamia

Promethea_, _Platysamia cecropia_, (formerly known under the genus

_Attacus_, which is now restricted to the immense _A. Atlas_, and

another species of China), and the _Euchronia Maia_, and _Hyperchiria

varia_, (formerly known under the genus _Saturnia_, which is now

retained for several European species). The latter species, (_H.

varia_), has been generally known among us under the name of _Saturnia

Io_, but according to Dr. Packard, (who published 'a Synopsis of the

Bombycidæ of the United States,' in the Third Volume of the

Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia), our species

has been confounded by authors with Cramer's species '_Io_,' from

South America, and which belongs to a different genus."--[E.T.

Cresson, Mss.]

These moths may yet become valuable for the production of a kind of

silk, as they are enclosed in large cocoons, the fibres of which

surpass those of the Silk-worm in strength, and might be employed in

the formation of fabrics, similar to those manufactured in India from

the Tusseh and Arrindy Silk-worms, the strength and durability of

which are proverbial. Mr. Pullein, who experimented with the cocoons

of the _Cecropia_ found that twenty threads of this silk, twisted

together, would sustain nearly an ounce more in weight than the same

number of common silk.--(Vide Harris, pp. 295-303.)

_Psychidæ_ are curious caterpillars, which, being naked, cover

themselves during the larva state with a case that protects their

bodies, though open at both ends, and which they carry about with

them; these cases are made up of fragments of leaves, generally the

stems and veins, which they connect together by threads of silk. The

Germans call them Sack-bearers. Huebner called them _Canæphoræ_, or

Basket-carriers, because the cases, often made of little sticks,

resemble a basket. One genus is called _Oeceticus_, or House-insect;

and the common species, which, in some parts of the country, commits

great devastation upon the leaves of trees, is called the Drop-worm,

or the Basket-worm, in many places.

We have several genera and species belonging to this sub-family, the

most common of which are the _Thyridopteryx ephemeraformis_, and

_Oeceticus coniferarum_. The best means for the destruction of this

pest consist in persevering efforts for their individual destruction;

each case should be cut or torn off in the winter, when they show

very plainly upon deciduous trees; they may be crushed, but had better

be committed to the flames.

The Notodontians are so called from a hump or horn, which rises from

the top of the fourth ring of the caterpillar; the tail is always

raised when the insect is at rest. One of these is called, from its

horn, _Coelodasys (Notodonta) unicornis_. Some species consume the

foliage of our fruit trees, particularly the apple and quince; one of

these, the _Datana ministra_, (the _Eumetopona ministra_ of Fitch, or

the _Pygæra ministra_ of Harris), will be noticed below.

=Eudryas grata=, and =E. unio.=--The Beautiful Wood-nymph, and the

Pearl Wood-nymph.--The worms are very much alike, and resemble the

Spotted Forrester. The moths come forth in July; the fore-wings are

milk white, bordered behind and on the outer side, from the base to

the middle, with rusty brown, edged on the inner side with greenish

olive; hind-wings nankeen yellow, with a blackish-brown border. These

worms are best removed by hand-picking.

=Datana ministra=, or the Hand-maid Moth.--The moths are troublesome

visitors to the evening student in June; they are brown, hairy,

thick-bodied, and measure rather more than an inch across the wings.

This creature is destined to give us a great deal of trouble by her

progeny, for she deposits her numerous eggs on the under side of the

leaf on a twig of quince, apple, and cherry trees, where they hatch

into worms, that, during their existence of about four weeks, consume

immense quantities of foliage, often stripping the trees bare.

The worms feed gregariously, lying side by side in solid phalanx. They

are of a dark brown in their younger state, but become lighter and

more clearly marked at each successive moulting, so that they are

distinctly striped with black and yellow. The peculiar character of

this worm is, that when at rest, the head and tail are carried up in

the air, or recurved over the body, which is supported by the six prop

legs placed near the middle. When disturbed, these caterpillars often

throw their heads from side to side, as though in anger. They are

sparingly furnished with hairs, and they spin but little; though when

young, the worms will sometimes drop from the leaves when disturbed,

and hang suspended by a fine strand of silk. At full size, these

creatures are an inch and three-quarters to two inches long, and as

thick as a goose quill, so that we can readily imagine the amount of

destruction which may be committed by one of these armies or family

groups of one to two hundred worms.

TREATMENT.--Constant vigilance is required on the part of the

orchardist, and unremitting efforts while the insect is in the larval

condition. Fortunately for us, their habits are such as to aid us in a

remarkable way. They may be looked for in July, but they become

numerous only about the end of August, and in September. Some late

broods may be seen on the access of early frosts, but by the end of

September, the worms generally perfect their growth, and descend into

the earth to undergo their changes for the next season, when the moths

will again appear.

When we may be inspecting our orchards, in the summer and autumn, we

should observe any defective foliage, as this is often an indication

of the inroads of insects. If our trees have been neglected, we may

be alarmed by observing some of the thriftiest shoots and branches

quite stripped of their leaves; and, lying along the stems, or crowded

together, we shall see these unpleasant worms, unless they be foraging

upon an adjoining, or sometimes upon quite a distant branch; for, in

changing their pasture, they descend one twig and pass out upon

another, which may diverge considerably from the first.

In the early stages of their existence, however, the little worms

consume only the upper surface of the leaves, and it is at this period

that we may most advantageously attack them. The leaves that have thus

had their substance eroded become dry and whitish, and attract our

attention. They are generally found upon a single twig or spray,

usually a lateral, and it should at once be examined, as we may now

easily destroy the whole brood by rolling a single leaf between the

thumb and finger.

NOCTUÆ, OR OWLET-MOTHS, CUT-WORMS.

The perfect insects are thick-bodied, and of dull colors; they fly at

night. The caterpillars are naked, live in the soil, and feed above

ground at night, when they do considerable damage. The common

Cut-worm, _Agrotis_, is an illustration. There are several sorts,

which have received different names, but the worms all have very

similar habits.

The moths are supposed to lay their eggs in July, when they soon hatch

and feed during the season; they attain considerable size and

hybernate in the soil.

REMEDIES.--Fall and winter plowing has been recommended, as it

exposes the worms to the birds, and to the weather, but especially

because it destroys the vegetation upon which they might subsist in

the early spring. The only safe way, is to watch their traces among

our plants, and dig down beside them, find the worm, and destroy it.

Though this does not restore the plant already killed, we prevent

further damage, and may hope to thus diminish the pest in future

years, which is no small matter. A knowledge of their nocturnal habits

has induced some gardeners to go among their young plants with a lamp

or candle at night, when they may find the caterpillars feeding. A few

choice plants may be protected by wrapping their stems with a strip of

paper, or a stout leaf, (hickory), at the time of transplanting into

infested grounds; this will save them. Tobacco water has been found

very effective, applied to the plants, which it does not injure.

=Mamestra arctica=, (_Hadena amica_, of Harris, and _H. amputatrix_,

of Fitch), is a Cut-worm of a brownish color, about one and a half

inch long. It is sometimes quite destructive in the nursery and

garden, ascending woody plants, and cutting them off where succulent,

in the month of May. It can only be checked by seeking for it, in the

soil, near the base of the plants affected.

All these Cut-worms are eaten by birds, among which the crow is a

valuable aid to the farmer, and should be cherished for his services

instead of being condemned as a bird of ill-omen. Predacious insects

also consume numbers of them; one of these is the larva of a beetle,

_Harpalus calaginosus_. A large Ichneumon-fly has been found hunting

after the worms, and is considered their natural enemy.

GEOMETERS, SPAN-WORMS, CANKER-WORMS.

The measuring worms take their name from their peculiar method of

locomotion; having their legs at each end of their long bodies, they

walk by progressive leaps, arching up their backs by bringing their

hind-legs forward, and then thrusting their heads out to their full

length. Many of them drop from the trees, and hang suspended by a

thread of silk, when disturbed, or when seeking the earth to undergo

their transformations. Some of them are naked, or have few hairs; most

are smooth, often striped, or of an uniform color, like the bark of

the trees on which they feed.

The moths are slender-bodied; the wings large; of some the females

have no wings. These are the _Hybernians_, including the Canker-worm,

_Anisopterix vernata_. These caterpillars are very numerous and

destructive; they do not feed gregariously, and are difficult to

combat in that form. The pupæ are under ground, and, as the female

moths are wingless, and must ascend the trees to deposit their eggs,

we can destroy them in the perfect form by meeting them on the highway

they have to pass. Ingenious devices have been invented for this

purpose; among the most effective of these are vessels of oil,

fastened closely around the bole of the tree. The moths emerge from

the ground in early spring, but many come out during pleasant mild

days in the winter, and some even in the autumn; so the remedies must

be applied early to be of any use.

Harris describes a smaller species as the _Anisopterix pometaria_.

=Hybernia tiliaria=, or the Span-worm of the Linden, is abundant in

June, growing to the length of an inch and a half. A belt of tar,

applied to the trees, has been found effective in preventing the

ascent of the wingless females; this needs renewing daily, until the

season of their rising has passed.

=Ellopia ribearia=, or the Currant-moth, was figured and described by

Fitch as the _Abraxas? ribearia_, in New York Reports for 1856. The

worm is light yellow, with black dots. It eats the leaves of currants

and gooseberries, in June. The moth ascends from the ground in July;

it is nankeen-yellow; quite a common insect in some parts of the

country. It must have some natural enemies, for, where very abundant

one year, it sometimes disappears altogether the next. Hand-picking is

the only remedy known, and this is quite a tedious process.

TORTRICES, DELTA MOTHS, OR LEAF-ROLLERS.

The Leaf-rollers are a numerous tribe, and some of them are

troublesome upon our cultivated trees and vines. They curl up the edge

of the leaf upon which they feed, and fasten it with little bands of

silk, and thus shelter themselves from the weather and from their

enemies. They are naked worms, and generally light colored, and

exceedingly active. Some live in the unfolding leaves and flower-buds,

fastening them together so they cannot expand, while they devour the

tender tissues. Some enter the young fruit, which they cause to ripen

and fall prematurely. The moths are generally small, often prettily

marked, and fly only in the evening.

=Loxotænia rosaceana=, (_Harris_), is found soon after the buds of the

apple begin to expand. They curl up and fasten them together, and do

considerable damage.

=Penthina oculana=, (_Harris_), has similar habits, and preys upon the

apple; both must be killed by hand.

=Brachytoenia melania=, or the Many-dotted Apple Leaf-worm, is

mentioned by Fitch[40] as eating holes in the leaves, in June and

September. It is rather thick, light green, an inch and a quarter

long, with five white lines and numerous white dots; the worms spin

their cocoons in a leaf. There are two crops.

=Loxotænia cerasivorana=, (_Fitch_), or the Cherry Tortrix, is a deep

yellow worm, with black head and feet. Found in July, fastening the

leaves together and living in families, forming a large nest.[41]

=Desmia maculalis=, or the Spotted-winged Sable, or Grape Leaf-folder,

is a slender, active green worm, that feeds upon and disfigures the

leaves of our grape vines, rolling them with great regularity, and

fastening them with strong bands of beautiful white silk. The pupa is

formed within the rolled leaf. These worms begin in June, but continue

to fold the leaves during the season of growth.

They can be destroyed by hand-picking, but it requires quickness and

dexterity, as the worm escapes from either end of the open pipe when

disturbed. The warblers are very fond of them, and destroy a great

many.

=Carpocapsa pomonella=, or the Codling-moth, is one of these

Tortrices, which gives great trouble. It has been introduced from

Europe, but is steadily increasing as our orchards grow older, until

we now have few perfect fruit. The moth appears early in the summer to

lay the eggs of the first crop of worms. This insect is figured and

described by different authors, among whom Dr. Trimble, of New Jersey,

has paid it especial attention in his recent work.

The eggs are dropped singly upon the blossom end of the apple, that

affords an entrance to the young worm, which passes to the core, about

which it consumes the pulp and the seeds. The worm is whitish,

becoming flesh-colored. In warm weather it attains its growth in three

or four weeks, and makes its exit by gnawing through the side of the

fruit. It instinctively seeks the stem of the tree to secrete itself

under the scales of bark, and this affords us an opportunity to

destroy it in the pupa state, for it will creep under any shelter that

may be put in its way.

The REMEDIES will depend upon the habits of the insect. The moth,

being nocturnal, may be destroyed by burning lamps or fires in the

orchard during June, when they are first at work; cheap coal-oil may

be used for the purpose. The pupæ can be entrapped in large numbers,

by putting a piece of old rag in the crotch of the tree, beneath which

the worms will crawl to spin their cocoons, when they may easily be

destroyed. Dr. Trimble has used a trap, made by twisting a hay rope

and fastening it about the trunk of the tree; under the rope immense

numbers will be found. This trap should be examined fortnightly, as

the moths hatch out during hot weather in a shorter time than later in

the season, when some remain over winter in the pupal state.

All wormy fruit should be gathered as soon as it falls from the

trees, and either be boiled, or at once fed to swine. Hogs and sheep,

kept in the orchard, will generally consume the fruit as fast as they

fall to the ground; and this is the simplest and cheapest method of

destroying the worms.

=Chætochilus pometellus=, (_Harris_), is commonly called the

Palmer-worm. It feeds upon the leaves of our orchard and forest trees

in June. Sometimes it appears in immense numbers, and, coming after

the period for the production of new leaves, great damage is done to

the trees; old trees, and limbs of younger ones, are sometimes killed.

There have been two celebrated invasions of this insect in the Eastern

States, those of 1791 and of 1853.[42]

GRAPE VINE FEEDERS.

Grape vines are subject to the attacks of many lepidopterous insects.

Dr. Harris gives the history of seven American larvæ, mostly of large

moths, which feed upon grape leaves.

=Pterophorus periscelidactylus=, or the Gartered Grape vine Plume, is

a pale green worm, half an inch long, which hides itself in a hollow

ball of leaves, fastened together with silken threads. It is described

at length by Dr. Fitch, in the New York Agricultural Transactions.

=Ohis myron=, (_Chærocampa pampinatrix_, of _Harris_), called also the

Vine Dresser, is somewhat troublesome in the vineyards, as it eats the

leaves, and cuts off the bunches of grapes when half grown. This worm

is thick, cylindrical, tapering anteriorly, pale green, freckled with

pale yellow dots, and, when mature, a pale dusky olive; 2.25 inches

long. The pupa is found under leaves on the ground; the moth emerges

in June.

=Philampelus satellita=, and =P. Achemon=, the Satellite and Achemon

Sphinges, are large green worms that feed upon the vine. They bury

themselves in the ground when going into the pupa state, and remain

until the next July. The worms are seen in August and September.

=Procris Americana=, or the American Forrester, is found feeding upon

the grape leaves at mid-summer, (June 22). The worms feed gregariously

on the surface of a leaf, some twenty side by side, leaving only a

skeleton behind them when small, and consuming the leaf when older.

They are small, 0.60 inch long; yellowish. The moth is blue-black,

with a bright orange neck.

=Alypia 8-maculata=, or the Eight-spotted Forrester, is a light blue

worm, 1.25 inches in length. They leave the vines in July, and spin a

web on the ground; the moth appears in May; it is black, with orange

shanks; each of the fore-wings has two large, light yellow spots; the

hind-wings have two white ones. Width 1, to 1.50 inch.

ÆGERIANS.

=Ægeria exitiosa=, (_Say_), or _Trochilium exitiosum_, is well known

in its larval state as the Peach tree Borer, and is often so

destructive as to kill the trees. The habits of the worm as a borer,

and its situation at the base of the tree, are somewhat similar to

those of the apple tree borer; but while that is the footless grub of

a beetle, this is a true caterpillar, the larva of a butterfly or

moth, with feet. The females deposit their eggs from June to October,

placing them upon the bark at the surface of the ground, sometimes in

the forks of the large limbs. The larva enters, and works downward;

first consuming the bark, but afterwards eroding the wood also. Gum

exudes from the wound, mixed with their castings, and indicates their

presence. When ready to enter the pupa form, the worms come to the

surface, excavate a hollow in the wood, and prepare a tough leathery

follicle or pod, three-fourths of an inch long, in which they repose

as pupæ.

This, or an analagous insect, attacks the plum tree, and behaves in a

similar manner. The double-flowering Almond of our shrubberies is also

attacked by the borer.

The perfect insect looks more like a wasp than a butterfly, for the

wings of all this group are partially clear of feathers, and

transparent. It varies in size from a half to three-quarters of an

inch in length, and from eight-tenths to one and three-tenths of an

inch across. The female varies more than the male, and her wings are

larger in proportion to the body, which is heavier. The male is of a

deep steel-blue color, with sulphur-yellow marks, and glossy luster.

The wings are transparent and glossy; the veins margined and fringed

steel-blue.

REMEDIES will depend upon the habits of the insect, and must be

directed to the pupa and larva, though valuable preventives are

applicable to the perfect insect. The worms may be sought out by

scraping away the gum and cutting the dead bark until we find them,

often along the main roots; the follicles with the pupæ should also be

sought. This work can be done in the autumn and spring; if at the

former season, the removed earth should be left away from the stem,

when coal tar may be applied to destroy any worms left in the tree and

to act as a preventive against future attacks, but this substance

should be used with great caution. If applied, the earth should be

thrown back to the tree. Boiling soap-suds has been used with good

effects.

PREVENTIVES are sometimes better than cures, and in this case they

have been very successfully used. They all consist in means to keep

the moth from depositing her eggs in the part of the tree where,

alone, the borers can be harmful. Some raise a little mound of earth

about the tree in the spring, and allow it to remain there all summer.

The first application of this principle consisted in placing a chimney

crock about the base of the young tree when planted; into this coal

ashes, cinders, or even gravel was placed, which protected the base of

the tree. In the autumn the crock was lifted, and the materials

scattered. An open box, made of four bits of board, tacked together,

answered the same purpose. A cone of coarse brown paper, tied about

the tree with grocers' string, or pasted upon the tree itself, when

applied, will answer a very good purpose in keeping off the fly.

A small portion of sulphur thrown about the tree is said to have the

desired effect, but the statement has not been confirmed by trial. It

has been recommended to plant Tansy with every peach tree, but doubt

attaches itself to this suggestion also.

In the _American Agriculturist_, for February, 1865, is a notice of a

peach tree protector made of sheet-iron, like a stove-pipe; and in the

April number, Mr. Bouthorpe, of Massachusetts, says, he had used a

similar apparatus made of zinc, eight inches long, and twice the size

of the tree, which was of easy application; the contained space next

the tree was to be filled with loose dirt. They were found to be a

perfect protection.

=Ægeria tipuliformis=, (Linn.), or the Currant Borer, has been

imported from Europe. The eggs are laid near a bud; when hatched, the

worms penetrate the pith of young shoots, killing them.

=Ægeria pyri= is mentioned by Dr. Harris[43] as having done a good

deal of damage to pear trees, by boring under the bark. The perfect

insect resembles that of the Currant Borer, and makes its appearance

near the end of summer, leaving its chrysalis skin projecting from the

hole in the bark, whence it had escaped.

=Ægeria polistæformis=, or Grape Vine Borer, is mentioned by Mr.

Glover in the Patent Office Report for 1854, p. 80. He had received it

from North Carolina, where it was very destructive to all vines,

except the Scuppernong. This insect has become rather common in the

vineyards about Cincinnati, and its depredations, in consequence of

the large size of the caterpillar, are very serious. The eggs are laid

near the roots of the vine, and the larvæ bore into the bark and wood

during the summer, consuming them so completely, that the vine sickens

and dies, and often breaks off at the ground, or just below the

surface. When fully grown, they measure from an inch to an inch and

three-quarters in length, are thick and whitish, and they form a

pod-like chrysalis, similar to that of the Peach Tree Borer, but

within or beside the injured roots.

The moths are of a dark brown color, tinged with tawny-orange, and

banded with bright yellow on the edge of the second ring of the body;

the fore-wings are dusky, and the hind ones transparent.

REMEDIES.--No effectual methods of prevention are known; but it is

well to inspect the vines, and when the presence of the insects is

suspected, examine the roots, to find and destroy the worms.

NEUROPTERA, HYMENOPTERA, AND DIPTERA.

These several orders will be introduced together for convenience, as

they may be disposed of in a briefer mention than some of their

predecessors; because they do not contain so many species that are

noxious by preying upon our cultivated plants. Some are even of

advantage to us by their carnivorous propensities.

Among the =Neuroptera= are several which are aquatic in their larval

condition, but when winged, they devour many insects; among these are

the Dragon-flies, commonly called Devil's-needles by the children, who

dread them, but they are harmless creatures. The Ant-lions were

referred to under the head of Aphids, in the consideration of the

order _Hemiptera_, as most voracious destroyers of Plant-lice.

Reference was also made to the Lace-winged Flies, _Hemerobius_, which,

in the larval state, consume immense numbers of the same pests. A few

of these insects are injurious; among them are the White-ants,

Wood-lice, and the Wood-ticks, which are annoying, though they do not

affect our crops.

Of the =Hymenoptera= there are many which, in a perfect state, consume

the juices of our choice fruits, as well as the pollen and honey of

flowers. Their services among these last, as aids in fertilizing the

germs, is often of great importance to the fruit-grower. But, while

acknowledging our gratitude to many for this service, and to the

industrious bee for gathering abundant stores of the nectared sweets,

we have a serious charge to bring against the family for their

depredations. The wasps especially are often troublesome, particularly

in the vineyard, and their stings are annoying. Some ants are quite

injurious.

The larvæ of some species are destructive as wood borers and as

leaf-eaters, and others cause an excrescence or warty growth upon the

twigs and leaves where the eggs have been deposited; these are called

_Gall-flies_. The great benefits rendered by a very large class of

insects in this order, however, may compensate for all the evil done

by the others. I refer to the tribe of _Ichneumon-flies_ of several

genera. Some of these are very small, and deposit their eggs within

other insects, where they hatch and destroy them by feeding upon their

juices.

Many of the wasps are predaceous, and destroy numerous insects to feed

their larvæ. Some of these exercise a wonderful instinct in preparing

and securing this food for their young, which is stored up in safe

caskets with the egg, and are ready to serve as food to the young

larvæ.

The _Diptera_, or two-winged insects, form an extensive order,

containing many species, and these are composed of very numerous

individuals. Flies and mosquitos are exceedingly annoying to man and

animals, and many species, in the larval state, consume vegetable

matters; but even here they are often of use in consuming decayed

vegetation, and like many others of the order may be considered

scavengers, consuming, as they do, immense quantities of filth and

carrion, that would otherwise continue to taint the air and produce

disease.

Some of the most destructive insects of this order are the

_Gall-gnats_, among which are the Wheat-fly and the Hessian-fly, which

often sadly interfere with the farmer's prospects.

A few insects will now be noticed more in detail.

=Selandria cerasi=, or _Blennocampa cerasi_, is the common Slug of the

cherry and pear trees, and quite a troublesome hymenopterous insect.

In some parts of the United States these little creatures are so

numerous as to strip the substance from the foliage of pears and

cherries.

Our Slug resembles the _Selandria oethiops_ of Europe, but is declared

to be different. The larvæ are at first white, but the slimy substance

that oozes from their bodies covers them with an olive coating. They

have twenty very short legs; when fully grown, the largest are about

nineteen-twentieths of an inch long. The head is concealed under the

fore part of the body, which is largest before, and tapers behind.

They attain their growth in twenty days, casting their skins five

times, eating them until the last time, after which they remain free

from viscidity, and are of a clear yellow color. They leave the tree

and enter the ground to the depth of one or three inches, to form

their chrysalids. In three days they come up as flies, in July and

August, to lay eggs for a second brood, the pupæ of which remain in

the ground during the winter.

Another insect of this genus is very destructive to our rose bushes;

it is called _Selandria rosæ_.

=Selandria vitis=, is a species that appears upon our grape vines, and

is quite troublesome in some vineyards in July. They feed in companies

of a dozen or more.

REMEDIES.--Shaking them off the leaves has been recommended, but does

not promise to be effectual. When few, they should be sought for and

crushed, to prevent their increase. Though troublesome, this may be

effectually done, and their ravages leave traces that will direct us

to the leaves which contain them.

When more numerous, the foliage may be syringed with common soapsuds,

or with the whale oil soap, two pounds to fifteen gallons of water.

Air-slaked lime has been dusted upon them with good effect; ashes, and

even dry dust from the road, will destroy them, by adhering to the

slimy surface. These applications are best made when the foliage is

wet after a shower, or with the dew. The great difficulty consists in

their habit of going under the leaves, and thus being protected.

Mr. Parkman, the noted rose fancier, has found a mixture of soap and

petroleum of great service, as it kills the slugs without injuring the

buds and foliage. To a gallon of soft soap he adds two-thirds of a

pint of petroleum, mixes them thoroughly, and dissolves in half a

barrel of water; to be applied with a syringe.

=Diptera.=--Dr. Fitch describes as a new species _Malobrus mali_. He

found them in a fruit that had been perforated by the Codling-moth.

The larvæ are transparent; the flies resemble the Hessian-fly, that

destroys the wheat plant.[44]

=Cecidomyia grossulariæ=, or Gooseberry Midge, attacks the fruit,

giving it the appearance of ripening prematurely. Considerable fruit

is lost in this way.[45]

In closing this chapter, the author feels obliged to express his

regrets that no more space could have been appropriated to this

important subject. He could only indicate some of the most troublesome

insects of our orchards and vineyards, and he hopes that the reader

will be induced to pursue the investigation for himself. He knows, by

experience, that the study will bring its own reward in the

information that is received, and which is absolutely necessary to

enable us to combat these troublesome pests successfully.

FOOTNOTES:

[23] _Practical Entomologist_, 518 South 13th street, Philadelphia,

fifty cents a year, in advance.

[24] Vide _Prairie Farmer_, _American Agriculturist_, _Country

Gentleman_, etc.

[25] See Practical Entomologist, Vol. II, p. 32.

[26] See Practical Entomologist, Vol. II, p. 31.

[27] Harris, p. 205.

[28] Harris' Report, p. 310.

[29] For further details of these insects, the reader is referred to

Fitch's Report, pp. 82 to 98.

[30] Rept. cit., p. 100.

[31] Rept. cit., p. 122.

[32] Rept. cit., p. 125.

[33] Rept. cit., p. 134.

[34] Trans. N.Y. Ag'l Soc., 1856, p. 359.

[35] Lib. cit. p. 435.

[36] Harris' Rept. p. 211.

[37] For further particulars respecting these insects, consult Dr.

Fitch's Rept., p. 5, and Harris's Rept., p. 241.

[38] Vide Harris' Rept., p. 232.

[39] Rept., p. 403.

[40] Rept., p. 241.

[41] Vide Fitch, in N.Y. Trans. 1856, p. 382.

[42] For interesting details vide Fitch's Rept., p. 221.

[43] Rept., p. 256.

[44] See Fitch's Report, p. 176.

[45] See Fitch's Report, p. 252.

CHAPTER XV.

CHARACTERS OF FRUITS AND THEIR VALUE. TERMS USED.

IMPORTANCE OF SEIZING THE STRONG MARKS. EXTERNAL; WEIGHT, SHAPE,

SIZE, SURFACE. BASIN AND EYE. CAVITY AND STEM. INTERNAL; FLESH,

CORE, AXIS, SEEDS, FLAVOR. THESE CONSIDERED SEPARATELY AND

ILLUSTRATED. EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. SHAPE REFERRED TO

RELATIONS OF THE DIAMETERS; AXIAL AND TRANSVERSE. LEADING FORMS

DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED. SIZE, A COMPARATIVE TERM. SKIN

CHARACTERS, COLOR; ITS USE IN CLASSIFYING. PERMANENCE OF

STRIPES. LINES. DOTS AND SPECKS. FUNGOUS SPOTS. FORMS OF BASIN

AND EYE, OF CAVITY AND STEM, ARE VALUABLE; TERMS USED. THE

INTERIOR, AXIS, CORE, SEEDS, FLESH. FLAVOR UNCERTAIN. SWEET AND

SOUR GOOD CHARACTERS. QUALITY, TERMS EXPRESSIVE OF.

In the description of a fruit, it is very desirable for the writer to

catch the strong characters, so that he, who reads, may the more

readily identify the specimen he holds in his hand. Among these

several characters there is considerable difference as to their

permanence and value; some are evanescent, some variable, while others

are found to be more reliable and constant. Let us consider some of

these in the systematic order by which they will be taken in the

descriptions that are to follow.

In describing a fruit, the firmness, weight, and external characters,

first claim our attention, then the internal; these are taken up in

the following order: externally, its shape, size, surface, color, and

dots are examined. In the apple and pear the basin is next observed

and its characters noted, with any peculiarities connected with the

eye, by which term the triangular space is designated that is embraced

by the calyx, as shown in an axial section of the fruit; at the same

time the length and breadth and shape of the calyx segments are noted.

The other end of the fruit is then explored as to the form and

markings of the cavity, and the length, size, and peculiarities of the

stem. Having thus disposed of the externals, we are now to investigate

the nature of the internal structure; to do this, a section is made

vertically through the middle of the fruit from the eye to the stem,

which exposes the flesh, the axis with its core and the seeds, and

which enables us to investigate some very important characters, such

as the length of the axis, its form and that of its carpels, and the

manner of their union, whether they form an open core or otherwise.

The number, color, and shape of the seeds are noted. The color of the

flesh, its texture and juiciness are examined; the latter qualities

are always tested by the teeth, and then the palate gives us an

account of the degree of richness, acidity, or sweetness and flavor.

The investigator is now prepared to render judgment; having the

testimony of his organs of touch, sight, taste and smell, he can

pronounce his decision as to quality, and is prepared to specify the

particular uses to which the fruit is especially adapted; whether for

the table as a dessert, for the kitchen, as in baking and stewing, or

for drying, or whether it be valuable for cider-making. A good judge

will now be able to decide whether the fruit be especially adapted for

the market or for the amateur. The season of ripening should be noted

in this place, with any remark as to qualities not already provided

for.

FORM is one of our most permanent characters; though subject to

modifications, the general shape of the specimens is always

characteristic of the variety. Even a novice will soon learn the

peculiar outline of a variety of fruit.

Before commencing the study of these varieties of form, it will be

well to explain some of the leading terms introduced. By referring to

the illustrations, it will be observed that the outlines are inscribed

in circles to which they are compared; these are drawn with dotted

lines, and they are bisected with cross lines representing the two

diameters referred to in the classification by form: the vertical or

axial diameter, _AA_, passing through the axis of the fruit, and the

transverse diameter, _BB_, at right angles to the vertical.

The FORM may be _round_ or _globular_ when it is nearly spherical; the

two diameters, the axial and transverse, being nearly equal; fig. 30.

_Globose_ is another term of about the same meaning.

_Conic_, or _conical_, indicates a decided contraction toward the

blossom end, fig. 31; _Ob-conic_ implies that the cone is very short

or flattened.

[Illustration: Fig. 30.--ROUND.]

[Illustration: Fig. 31.--CONICAL.]

[Illustration: Fig. 32.--OBLONG OR TRUNCATE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 33.--OBLONG CONIC.]

[Illustration: Fig. 34.--OVATE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 35.--OBLATE.]

_Oblong_ means that the axial diameter is the longer, or that it

appears so, for an oblong apple may have equal diameters; fig. 32.

_Oblong-conic_, that the outline also tapers rapidly toward the eye;

fig. 33.

_Oblong-ovate_, that it is fullest in the middle; and like

_Ovate_, which means egg-shaped, that it tapers to both ends; fig. 34.

_Oblate_, or flattened, when the axial diameter is decidedly the

shorter; fig. 35.

_Obtuse_ is applied to any of these figures that is not very decided.

_Cylindrical_ and _truncate_ are dependent upon one another, thus a

globular, or still more remarkably, an oblong fruit, which is abruptly

truncated or flattened at the ends, appears cylindrical in its form.

_Depressed_ is an unusually flattened oblate form.

_Turbinate_ or top-shaped, and _pyriform_ or pear-shaped, are

especially applicable to pears, and seldom to apples.

When these forms are described evenly about a vertical axis, as shown

by a section of the fruit made transversely, or across the axis, the

specimen may be called _regular_ or _uniform_, fig. 36; if otherwise,

it is _irregular_, fig. 37, _unequal_, fig. 38, _oblique_ or

_lop-sided_, fig. 39, in which last cases the axis is inclined to one

side. If the development at the surface is irregular, as in the

Duchesse d'Angouleme and Bartlett pears, the fruit is termed _uneven_.

[Illustration: Fig. 36.--REGULAR.]

[Illustration: Fig. 37.--IRREGULAR.]

[Illustration: Fig. 38.--UNEQUAL.]

[Illustration: Fig. 39.--LOP-SIDED.]

[Illustration: Fig. 40.--COMPRESSED.]

[Illustration: Fig. 41.--QUADRANGULAR.]

When a transverse section of the fruit, made at right angles to the

axis, gives the figure of a circle, the fruit is _regular_; if

otherwise, it may be _compressed_ or flattened at the sides, fig. 40;

_angular_, _quadrangular_, fig. 41; sulcate or _furrowed_, fig. 42,

when marked by sulcations; or _ribbed_, fig. 43, when the intervening

ridges are abrupt. _Heart-shaped_ is a form that applies more

especially to the cherry, than any other kind of fruit.

[Illustration: Fig. 42.--SULCATE.]

[Illustration: Fig. 43.--RIBBED.]

SIZE is a character of but second rate importance, since it is

dependent upon the varying conditions of soil, climate, overbearing,

etc. It has its value, however, when it is considered as comparative

or relative. The expressions employed in this work to indicate size,

are: _very large_, _large_, _medium_, _small_, _very small_, making

five grades.

The characters of the SKIN and surface are generally very reliable,

though the smoothness of the skin as well as the coloring depend upon

both soil and climate. We find, however, that a striped apple which

has been shaded, though pale, will always betray itself by a splash or

stripe, be it ever so small or rare, nor will any exposure so deepen

and exaggerate its stripes as to make it a self-colored fruit; and no

circumstances will introduce a true stripe upon a self-colored

variety. Hence we may consider this kind of marking a reliable

character, and apply it as an element of our classification. We

sometimes find _lines_ on self-colored fruits that are as distinctive

as the stripes, but entirely distinct from them.

The skin itself may be either _thick_ or _thin_, _smooth_, _rough_, or

_polished_, and it is sometimes _uneven_; it may be covered with a

_bloom_, it may be _russeted_ in whole or in part, and this may be

thickly or thinly spread over the surface, or only net-veined. A sort

of russeting occurs about the stem only in some varieties, and is

never seen in others, making a pretty good character, but in the same

variety it is often much increased or diminished.

This character, russet on the skin, has been very puzzling to young

pomologists in the study of pears, owing to its liability to

exaggeration in some varieties, under the influence of certain

climatic conditions that have even produced it in varieties in which

it had not been previously suspected. Some pears are characterized by

this russeting of the skin, either generally spread over the surface

or confined to a limited area at either end of the fruit, particularly

about the insertion of the stem; others have never shown any

disposition to put on this character, but, under certain circumstances

some varieties, which should have been smooth and fair, become thickly

spread with this russeting, that seems even to thicken the skin and

which deteriorates the qualities of the fruit. In some cases this

appearance is local, occupying one end of the fruit, or making a band

around the middle and contracting it like a cincture, as though its

presence prevented the proper growth and development of the sarcocarp

or fleshy mass of the fruit.

The colors themselves being as various almost as the hues of the

rainbow, will be designated by their appropriate or customary names;

the manner of their laying on will require the use of certain definite

terms, which should be understood to comprehend the classification,

which, in part, depends upon this circumstance. Thus a fruit is called

_self-colored_ when it is not striped, though it may be _blushed_ or

_bronzed_, and the coloring may be so broken, without stripes, as to

be _mixed_ or curdled, _blotched_, marbled, _mottled_, _clouded_,

_spotted_, _stained_, _shaded_ or _dappled_; but some of these

characters are often found associated with striping also, or they are

observed in those kinds of fruit that are always devoid of stripes.

Striped fruits are often so deeply colored that the separate stripes

do not appear so distinctly, as when there are fewer of them on a

lighter ground and they can scarcely be perceived. When the stripes

are long and distinct, they are called _streaks_; when short and

broken abruptly at their ends, the surface is said to be _splashed_.

Certain pears are striped by a paleness or faintness of color, these

are called _panache_, and are considered sports of their namesake

varieties which they resemble in other respects. A few peaches are

distinctly striped; some plums and cherries obscurely so.

* * * * *

Another class of surface or skin characters consists in the DOTS and

SPECKS, which appear to be very valuable distinctive markings, on

account of their uniformity in different varieties. These may be

_large_ or _small_, _numerous_ or _scattered_, _darker_ or _lighter_

colored, _prominent_ or _indented_. In shape they are _round_ or

_elongated_, and this last is a valuable character because quite rare.

Sometimes the dots are characterized by having a green base or areola

around them, which is very noticeable, and in some varieties these

marks, which are perhaps the stomata of the skin, are surrounded by

distinct rings of a gray color, that resemble _ocellations_ or eyes.

No reliance can be placed upon the delicate coloring that is often to

be seen upon the surface of certain light colored fruits, making rose,

red, or purplish tints about these dots, as they are accidental only

and not distinctive markings.

No one should confound these pores, that are designated as the _dots_,

with the superficial and extraneous marks that appear to be the

accidental growth of some fungus or lichen, and which are very

commonly found upon the surface of many fruits, often giving them a

quite pretty appearance that would be seized upon by the fruit painter

as a special beauty, unless when so abundant as to produce an

unpleasant smutchiness or cloudiness, such as is often found in the

product of apple orchards that are situated in low bottom lands, and

which peculiarity is attributed to the influence of fogs.

The BASIN or APEX of a fruit consists of that portion most distant

from the stem. In the apple and pear it is commonly called the blossom

end, and is often more or less depressed; hence the term _basin_. In

other fruits it is called the point or _apex_. Both are characterized

by peculiarities of form that serve as distinctive marks in the

description of fruits, and these are characters of considerable value

on account of their permanence. In respect to its form, the basin,

according to its depth, is called _deep_, fig. 44; _shallow_, fig. 45;

_very shallow_, or _medium_. It is _abrupt_, fig. 44, when the edges

are steep; it is _narrow_ and _pointed_, fig. 46, or _wide_; it is

_regular_, or _wavy_, _wrinkled_, _plaited_, _folded_, _ribbed_ or

angular, fig. 46--when these peculiarities exist.

[Illustration: Fig. 44.--DEEP AND ABRUPT.]

[Illustration: Fig. 45.--SHALLOW.]

[Illustration: Fig. 46.--NARROW AND FOLDED.]

Some fruits are _russeted_ at this part of their surface only, but

this marking is a variable character and is found in greater or less

degree in different localities; thus the Rhode Island Greening, to

which it belongs, is sometimes almost entirely divested of the

russeting, and in other localities the surface is thickly spread with

it half way to the stem; the Westfield Seek-no-further, which is

slightly marked with this character in the North, often becomes a

russet apple in more southern latitudes.

The basin of some fruits is very apt to crack into irregular fissures,

and this appears to be peculiar to certain varieties, though it is not

esteemed a very reliable mark; the term _cracked_ is used to express

this. In some fruits, however, we find a very peculiar cracking that

forms a permanent character, upon which great dependence may be

placed: all the rim of the basin in these is marked with a slightly

cracked appearance that does not rupture the skin, and which resembles

the incipient breaking of the surface of a piece of dry leather; it

has, therefore, received the name of _leather-crack_. This is

characteristic of a few sorts, and hence a valuable mark.

Within the basin is the EYE, which furnishes characters of great

value. This I consider to mean the meeting of the segments of the

calyx, and more particularly in the apple, the triangular space

enclosed by these parts, in which the remains of the stamens and

pistils are found. Hence the Eye can only be displayed by making a

vertical section of the fruit. There are but a limited number of

expressions used in its description; thus the eye is said to be

_large_, _small_, _long_ or _short_, and it may be _open_ or _closed_.

The segments of the calyx may be _converging_ or _reflexed_,

_persistent_ or _obsolete_, according to their condition in the ripe

fruit, and these several characters are quite reliable; but the simple

fact that the eye is _open_ or _closed_, may depend upon the

accidental breaking away of the segments of the calyx, and is of

little value as a sign.

[Illustration: Fig. 47.--DEEP, STEM LONG.]

[Illustration: Fig. 48.--WIDE, STEM STOUT.]

[Illustration: Fig. 49.--WAVY, STEM CLUBBED.]

The next character to be considered is the attachment of the stem,

which, in some fruits, is so depressed as to constitute what is called

the CAVITY. In the apple this portion has many variations that are

quite characteristic of certain varieties of fruit. In form the cavity

may be either _deep_, fig. 47, or _shallow_; _regular_ or _irregular_;

_wide_, fig. 48; or _narrow_, and _acute_, _wavy_, fig. 49; and

_uneven_, _folded_, and even _lipped_, fig. 50; as when a portion of

the flesh protrudes against the stem, as in Pryor's Red, Roman Stem,

and other apples, and in some pears. This portion is sometimes defaced

by _cracks_ that separate the skin; it is occasionally green, and this

is a good and distinguishing character of a limited number of fruits,

both apples and pears. The cavity is also _brown_ or "_russeted_" in

some fruits, and, though this character is quite variable in its

depth, amount and extent, we may consider the _brown_ or _russeting

about the stem_ quite reliable in both pears and apples.

[Illustration: Fig. 50.--CAVITY LIPPED.]

The stem has its place of insertion in the region we have just been

considering. It is the peduncle of botanists, and in some species it

separates from the fruit by a joint--in others it remains attached and

separates from the twig, when it is considered a part of the fruit

itself, as in the apple and pear. The shape, average length,

thickness, and other characters, and especially its mode of attachment

to the carpos[46] in the pear, give us some important characters, but

these are always somewhat uncertain and variable; hence they are

rather relative than positive traits. In apples, stems may be _long_,

fig. 47, _short_, fig. 48, or _medium_, according to their projection

beyond or concealment within the cavity, being called _medium_ when

they simply reach the contour of the outline. They are _slender_, fig.

47; _medium_ or _thick_, _fleshy_, _knobby_ or _clubbed_, fig. 49,

according to the amount of their substance and its arrangement. They

are _curved_ or _straight_, and _direct_ and _axial_, or _inclined_,

according to their direction and relation to the axis of the fruit;

and in pears, they often have a peculiarity of the insertion dependent

upon their being more or less fleshy; in both plums and pears, this

fullness is often arranged in rings surrounding the base of the stem.

Some pomologists have taken great pains to measure the length of the

stems, which they report in inches and lines. As above stated, this is

an uncertain quantity, and therefore of little value, except when

taken in relation to other measurements by way of comparison; hence I

have preferred to use the above-mentioned terms only in their relation

to the axial diameter in describing the apples, unless where their

extension is unusual. The variable length of this organ in some

varieties is remarkable, and we often find the smallest fruits having

the longest stems.

When we come to examine the interior portions of a fruit, if it be an

apple or pear, we make a vertical section through the axis from basin

to cavity. This exposes the internal structure and enables us to judge

of the color and other characters of the fleshy pericarp, the length

of the axis, the size of the core and carpels, and the number and

appearance of the seeds. These characters are possessed of value, and

are quite reliable; in many fruits the seeds furnish distinctive

indications, and this is particularly the case with the stone fruits,

many of which are readily identified by the form and markings of the

stones or pits, the _endocarps_ of botany.

In the apple particularly, we first have our attention drawn to the

AXIS, which is sometimes very _short_, so that in some decidedly

oblate specimens, with deep basin and cavity, there is scarcely room

between them for the core, which is shortened to correspond with the

oblate character of the fruit. This is illustrated by many of the

outlines given in Class I. It is well also to observe and note whether

the axis be inclined. The form of the _core_ is not very reliable, but

it has characters that are permanent and peculiar to certain

varieties. Thus it is always _open_ in some, and always _closed_ in

other sorts of the apple. In the pear it is _gritty_ in some

varieties, and surrounded with fine grained flesh in others. The core

is _large_, _medium_, or _small_, and these distinctions are

permanent. Its outline, embracing the group of carpels, may be

_regular_ or _irregular_, _long_ or _short_, _cordate_, _wide_ or

_compressed_; it may reach the eye or otherwise, and it frequently

clasps that portion.

The SEEDS are _numerous_ or otherwise; they are _long_ or _short_,

_acuminate_ or _rounded_, _flat_, _angular_, _imperfect_, or _plump_,

_large_ or _small_; they may be _pale_, even _yellow_, or _brown_,

_dark_, and nearly _black_; and these shades are distinctive, often

enabling the pomologist to decide upon the variety when other

characters are less marked. The peculiarities of the stones of

peaches, plums and cherries, and of the seeds of the grape, had better

be described in immediate connection with those species of fruit.

In the FLESH of fruits we find characters that most pomologists, even

the amateurs, are generally pleased to have under practical

consideration. They are also very reliable, for if the fruits be in

good condition, they are always the same in any given variety. In its

consistency, this tissue is either _firm_ and _compact_, or _spongy_;

it is _fine grained_, _granular_, _gritty_, _fibrous_, or _breaking_,

on the one hand, or _tender_, _buttery_ and _melting_, on the other;

the flesh is either _dry_ or _juicy_, and tinted with various shades

of color. In some we find a satisfying _richness_, while others are

_thin_ and poor. Some have a fine aroma, while others have an

unpleasant flavor or are scentless.

So intimately associated are our organs of taste and smell, that it is

difficult to separate and distinguish the impressions we receive

through these senses. For our present purpose it will be best to

consider all under this head, whether really belonging to one or the

other sensation; and the lexicographers themselves admit the

commonalty of taste and smell in the word _flavor_. These qualities of

a fruit depend upon so many accidents of season, culture, and

especially of the condition of ripeness, that they are of

comparatively little value in descriptions, except in their broadest

expressions of acidity and its opposite, which indeed are sufficiently

pronounced to be used in the classification of fruits.

With regard to their FLAVOR, fruits may be said to be _vinous_,

_sub-acid_, _acid_, and _very acid_, or _sugary_, _sweet_, _very

sweet_, and _honey sweet_; they may be _flat_ and _insipid_, or

_highly flavored_, _mild_, or _astringent_; and as to fragrance, in

which they may remind us of many other agreeable odors, they may be

said to be _perfumed_ and _aromatic_, or otherwise.

In deciding upon the quality of the fruit that has thus been subjected

to this series of tests, and to this thorough examination, we shall

find that the decision will depend upon the individual tastes, the

likes and dislikes of those who are called upon to render judgment,

and that, at best, the result must be arbitrary. The terms expressive

of this division are _inferior_, _good_, _very good_, and _best_.

FOOTNOTES:

[46] From <karpos>, Greek, for fruit.

CHAPTER XVI.

CLASSIFICATION.

NECESSITY FOR. BASIS OF. CHARACTERS. SHAPE. ITS REGULARITY.

FLAVOR. COLOR. THEIR SEVERAL VALUES. THOMAS' CLASSIFICATION.

GERMAN WRITERS. DIEL'S SEVEN CLASSES. MODIFICATIONS BY

DOCHNAHL. ROBERT HOGG'S MODIFICATION BASED UPON SEASON. DIEL'S

CONSPECTUS OF CLASSIFICATION. DOCHNAHL'S. THE AUTHOR'S

CLASSIFICATION EXPLAINED. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. TOPICS

COMBINED. CONSPECTUS OF CLASSIFICATION USED IN THIS WORK.

The need of some classification grows more and more pressing, as our

fruit lists have become more extended, and they now reach many

hundreds. A good and reliable systematic classification has become

absolutely necessary, and has received a great deal of consideration.

Upon what principle shall this classification be founded? The common

alphabetical arrangement of most text books may be very convenient for

a mere dictionary of fruits, but is utterly useless to the novice who

does not know the name of his specimen. The arrangement by season and

size has its difficulties in the uncertainty and variation of these

characters in the different soils and climates of our extended

country, and a sub-division and grouping of fruits by their quality of

excellence is not only unreliable, but is altogether arbitrary, and

subject to the greatest diversity of opinion arising from the various

tastes of different individuals. We must look to some marked and

reliable characters that are always present, easily recognized, and

permanent or fixed. Among these shape or figure stands pre-eminent,

notwithstanding the acknowledged fact that some varieties are almost

protean. The shape of the general outline appears to be the best

character for the broad divisions of a classification. A sub-division

may again be made, which is to be based upon the regularity or

irregularity of the shape.

The next character, and one of considerable value, is that dependent

upon _flavor_ in its broadest characters of sweet and sour, which,

though sometimes giving rise to a puzzling question, is, in most

varieties, sufficiently marked to constitute the basis of a minor

sub-division. _Color_, which is notoriously the poorest character and

least esteemed by botanists in their descriptions, on account of its

liability to variation, is, however, of sufficient importance in

pomology to take a high rank and to appear very prominently in fruit

nomenclature. Still it should be reserved for the lowest sub-divisions

of a classification.

Among our American writers, who deservedly stand prominent as

pomologists, the most satisfactory attempt at classification is found

in the little work prepared by J.J. Thomas. No one who has realized

the advantages to be derived from the simple and clear sub-divisions

made by this author, will ever be satisfied with a fruit-book that is

not arranged upon the basis of some classification. Thomas, in his

excellent work, makes three great divisions of apples according to

their period of ripening, as the _Summer_, _Autumn_, and _Winter_

fruits, to which some of us would desire to add _Spring_, or

long-keepers. Each of these he has divided into two classes--those

characterized by their flavor as _sweet_ apples, and those possessed

of more or less acidity; and each of these classes is subdivided into

two sections, according to their color, as striped with red and not

striped; so that in this arrangement we have eighteen groups, and,

with specimen in hand, this synopsis enables us at once to decide in

which of these groups of moderate dimensions we may look for the

description we desire; and, if it be contained in the book, it may

readily be found. The labor of searching through the whole list is

thus obviated.

The Germans have made many attempts at the classification of fruits.

Christ, Diel, Dochnahl, Manger and Sickler, have been engaged in this

work; and Diel's Synopsis, though far from perfect, has been generally

adopted. He makes seven classes, with orders under each. Dochnahl, a

later writer, has modified this by making two sections according to

the shape, whether _angular_ or _spherical_, and four classes also

based upon their form.

Robert Hogg, in his _British Pomology_, which is an excellent account

of the apples cultivated in England, has given a modification which

answers a good purpose for classification. He makes three great

sections, according to season, _Summer_, _Autumn_, and _Winter_. Each

of these is divided into two classes, according to shape: 1st,

_Round_, _roundish_, or _oblate_; and 2nd, _Oblong_, _conical_,

_oval_, or _ovate_. These again are grouped according to their colors:

A, _pale_; B, _striped_; C, _red_; and D, _russet_.

As a matter of interest I will give Diel's classification.

CLASS I.--RIBBED APPLES.

1. They are furnished with very prominent, but regular ribs around the

eye, extending also over the fruit, but which do not render it

irregular.

2. Having wide, open, and very irregular cells.

+ORDER I.--TRUE CALVILLES.+

1. They taper from about the middle of the fruit toward the eye.

2. They are covered with bloom when on the tree.

3. They have, or acquire, by keeping, an unctuous skin.

4. They are not distinctly and purely striped.

5. They have light, spongy, delicate flesh.

6. They have a strawberry or raspberry flavor.

+ORDER II.--SCHLOTTER ÆPFEL.+

1. The skin does not feel unctuous.

2. They are not covered with bloom.

3. They are either of a flat, conical, cylindrical, or tapering form.

4. They have not a balsamic, but mostly a sweetish or sourish flavor.

5. They have a granulous, loose, and coarse-grained flesh.

+ORDER III.--GUELDERLINGE.+

1. They are not balsamic, like Order I., but of an aromatic flavor.

2. They have a fine flesh, almost like that of the Reinettes.

3. They are either of a conical or flat shape.

4. They are most prominently ribbed around the eye.

CLASS II--ROSENÆPFEL--ROSE APPLES.

1. They are covered with blue bloom when on the tree.

2. They have not unproportionally large, but often only regular

cells.

3. They emit a pleasant odor when briskly rubbed.

4. The skin does not feel unctuous.

5. They are handsomely and regularly ribbed around the eye, and often

also over the fruit.

6. They have a tender, loose, spongy, and mostly fine grained flesh.

7. They have a fine rose, fennel, or anise flavor.

8. They are mostly of short duration, and are often only summer or

autumn apples.

9. They are mostly striped like a turnip.

+ORDER I.--FRUIT TAPERING OR OBLONG.+

+ORDER II.--FRUIT ROUND OR FLAT.+

CLASS III.--RAMBOURS.

1. They are all large apples, and comprise the largest sorts.

2. They have mostly, or almost always, two unequal halves--namely, one

side lower than the other.

3. They are constantly furnished with ribs around the eye which are

broad, rising irregularly, one above the other, and extending over the

fruit so as to render it irregular in its shape; they are also

compressed, and have one side higher than the other.

4. They are constantly broader than high, and only sometimes

elongated.

5. They have all a loose, coarse grained and often very pleasant

flesh.

+ORDER I.--WITH WIDE CELLS.+

+ORDER II.--WITH NARROW CELLS.+

CLASS IV.--REINETTES.

1. They have a fine grained, delicate, crisp, firm flesh.

2. They are mostly the ideal of a handsomely shaped apple; in them the

convexity or bulge of the middle of the apple towards the eye is the

same as that towards the stalk, or not much different.

3. They are all gray dotted, or have russety patches, or completely

covered with russet.

4. They have rarely an unctuous skin.

5. They have all the rich, aromatic, sugary, and brisk flavor, which

is called the Reinette flavor.

6. They decay very readily, and must, of all apples, hang longest on

the tree.

7. The really sweet and at the same time aromatic apples belong to the

Reinettes, only as regards their shape, their character, and their

fine and firm flesh.

8. Apples with fine, firm, crisp flesh, which cannot of themselves

form a distinct class; for instance, the Pippins belong to this class.

+ORDER I.--SELF-COLORED REINETTES.+

1. Having a uniform green ground color, which changes to the most

beautiful golden yellow.

2. Having no lively colors or marks of russet on the side next the

sun, except those that are very much exposed, and which assume a

slight tinge of red.

3. Having no covering of russet, but only slight traces of russety

stripes.

+ORDER II.--RED REINETTES.+

Having all the properties of the self-colored Reinettes, but of a pure

red on the side next the sun, without any mixture of russet.

+ORDER III.--GRAY REINETTES.+

1. The ground color is green, changing to dingy dull yellow.

2. The coating of russet, or the russety patches, spread over the

greater part of the fruit, are very conspicuous.

3. The side next the sun is often dull brownish or ochreous red.

+ORDER IV.--GOLDEN REINETTES.+

1. On the side next the sun they are washed or striped with beautiful

crimson.

2. The ground color changes by keeping to a beautiful deep yellow.

3. Over the ground color, and the crimson of the exposed side, are

spread light thin patches, or a complete coat of russet.

CLASS V.--STREIFLINGE--STRIPED APPLES.

1. They are all, and almost always, marked with broken stripes of red.

2. These stripes are found either over the whole fruit, or only very

indistinctly on the side exposed to the sun.

3. The stripes may be distinct--that is to say, truly striped; or

between these stripes on the side next the sun the fruit is dotted,

shaded, or washed with red; but on the shaded side the stripes are

well defined.

4. The cells are regular.

5. They are of a purely sweet, vinous, or acid flavor.

6. They have not the same flavor as the Rose apples.

7. They do not decay, except when gathered before maturity.

+ORDER I.--FLAT STREIFLINGE.+

1. They have the bulge at the same distance from the eye as from the

stalk, and are broadly flattened.

2. They are constantly half an inch broader than high.

+ORDER II.--TAPERING STREIFLINGE.+

1. They are broader than high.

2. They diminish from the middle of the apple towards the eye, so that

the superior half is conical or pyramidal, and not at all similar to

the inferior half.

+ORDER III.--OBLONG OR CYLINDRICAL STREIFLINGE.+

1. The hight and breadth are almost equal.

2. They diminish gradually from the base to the apex.

3. Or from the middle of the fruit they gradually diminish toward the

base and apex equally.

+ORDER IV.--ROUND STREIFLINGE.+

1. The convexity of the fruit next the base and the apex is the same.

2. The breadth does not differ from the hight, except only about a

quarter of an inch.

3. Laid in the hand, with the eye and stalk sidewise, they have the

appearance of a roundish grape.

CLASS VI.--TAPERING APPLES.

1. They have the cells regular.

2. They are not covered with bloom.

3. They are not striped, and are either of a uniform color, or washed

with red on the side next the sun.

4. Constantly diminishing to a point towards the eye.

5. They are sweet or vinous, approaching a pure acid.

6. They do not readily decay.

+ORDER I.--OBLONG, CYLINDRICAL OR CONICAL.+

Characters the same as Order III. of the Streiflinge.

+ORDER II.--TAPERING TO A POINT.+

Characters the same as Order II. of the Streiflinge.

CLASS VII.--FLAT APPLES.

1. They are constantly broader than high.

2. They are never striped.

3. They are either of a uniform color, or, on the side exposed to the

sun, more or less washed or shaded with red.

4. They have regular cells.

5. They are not unctuous when handled.

6. They do not readily decay.

7. Flavor purely sweet, or purely sour.

+ORDER I.--PURELY FLAT APPLES.+

1. The difference is obvious to the eye.

2. The breadth is constantly half an inch more than the hight.

+ORDER II.--ROUND-SHAPED FLAT APPLES.+

1. The eye cannot easily detect a distinction between the breadth and

hight.

2. The breadth rarely exceeds the hight by a quarter of an inch.

3. The fruit, cut transversely, exhibits almost or quite two equal

halves.

DOCHNAHL'S CLASSIFICATION.

=SECTION I.--PLEUROIDEA.=--ANGULAR OR RIBBED.

Having sharp or flat ribs, which extend over the length of the fruit

and are most prominent around the eye, where they are most generally

situated.

CLASS I.--MALA CYDONARIA--QUINCE-SHAPED.

+ORDER I.--CALVILLES.+

1. They have large heart-shaped cells, open towards the axis, or often

entirely torn; the cells extend very often from the stalk even to the

tube of the calyx.

2. They diminish from about the middle of the fruit, or a little above

it, towards the eye.

3. They are regular, and provided generally with fine ribs, which do

not disfigure the fruit.

4. On the tree, the fruit is covered with bloom.

5. They are never distinctly striped.

6. Their flesh is soft, loose, fine and light, of a balsamic flavor,

similar to that of strawberries or raspberries.

7. The eye is frequently closed.

8. Many of them acquire by keeping an oily or unctuous skin.

GROUP I.--Fruit red, almost entirely covered with red.

GROUP II.--Fruit parti-colored; yellow; very much striped or washed

with red.

GROUP III.--Fruit yellow; of a whitish, greenish, or golden yellow.

+ORDER II.--PSEUDO-CALVILLES.+

1. The cells are almost the same as the true Calvilles--very large and

open.

2. The calycinal tube is wide and generally very short.

3. They are slightly narrowed toward the eye, and flattened toward the

stalk.

4. Their ribs are very prominent, especially around the eye.

5. They are aromatic, and have not the balsamic flavor of the true

Calvilles.

6. Their flesh is fine, opaque, a little succulent, and almost equal

to the Reinettes.

GROUPS I., II., III., as above.

CLASS II.--MALA PYRARIA--PEAR-SHAPED.

Their flavor is neither balsamic nor aromatic; they are purely sweet

or acid; their flesh is granulous and loose.

+ORDER I.--TREMARIA--SEEDS LOOSE.+

1. They are almost always large apples, the skin of which is neither

unctuous nor covered with bloom.

2. They are also furnished with ribs; but they are not so regular as

in the Calvilles.

3. The cells are very large, irregular, widened, and generally open.

4. The calycinal tube is most generally widely conical, and does not

extend to the cells.

5. They are of a flattened, conical, cylindrical or pointed shape.

6. Their flesh is loose, more often a little coarse, and of a slightly

balsamic flavor.

7. The leaves of these trees are very large, rather deeply dentated,

and less downy than those of the Calvilles.

GROUP I.--_Unicolores_--Green, greenish, yellow, or golden yellow, and

slightly tinged with red.

GROUP II.--_Bicolores_--Yellow or green, and distinctly striped or

washed with red.

+ORDER II.--RAMBURES.+

1. They are all very large.

2. They have almost always the two halves unequal.

3. They are constantly broader than high, and appear sometimes higher

than they are.

4. They are not furnished with ribs, except around the eye; these are

often irregular in numbers, and frequently form broad projections on

the fruit.

5. They do not decay, but shrivel when they have passed maturity.

6. The flesh is coarsely granulous, rarely aromatic, nevertheless

often very agreeable.

GROUP I.--_Capsulis amplis_--Wide cells.

GROUP II.--_Capsulis angustis_--Narrow cells.

SECTION II.--SPHÆROIDÆ--SPHERICAL.

They have sometimes prominences on the fruit and around the eye, but

never true ribs.

CLASS III.--MALA MESPILARIA--MEDLAR SHAPED.

Their flavor is sweet, aromatic, similar to that of the Rose, fennel

or anise.

+ORDER I.--APIANA, OR ROSE APPLES.+

Their flesh is soft, loose, marrowy, very fine grain, and of a snow

white color.

2. The cells are almost always regular and closed.

3. They are regularly ribbed around the eye, and often also over the

fruit, but sometimes not at all ribbed.

4. They have a balsamic flavor, accompanied with a very agreeable

odor.

5. They emit a pleasant odor when briskly rubbed.

6. When on the tree they are frequently covered with a blue bloom, and

striped like a Tulip.

7. The fruit is mostly small, or middle sized.

8. They are mostly of short duration, and lose their good flavor the

same year.

GROUP I.--_Oblongi_--Oblong fruit.

GROUP II.--_Sphærici_--Round or flattened.

+ORDER II.--REINETTA--REINETTES.+

1. These are apples which generally have the most regular and handsome

shape, having the bulge in the middle, at the same distance from the

eye as from the stalk.

2. All are dotted, clouded, or entirely covered with russet.

3. They are very rarely inclined to be unctuous, but generally rough

when handled.

4. They all decay very readily; (they must therefore be left as long

as possible on the tree.)

5. Their flesh is fine grained, crisp, firm, or fine and delicate.

6. They are all charged with only a balsamic, sugary acid, which is

called Reinette-flavored.

GROUP I.--_Unicolores._--1. Having uniform green ground color, which

changes to the most beautiful golden yellow.

2. Having no lively colors or marks of russet on the side next the

sun, except those that are very much exposed, and are slightly tinged

with red.

3. Having no covering of russet, but only slight traces of russety

stripes.

GROUP II.--_Rubri_--Fruit red; having all the properties of the

self-colored Reinettes; but on the side next the sun they are of a red

color, with a mixture of russet.

GROUP III.--_Ravi_--Russeted.

1. Their ground color is green, changing to dingy, dull yellow.

2. The coatings of russet are very conspicuous.

3. The side next the sun is often dingy, brownish, or ochreous red.

4. They all decay very readily.

GROUP IV.--_Aurei_--Yellow or golden fruit, Golden Reinettes.

1. On the side next the sun they are washed or striped with beautiful

crimson.

2. The ground color changes, by keeping, to beautiful deep yellow.

3. Over the crimson there is a light thin trace, or a complete

covering of russet.

CLASS IV.--MALA MALARIA--PERFECT OR PURE APPLE-SHAPED.

They are of a perfectly sweet or vinous flavor, approaching to pure

acid.

+ORDER I.--STRIOLA, OR STRIPED.+

1. They are almost always marked with broken stripes of red.

2. These are either over the whole fruit, or only indistinctly on the

side exposed to the sun.

3. The stripes may all be distinct--that is, clearly and finely

striped; or between these stripes, on the side next the sun, the fruit

is dotted, shaded or washed with red; but on the shaded side the

stripes are well defined.

4. The cells are regular.

5. The fruit does not decay, except when gathered before maturity, or

after the period when it has been properly ripened.

GROUP I.--_Depressa_--Flat.

1. They have the bulge at the same distance from the eye as from the

stalk, and are broadly flattened.

2. They are always half an inch broader than high.

GROUP II.--_Acuminati_--Pointed.

1. They are broader than high.

2. They diminish from the middle of the apple toward the eye, so that

the superior half is conical, and is not at all similar to the

inferior half.

GROUP III.--_Oblongi_--Oblong or cylindrical.

1. The hight and breadth are almost equal.

2. They diminish gradually from the base to the apex.

3. Or, from the middle of the fruit they gradually diminish toward the

base and apex equally.

GROUP IV.--_Sphærici_--Round.

1. The convexity of the fruit next the base and the apex is the same.

2. The breadth does not differ from the hight, except only about a

quarter of an inch.

3. When laid on their side they present a spherical shape.

+ORDER II.--CONTUBERNALIA--STORING APPLES.+

1. Having the cells regular.

2. They are not striped, and are either of a uniform color or washed

with red on the side next the sun.

3. They do not readily decay.

4. They are not unctuous when handled.

5. They are never covered with bloom.

GROUP I.--_Acuminati_--Tapering, diminishing toward the eye.

GROUP II.--_Depressi_--Flat. These are constantly broader than

high.[47]

After a long and careful consideration and study of this subject, I

have prepared the following formula for the CLASSIFICATION OF APPLES.

It consists of four classes that are based upon the general figure of

the fruit; with two orders, that are distinguished by a modification

of the form, causing the fruit to be regular, or irregular, and

angular. The characters upon which the classes are founded are

exemplified by a vertical section through the length of the axis of

the fruit. Those by which the Orders are distinguished are shown by a

transverse section, made at right angles to the axis, or by holding

the fruit with the blossom end toward the eye.[48]

Each of these Orders may contain two _Sections_, characterized by

their flavor as sweet and sour; and each of these may again be

sub-divided into three _Sub-sections_, that are based upon color.

CLASS I.--OBLATE OR FLAT, having the axis shorter than the transverse

diameter.

ORDER I.--REGULAR.

ORDER II.--IRREGULAR.

SECTION 1.--Sweet.

SECTION 2.--Sour.

SUB-SECTION 1.--Pale or blushed, more or less, but self-colored and

not striped.

SUB-SECTION 2.--Striped or Splashed.

SUB-SECTION 3.--Russeted.

CLASS II.--CONICAL, tapering decidedly toward the eye, and becoming

OVATE when larger in the middle and tapering to each end, the axial

diameter being the shorter.

ORDERS I and II.

SECTIONS 1 and 2.

SUB-SECTIONS 1, 2, and 3.

CLASS III.--ROUND, GLOBULAR or nearly so, having the axial and

transverse diameters about equal, the former often shorter by less

than one-quarter of the latter. The ends are often so flattened as to

look truncated, when the fruit appears to be cylindrical or

globular-oblate.

ORDERS, SECTIONS, and SUB-SECTIONS, as above.

CLASS IV.--OBLONG, in which the axis is longer than the transverse

diameter, or appears so. These may also be truncate or cylindrical.

ORDERS, SECTIONS, and SUB-SECTIONS, as above.

FOOTNOTES:

[47] As translated for R. Hogg's British Pomology.

[48] Figures 36 to 46, pp. 355 to 356.

DESCRIPTIONS OF APPLES.

ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR CLASSIFICATION ALPHABETICALLY, UNDER EACH

DIVISION.

CLASS I.--FLAT APPLES.

+ORDER I.--REGULAR IN FORM.+

SECTION 1.--SWEET.

SUB-SECTION 1.--SELF-COLORED, NOT STRIPED.

=Camack Sweet.=

[Illustration: Fig. 51.--CAMACK SWEET.]

This newly introduced sort is said to have originated in North

Carolina or Georgia. The trees cultivated in the Northern States are

yet too young for us to judge of their characteristics, but they

appear to be healthy and vigorous.

Fruit medium to large, flat, regular.

Surface smooth, greenish-white, rarely blushed with red.

Basin broad, shallow, and regular or wavy; Eye medium, open.

Cavity deep, acute; Stem rather long; Flesh yellowish, firm, rather

tough, but juicy, rich and sweet.