There are two principal methods by which the mountain lion catches its

prey. The stalk and pounce technique of the common house cat is most

effective in brushy country where the low crouch of the lion places its

bulk behind the close ground cover. With tip of tail twitching, it

creeps forward until a short run and spring, or the spring alone, will

carry it to the front flank of the unsuspecting victim. If the neck of

the hunted is not broken by the impact of the heavy body, the sharp

claws or massive canine teeth are brought into play to rip the jugular

vein and end the struggle. In the other method of hunting, the lion

chooses a ledge above a game trail and simply waits there until some

animal to its liking passes below. The weight of its body usually is

sufficient to bear the victim to the ground and it is soon dispatched.

Mountain lion studies in California have determined that in hunting deer

the animal will catch one in every three attempts. It has been estimated

that in an area of heavy deer population each mountain lion will kill

one each week. It is of interest to note that in many places in the

Southwest deer are on the increase, indicating the need for more

predators to keep down their number.

Since the mountain lion has few enemies, its reproduction rate is low.

Two to four kittens are born in each litter, but usually at 2- to 3-year

intervals. Dens are sometimes located deep among the rocks; others may

be no more than a grass nest in the brush on a rocky ridge. Like

domestic kittens the young are born blind. They have an interesting

color pattern at birth, a strongly spotted coat and a faintly ringed

tail. This completely disappears when they are about half grown, leaving

them with the tawny reddish coat which blends so well with their

surroundings. They mature at about 2 years of age; beautifully evolved

killers which must be admired by everyone who has come to understand the

methods by which Nature regulates the animal world.

Bobcat

_Lynx rufus_ (Latin: name of animal, and rufus, reddish)

Range: Common throughout much of the United States and Mexico. Found

throughout the Southwest.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: This common species is found in all zones wherever there is

sufficient cover to hide it.

Description: A bobcat distinguished from the lynx by having small ear

tufts, a more rufous color, and a black band which crosses only the

upper surface of the tail tip. Total length 30 to 35 inches. Tail 5

inches. Weight 15 to 30 pounds. This is a chunky animal with long,

muscular legs and large feet. The sides of the face are heavily streaked

with black, backs of ears dark, coat generally tawny to rufous above,

underparts lighter. Dark spots rather prominent throughout coat, insides

of front legs often barred with darker color. Young from two to six,

usually born in early spring; only one litter per year.

These are the most common wild members of the cat family in the

Southwest. Their distribution over the United States takes a strange

pattern, inasmuch as they are not found in several of the midwestern and

southeastern States, and in a large area in central Mexico. In all there

are a dozen subspecies of _Lynx rufus_ in North America. They are tough

little predators, among the last to retreat before the advance of

civilization. In fact, they may often be found on the very fringes of

our larger cities, existing on the rats that infest the city dump.

In the wilder areas, which are the bobcat’s appropriate home, its tracks

are distinguishable from those of the larger _Felidae_ only by their

smaller size. Like the larger members of the cat family, it is equipped

with a set of strong retractile and extremely sharp claws. Although

there are five toes on each front foot and only four on the hind feet,

the tracks of both feet are similar. This is because the fifth toe,

corresponding to our thumb, is so high on the inside of the foreleg that

normally it does not touch the ground. During normal travel the claws

are always in the retracted position and never show in the tracks. All

native cats have a tendency to place the hind feet in the tracks left by

the front feet, so that in effect each track is a double print. This may

be one of the reasons a cat’s approach is so silent!

[Illustration: bobcat]

Bobcats have numerous traits in common with their relative, _Lynx

canadensis_ (not treated in this book because of its extreme rarity in

the Southwest), but are more versatile in their dietary tastes. While

the lynx is sufficiently dependent on the snowshoe hare that its

population corresponds closely in fluctuation with that of its “host,”

the bobcat has a much less discriminating appetite. It also loves

snowshoe hares and rabbits, but takes various other mammals as

opportunity offers, and ground-living birds. Bobcats will even eat

carrion, but prefer fresh meat. They are reliably reported to eat

porcupines, young pronghorns, deer, and sheep, both bighorn and

domestic; and they sometimes kill adult deer, although this is a

difficult and dangerous proceeding. Usually a kill is at least partially

covered with debris, and the cat will return at least once to feed again

on it.

Though bobcats are the least spectacular of our native cats they are the

most numerous and evenly distributed. Thus collectively they may be of

more importance in Nature’s master plan than we realize. Their role may

even increase in importance as time goes on, because of the increasing

scarcity of the larger cat species.

Red fox

_Vulpes fulva_ (Latin: a fox ... fulva, meaning deep yellow or tawny)

Range: Found throughout most of North America north of the Mexican

border. Exceptions in the United States are areas in the southeastern

and central States and desert portions of the Southwest.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: In the Southwest these foxes are restricted to wooded areas of

mountains. They usually are found in the Transition Life Zone or higher.

Description: About the size of a small dog, having a bushy tail with

white tip. Total length 36 to 40 inches. Tail 14 to 16 inches. Weight 10

to 15 pounds. Besides the type, this fox has at least two well-defined

color phases with many intermediate forms. These will be considered

separately. A typical western form of red fox will be more yellow than

red. The brightest red will be a rufous median line running down the

back. This fades to an ochre yellow along the edges and grades to the

lighter yellow of the sides. The tail is usually dark yellow with black

guard hairs and always a white tip. The underparts are light yellow to

white. Fronts of feet and lower legs and backs of ears are always very

dark to black. The underfur is lead-colored. The head is small with

large ears, yellowish eyes having elliptical pupils, narrow nose and

jaws. The young, four to six in a litter, are born early in the summer

and but one litter is produced each year.

The western form of red fox might more aptly be named the “yellow” fox,

since it is definitely more yellow than red. To add to the confusion,

the gray fox, _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_, of the West usually has more

good red in its coat than the red fox. However, the gray fox is a

denizen of the desert and will not often be found at elevations

preferred by the red fox. In addition, its tail is tipped with black;

this definitely separates the two species at a glance. The differences

of color phases within the red fox group are more pronounced and have

led many people to consider them separate species. The two most distinct

types of these varieties are known as the “cross” fox and the “black” or

“silver” fox.

The term “cross” fox refers neither to the disposition of the animal nor

to its being a hybrid variety, although it often is cross or mean and is

not a hybrid. It alludes to the dark cross on its back. This is formed

by a dark to black median line crossing at right angles to a dark band

that traverses the shoulders. Its effect is increased by considerable

amounts of gray and black mixed with the normal yellow color of the

sides. The long hairs of the tail are yellowish gray to black, the

general effect being dark but, as with the type, the tip is pure white.

As might be expected, there are many gradations between this color phase

and the type, some of them being among the most striking and beautiful

foxes in the world.

The “black” or “silver” fox is a melanistic form of the red fox. In the

most striking form it is a smooth shining black, the general sombreness

of its coat being relieved by a sprinkling of silvery white guard hairs.

These are thickest in the area of the shoulders, on the posterior

portion of the back, and on the top and sides of the head. The

underparts, though black, lack the lustrous “finish” so evident on the

back and sides. The tip of the tail is pure white in this form also.

This is the “silver” fox of commerce, an animal which through selective

breeding has become standardized in the fur industry. Nevertheless, the

black color is a recessive character, as evidenced by the throw-backs

that often make their appearance in otherwise black litters. Without

constant vigilance on the part of breeders, the “silver” fox would soon

become a rarity again. The Mendelian law cannot be cancelled out by a

few generations of selective breeding.

The foxes are the smallest canines native to the United States. Though

they look much larger because of their long fur and bushy tail, the

average red fox will not outweigh a large house cat. They make up for

this lack of size, however, by being exceedingly quick in their

movements. They are thus able to catch many of the small mammals which

outmaneuver coyotes and wolves. Rabbits are about the largest mammals

with which they can cope, but mice, woodrats, pikas, and ground

squirrels are all a common part of their diet. In addition, they take

many large insects and ground nesting birds and eggs whenever possible.

Foxes are not as omnivorous as coyotes, but they relish berries and

stone fruits and sometimes raid watermelon patches.

The social life of foxes is most interesting. The family is a closely

knit unit which as a rule does not break up until the young are well

able to care for themselves. Foxes are monogamous; that is, they

normally choose their mates for life. Dens may be in burrows dug in the

soil or in deep crevices in the rocks. They are usually in some spot

where there is a good view of the surrounding territory. The pups are

born rather early in the spring and by early summer will be playing

around in the den entrance, although they do not venture to any distance

until much later. Should the den be approached while the young are in

it, the female often will be very bold in her attempts to lead the

intruders away from it. As soon as the young are weaned the male joins

his mate in bringing food to them. By early fall, the family is hunting

together.

The red fox has been a symbol of sagacity and cunning since long before

Aesop. Much of this reputation is well earned, as witness their stubborn

withdrawal as civilization surrounds them. Yet sometime one wonders if

their wisdom is not overrated. I am reminded of an old female who every

year whelped her young in the mouth of a tile drain which drained a

marshy piece of ground that had since become dry. The upper end of the

tile was buried some 15 feet below the surface of the ground. My friend

would watch the area until the pups were about half grown. Then he would

block the entrance to the tile with a box trap and catch them as hunger

drove them out to the bait. This went on for several years, the old

vixen never seeming to learn from bitter experience that her family

would be taken away from her.

[Illustration: red fox]

Gray wolf

_Canis lupus_ (Latin: dog ... a wolf)

Range: Canada and Alaska north to the northern coast of Greenland. In

the United States it is found in three widely separated areas in Oregon,

Utah and Colorado, and New Mexico and Arizona. It extends south into the

tablelands of Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: In the Southwest the wolf, like the coyote, is leaving the

plains, which are its chosen habitat, to live in the broken country of

the Transition Life Zone.

Description: Doglike in appearance, but larger than a big dog. Carries

its short, bushy tail above the horizontal when traveling. The gray wolf

is almost unbelievably big. Total length 55 to 67 inches. Tail 12 to 19

inches. Height at shoulders 26 to 28 inches. Weight 70 to 170 pounds.

These animals show a tremendous variation in color, but the average

individual will appear very much like a big German shepherd dog. From

this average, they will vary from the almost white coat found in Alaska

to the black phase of the red wolf of Texas. The head of the wolf is

distinctive. It has a broad face with a wide but short nose. The

straw-yellow eyes have round pupils. The ears are short and round, much

more like a dog’s than a coyote’s. The feet, in keeping with the rest of

the body, are large. The front feet have five toes; as is usual with

canines, the first toe or “thumb” does not touch the ground. The hind

foot has but 4 toes. These animals have a high reproduction rate. Each

year the single litter may consist of from 3 to 4 to as many as 12; the

average is assumed to be from 6 to 8.

The wolf’s association with man is older than recorded history. When man

first gained his ascendency over other mammals, the wolf is believed to

have been the progenitor of the dog. As man’s partner in the chase, it

helped him become the one superior animal capable of exterminating it.

At the present time, man has come close to doing just that. Only a few

of these magnificent wild dogs remain in the United States. Those are

concentrated mainly in the Southwest, and some of them undoubtedly have

come across the border from Mexico. Before long the species probably

will become extinct in this country, but the large numbers remaining in

Alaska and Canada should persist for many years.

Much of the public antipathy for wolves comes from literature. Who, as a

child, has not thrilled to the danger that surrounded Little Red Riding

Hood, and rejoiced at the ultimate end of the arch villain? Long before

animated cartooning took over nursery rhymes, children’s books were well

thumbmarked at the page where the “big bad wolf huffed and puffed and

blew the house down.” To “keep the wolf from the door” is an expression

as full of meaning today as it was in the 15th century when the animal

became extinct in England. The wolf has always been a symbol of taking

ruthlessly. The genus _lupinus_ (Latin: wolf), a beautiful group of

plants of the pea family, is so called because early botanists thought

it robbed the soil. The “wolf” so often encountered at house parties is

included in this class. None of these characterizations gives a good

impression, and all are indicative of man’s feeling toward the wolf. It

is most unfortunate that man so often condemns anything which interferes

with his own economic progress. Nature has a place for the wolf, a

specialized task for which it is admirably adapted.

In the days before the white man, bison roamed the western plains in

great herds which were constantly followed by packs of wolves and

coyotes. As long as the bison remained close together they were

relatively safe, but woe to the sick or weak that lagged behind. These

were quickly pulled down, and after wolves had eaten the choicest

portions, the coyotes and vultures moved in for the rest. When the white

man exterminated the bison, the wolves’ host was gone and they turned to

the logical substitute, the white man’s cattle. This could have but one

result. In the predator control campaign which followed, a wedge was

driven through the wolf population of the Southwest, leaving one group

isolated in Utah and Colorado and another in southern Arizona and New

Mexico. The latter group is actually formed by immigration of wolves

from Mexico. It fluctuates in numbers as the animals move back and forth

across the border in response to local conditions. During the

extermination program, the behavior of the wolf was affected to a

considerable extent.

Accounts of early travelers stress the easy familiarity with which the

gray wolf accepted their presence. When a wayfarer shot a bison, the

wolf sat down within easy range and waited until the choicest cuts had

been taken away. It then moved in for its share. Since that time the

wolf has become one of the most wary and cunning of our wild creatures.

Gifted with a keen intelligence, it has found that only by complete

isolation can it escape the methods devised for its destruction. To this

end, it has moved from the plains into the more inaccessible places in

the mountains. Few will ever see a wolf in the Southwest again, and I

consider myself fortunate to have seen this gray ghost of the plains in

years long past, and to have heard its deep howl break the silence of a

cold winter night.

[Illustration: gray wolf]

Coyote

_Canis latrans_ (Latin: dog ... barking)

Range: The coyote is common throughout the Southwest.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: This little wolf, once a creature of the prairies, now is found

in all life zones and among many different associations.

Description: Because of their varied associations and wide climatic

range, coyotes are of many sizes and colors. In general, they resemble a

rather small, lean German shepherd dog with yellowish eyes. A good field

mark is the bushy tail which is carried low while the animal is running

and seldom is elevated above the horizontal at any time. Average total

length 43 to 55 inches. Tail 11 to 16 inches. Color tawny to reddish

gray with white or light-colored throat and chest, dark legs and feet.

There is usually a dark median line down the back, and the tail also is

somewhat darker than the body. Coyotes are lean animals; despite an

impression of bulkiness suggested by the long fur, a large coyote seldom

weighs more than 30 pounds. The track is much like that of a

medium-sized dog; however, the prints of the claws tend to converge

toward a center line more than those of the domestic animal. Coyotes are

moderately prolific. The average litter contains from 4 to 6 pups,

although as many as 11 have been recorded. The best indication that

coyotes are in an area is their “singing” during the evening. They will

sometimes greet the sunrise, but are infrequently heard during the day.

There probably is more controversy about the status of the coyote in its

relationship to other animals than any other North American mammal

today. The solution to the argument can be found by taking a 10 minute

walk through a bit of the great outdoors. Those living things, plant or

animal, which cannot adapt themselves to most changing conditions

presented by a slowly dying world must perish. Those which survive do so

because they have a mission to fulfill; they must give as well as take

from their environment. To me, the unequalled ability of the coyote to

withstand the campaigns of man toward its extermination indicates that

this animal must be an especially favored child of Nature. Certainly

many of the subtle relationships which it maintains with its

associations have never been fully explored and others have not been

discovered.

In the light of recent studies and with the influence of excellent

documentary films in its favor, the coyote’s place in Nature is now

becoming better known to the public. There seems to be no valid reason

why people, who in general like dogs, should express indifference to the

fate of this little wolf, which is but a wild dog with what most

naturalists agree is a higher degree of native cunning and intelligence

than that of the average domestic breed. In general, this attitude seems

to stem from unfavorable and usually inaccurate stories circulated by

word of mouth. A few hours spent in reading the scientific literature on

the coyote will disprove many of these folk tales. For lighter reading

try J. Frank Dobie’s _The Voice of the Coyote_ (Little, Brown & Co.,

Boston 1949) or _Sierra Outpost_ (Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1941) by Lila

Loftberg and David Malcolmson. These delightful accounts present the

coyote for what it is—one of the more important creatures in animal

society.

[Illustration: coyote]

When the first whites pushed their way across the western prairies, the

coyote was chiefly a plains animal. Here it lived along the fringes of

the huge bison herds, seldom venturing to make its own kills but sharing

with the vultures the remnants left from those of the big gray wolves.

With small game it was more successful, making heavy inroads upon the

rodent and rabbit population. Then, as now, the coyote was also a

scavenger and helped rid the plains of the carcasses of larger animals

which died of natural causes. When the bison and wolves were practically

exterminated, the coyote “took to the hills” and now is as frequently

encountered in the higher mountains as anywhere. Farther west in the

desert areas the story has been much the same. As civilization has

advanced, the coyote has stubbornly retreated into the hills until now

its “song” is heard in the highest canyons. The medium size and

omnivorous tastes are factors which probably have much to do with its

success in this new environment.

About half way between the gray fox and gray wolf in size, the coyote is

large enough to subdue the big hares, yet nimble enough to catch the

smaller rodents which make up a large part of its animal diet. The rest

is supplied by a long list of other small creatures which are less often

encountered, including birds, reptiles, and insects. The vegetable

portion of its food is no less varied. Berries, stone fruits, cactus

fruit, various gourds, some herbs, and even grass are eaten in

considerable quantity, depending on the season and availability of meat.

Besides this diet of what might be called fresh food, the coyote will

usually take carrion. This is the basis for many unfounded accusations

against the species. Because scats are sometimes composed almost

entirely of the hair of such large mammals as deer, elk and mountain

sheep, the coyote is thought to be killing these animals. Actual records

of such occurrences are rare; the coyote is not built for such big game.

Nature meant this to be the province of the gray wolf. Should such

predation by coyotes take place, some other factor undoubtedly would

restore the balance before long. Nature’s laws are as definite as those

of human society and far more sternly enforced.

The family life of these intelligent creatures is interesting in its

variations. No two pairs will follow any given pattern. As a rule

coyotes, like wolves, will mate for life; but should one be killed, the

other will usually seek another partner. Breeding takes place in early

spring, followed some 60 to 65 days later by the appearance of a litter

of up to 11 pups. The den is usually at the end of a burrow dug in soft

soil close to a vantage point which overlooks the surrounding area. More

rarely the den is chosen in a crevice among the rocks, and some have

been found which are no more than hollows in the shelter of overhanging

shrubs. During early life of the pups the male coyote is not allowed to

approach them. Later, when they are able to take solid food, he brings

his offerings to the neighborhood and the female carries them to the

young. Up until the time the pups are able to leave the den, both

parents are extremely wary in their approach to the area. They usually

come in down wind so as to detect the presence of an intruder. If a

human investigates too closely, the pups are moved to a new location at

once.

When the young are big enough to emerge from the den, a new phase of

their existence begins. At first, they play around the entrance like a

group of collie pups, stopping now and then to survey this wonderful new

world with wide eyes. Soon the wandering instinct asserts itself,

however, and they begin to make short sorties away from the den. This is

the time the parents have been anticipating. Now the young can be taken

away from an area which becomes more dangerous with every passing day.

The family may now hunt as a unit, initiating the young into the coyote

way of life, or the mother may scatter the young along the perimeter of

her range, bringing food to them as she makes her rounds. In either

event, they soon learn to fend for themselves and by the following

spring are mature animals.

Unlike his larger relative, the gray wolf, which is a great traveler,

the coyote will establish a range and stick to it. In time, he will

learn every yard of it and will notice the slightest changes. This is of

great importance, not only in evading attempts on his life but also in

the matter of filling his stomach. The woodrat, which tonight may be

deep within its fortress of rock and branches, will be remembered and

called upon again tomorrow when it may be out foraging for pinyon nuts.

The cottontail, which reached the brush pile last night, may be

intercepted en route tonight.

Several coyotes often share the same range and hunt together. This is

especially true of a mated pair which is feeding young. Such a

combination is especially efficient in running down such animals as

jackrabbits and, more rarely, pronghorns. These creatures tend to run in

a circle, and the coyotes alternate in chasing and resting until the

animal is exhausted. Then they both close in for the kill. Pronghorn

hunting is fraught with danger, however, especially during the time

their young are small. These sharp-hoofed animals have been known to

pursue and kill coyotes.

It is to be hoped that the relentless persecution of the coyote will

soon be a thing of the past. The species has an important place in the

ecology of the Southwest, and it cannot be removed without seriously

affecting the status of its associates. This is a situation that is

deplored by anyone interested in natural history. It is unthinkable that

the West should lose this colorful species that is so interwoven with

its legends and history.

Wolverine

_Gulo luscus_ (Latin: having to do with the throat ... one eyed;

purblind)

Range: Canada and the high mountains of California, Utah, Colorado, and

possibly New Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Near timberline in the most remote areas.

Description: A large (20 to 35 pounds), dark-colored animal somewhat

resembling a small bear in build. Total length 36 to 41 inches. Tail 7

to 9 inches. In coloration the wolverine shows variation, but with no

sharp contrasts. The back is dark brown, shading to a paler color on top

of the head. The sides of the body are marked with dull yellowish bands

which begin at the shoulders and join near the root of the tail. The

underparts are lighter and usually a “blaze” or spot of white decorates

the front of the chest. The legs are short and exceptionally powerful,

the large feet are armed with long, horn-colored claws. These register

rather prominently in the track which otherwise is somewhat like that of

a large bobcat. The breeding habits of the wolverine are not well known,

but it is assumed the den is located among rocks in talus slopes. The

average number of young is thought to be four or less. They are born

early in the year.

This mammal, largest of the weasel family, possibly will never be seen

by anyone who reads these lines, so scarce has it become in the United

States. Yet, because it is such a notorious animal and so little

understood, and because it has been recorded in both Utah and Colorado

several times, and long suspected to have been a native of New Mexico,

it is here included. It would be a shame, indeed, for a layman to see

this celebrated creature and not be aware of this unusual good fortune.

The wolverine has been an object of fear and revulsion not only to the

white man but to the Indian. It seems to be one of the few mammals which

goes out of its way to create destruction and carries a chip on its

shoulder toward all other animals which interfere with its desires. It

is a creature of mystery, whose life history at this late date we shall

probably never fully learn before it becomes extinct.

When the Hudson Bay Company trappers invaded upper North America they

found the Objibwa Indians living in a sort of armed truce with the

wolverine. They called it “Carcajou,” a term said to have been derived

from the Algonquin, and accorded it the respect due a malevolent spirit.

I have forgotten the Chippewa name for the animal, but I well remember

that it was considered a “windigo” or evil spirit. Eskimos coveted its

fur for trimming the hoods of their parkas. The long guard hairs

protected the face from the bitter air without collecting frost, and the

underfur did not collect snow and frost like other furs.

[Illustration: wolverine]

The scientific name of the wolverine is interesting. _Gulo_, the Latin

term for throat, no doubt has reference to the gluttonous habits of the

animal. _Luscus_, also Latin, means one-eyed or, as some authors

suggest, blind. This may refer to the small eyes, so deeply set as to be

almost invisible at a little distance, or may date back to the first

wolverine taken to Europe from Hudson Bay. This specimen was said to

have lost one eye, and the name may have been derived from that. At any

rate, the normal wolverine is neither one-eyed nor blind.

The wide distribution of the wolverine provides an admirable example of

what life zones mean. This same species lives at timberline in the high

mountains of desert country and is also found at or near sea level far

north of the Arctic Circle. It is well adapted to this environment, with

exceptionally thick and heavy fur which does not mat easily with snow.

In addition, during the season of greatest snowfall, the edges of the

feet and toes grow stiff hairs which, in effect, act as small snowshoes,

and enable the animal to travel with less effort.

Food habits of the wolverine are far from selective. Heavy and clumsy in

build, it is doubtful if many large game animals fall prey to this

awkward hunter. However, it does not hesitate to drive larger predators

away from their kills and appropriate them for itself. At such times it

eats as much as it can, then hides the rest for future repasts. It will

return to the site until the remains are completely devoured, even if

they spoil in the meantime. Natural prey includes rodents which it can

dig out of burrows, and such ground-nesting birds as it comes across in

its travels. It is said to be one of the few successful predators of the

porcupine. Thief, predator, and scavenger, the wolverine roams its

isolated ranges feared by hunter and hunted alike.

The wolverine is one of the few animals that seems to take malicious

delight in harassing human beings. Though robbing of traps can be

explained by hunger, theft and destruction of the traps themselves seems

to represent deliberate and clever planning. So, too, does the breaking

into and entering of isolated cabins with attendant pilferage of their

contents. What cannot be eaten is either broken up and defiled or

carried away and hidden.

Marten

_Martes americana_ (Latin: a marten ... America)

Range: North America from Alaska through the greater part of Canada,

thence through northwestern, United States and south into California,

Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Usually coniferous forests of the Canadian Life Zone up to the

Alpine Zone.

Description: In the trees, this animal is often mistaken for a large

squirrel. On closer inspection it will resemble a house cat with a

short, bushy tail. Total length 22 to 27 inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches.

Weight 2 to 4 pounds. The coloration of the marten is distinctive. The

body is a beautiful, soft, yellow-brown, darker on the back, legs and

tail. On the chest the color lightens to a pale buff or sometimes a

rather distinct orange. The underparts are lighter than the rest of the

body. The fur is extremely fine and thick. It is distinctive in being

almost entirely underfur, there being very few guard hairs. The body is

extremely graceful with relatively long legs and small feet. The head is

small with features somewhat resembling those of the weasel. The ears

are large for a member of the weasel family and lend an alert appearance

to the face. This alertness is further borne out by the lively movements

of this animal, which is the most active of any in that group.

The marten, often called “pine marten,” is one of the most solitary

animals of a group whose members habitually travel alone. Perhaps this

is because in this family of predators each species is fully able to

overpower any resistance put up by its accustomed prey, individually and

not through force in numbers. Perhaps, too, it is because the entire

group is made up of voracious eaters which, if they ran in packs, could

not encounter enough prey to adequately feed them all. Finally, this

clan has several species which instinctively kill far in excess of

normal needs. This is a practice which, almost without exception, is

confined to those members of the weasel family which prey on rodents. It

is evidently one of Nature’s methods of controlling the rodent

population. To operate at highest efficiency these killers should hunt

alone. These factors all apply in some degree to the marten. As a

consequence, although there may be many in an area, the marten is

usually found alone except for a brief time during the breeding season

or in the case of a female with young. The male evidently has no part in

bringing up the family.

The marten has always been more or less plentiful throughout its range,

and there is no reason to believe that it will not continue to be seen

by alert observers for many years to come. Its chosen habitat is among

the evergreens near timberline. This is also an area of rock slides, and

the marten loves to hunt the small rodents which make their homes there.

Indeed, it divides its time between the two environments, hunting in the

talus slopes during summer months, and taking to the trees in winter

when rock slides are buried deep beneath the snow. It is an extremely

hardy creature which holes up in an abandoned squirrel or woodpecker

nest only during the short periods of storm, when hunting would be

useless. As might be expected, its summer and winter diets vary widely.

Both, however, have as their basic item the spruce squirrel, the

important host of the marten, and like it a hardy creature that is

abroad throughout the year.

There is considerable variety in the summer diet. On and in the ground

there is available an amazing number of species which are denied to the

marten during the winter, some because of protection afforded them by

the deep snowdrifts and others because they hibernate. Among these are

pikas, ground squirrels, woodrats, chipmunks, and many species of mice.

In summer, the marten also takes eggs and young of ground-nesting birds.

In the trees are found other nests, not excepting those of the

woodpecker, into which the marten inserts its forepaw and comes out not

only with young birds, but often the adult as well. Martens are known to

eat quantities of the larger insects and, since they are fond of fruits

and berries when raised in captivity, there is little doubt that they

indulge in these delicacies in the wild.

Winter diet consists of the spruce squirrel, augmented by such other

small creatures as may be abroad during cold weather. Though it would

seem that the marten might suffer from the curtailment of its lavish

summer menu, the opposite is the case. They remain fat and healthy under

weather conditions that would seriously hamper most other predators. To

a large extent, this ability to survive is due to the untiring

perseverance and great skill with which they hunt. In addition, few

creatures have been endowed with so many adaptations with which to

withstand the long, cold winter.

[Illustration: marten]

It will be apparent, even to the casual observer, that the marten is

most precisely evolved to meet the frigid conditions imposed by its

boreal habitat. The long, fine-haired winter coat is extremely warm and

does not mat with snow or frost. With such an insulated covering any

hollow log or woodpecker’s nest will do as a resting place. Snow is the

least of the marten’s troubles; not only does it stay warm among the

drifts, but travels across them with ease on its “built-in” hair

snowshoes, which also keep the toe pads warm. The midwinter track of a

marten is rather confusing, as it shows no definite toe marks, but is a

blurry outline in soft snow, and on harder snow scarcely registers at

all. However, if it is remembered that this animal travels much like a

weasel, that is, it jumps instead of walking, the larger prints will

serve to identify it as a marten.

Interesting as the physical adaptations of the marten may be, the

response of its life history to the pressures of a long winter are no

less fascinating. As has been stressed, the marten is a solitary and

more or less nomadic animal. Apparently the only time of the year that

is favorable for breeding is during the summer, as this is the only time

when adults of the two sexes are commonly found together. This starts a

reproductive cycle which, while not too uncommon, is unusual enough to

excite one’s interest. For the following information, I am indebted to

James Campbell of Hope, Idaho, who live-trapped and raised many of these

interesting animals years ago when knowledge concerning them was

relatively meager.

Box traps were used to take the marten during the middle of the winter,

when snow lay from 15 to 25 feet deep along the trap lines. This was at

an elevation of up to 6,500 feet in the panhandle of northern Idaho. As

a sprung trap was approached, the outraged captive could be heard

growling its resentment and struggling to escape. A flour sack would be

placed around the entrance and the door opened. The marten, apparently

mistaking the white glare for snow, invariably would leap out into the

sack. Great care was necessary at this point, for the marten was usually

wet with perspiration from its struggles within the box trap, and if

allowed to chill would quickly die from exposure. The sack was placed

within several others and the bundle placed in a pack-sack and carried

down the mountain, where the marten was cooled gradually in the house,

then put in the outdoor pens. Here they soon became so tame that they

would readily accept food from the hand, never becoming treacherous like

their unpredictable cousins, the mink. They loved fruit and berries, and

were especially fond of chocolate candy.

Early in the venture, it was observed that winter-caught females were

giving birth to young in April. Further observation revealed that

breeding took place from the early part of July into late August, but

that no matter when breeding was accomplished the young would be born in

April. The first signs of pregnancy, however, would not be apparent

until about 50 days before birth of the young. This indicates that, like

most of the hibernating bats, breeding takes place in one season, but

the fertilized ova remain quiescent and do not begin to develop until

conditions are propitious for the birth of the young. This also insures

arrival of the little ones quite early in the season, so that they may

enter the following winter fully grown. The number of young varies from

three to five, usually the smaller number.

No description of the marten would be complete without mention of its

tremendous vitality. In trees it is superior to the squirrel, especially

in long, arching leaps, which it makes from one lofty perch to another.

In winter time it will often leap from the trees into soft snowdrifts,

seemingly for the sheer thrill of the sport. It is not uncommon for

martens to burrow through snowdrifts for some distance apparently in

search of rodents. I have found that a marten, startled in the forest,

is not usually too afraid of its arch enemy, man. At first it will run

away but, if pursued too hotly, will come to bay on a low limb and put

on a great display of hissing and growling while baring its sharp, white

teeth. It is not improbable that if it were pressed further it might

attack its tormenter.

River otter

_Lutra canadensis_ (Latin: otter ... of Canada)

Range: Most of North America south to central Arizona and New Mexico in

the Southwest, and south to the Gulf of Mexico in the east.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Along and in fresh water streams and lakes.

Description: A short-legged, stream-lined creature with a thick tapered

tail, usually seen in the water. Total length 3 to 4 feet. Tail 12 to 17

inches. Weight up to 20 pounds. Color mostly a rich, dark brown with a

silvery sheen on the underparts. The throat and chest are lighter than

the rest of the body. The otter is well adapted to aquatic life, having

a long, round body and short, muscular legs. All four feet are webbed.

The head is long and round, with short ears. Long, stiff whiskers stand

out near the rather thick nose. The tail is thick at the base, and the

body literally tapers off into the tail, increasing the general

“torpedo” effect.

[Illustration: river otter]

The otter, never plentiful in the Southwest, has become extremely rare

in recent years. This is due in large part to its highly specialized

habits, coupled with an inability to compete with man in the use of the

few fresh water streams and lakes in the desert mountains. Yet, it has

been recorded often enough in the past decade to warrant the hope that

with careful management and complete protection it might increase in

numbers. This is much to be desired because the otter is unique in

several respects among our native mammals. This mild-mannered member of

the weasel family lacks many of the fierce and blood-thirsty habits of

its more ferocious relatives. It is, instead, gentle, even playful.

Outstanding among these characteristics is the otter’s habit of building

slides. These are probably nothing more or less than a refinement of the

way otters travel through the tules and slippery mud flats, in which

they spend much of their time hunting crayfish and small amphibians. The

remarkable thing about the slides is that they seem to be built for one

specific purpose, that of sport, an activity which ordinarily is one of

the least important to most mammals. In soft or muddy places, even in

soft snow, the otter slides along on its chest with head held high and

forelegs trailing alongside the body. Motive power is furnished by

thrusts of the hind legs. Excessive wear on the underparts is reduced by

many coarse, close-set overhairs which seem to have been developed for

this very purpose. The slide itself is only a narrow groove, 12 to 20

inches wide, that is worn down a steep bank to the water’s edge. The wet

bodies of the otters make it smooth and slippery, and soon they are able

to shoot down it with only an occasional helping kick of the hind feet.

This fascinating game may go on for hours on end. The descent often is

followed by a general rough and tumble in the “swimming hole.” There the

action is almost too fast for the eye to follow, because few mammals can

match the otter for grace and speed in the water.

Aquatic as the otter is, it does not care to be always wet, and this

leads to another curious institution in its way of life. Near the slide,

and usually at several other places along the waterway which is

frequented by a family of these delightful creatures, will be found

areas several feet in diameter, located among dry tules or in tall

grass, where the animals roll and thus dry themselves. These seem also

to be community news centers, because usually near such areas are found

the scent “posts,” where otters deposit scent from the glands common to

all members of the weasel family. In otters these glands do not secrete

the high-potency perfume produced by those of skunks and minks.

Nevertheless, it is sufficiently “loud” to be identified with the otter.

The dens present great contrast in location and type. They are usually

situated near water, but one was found more than half a mile from the

nearest stream. On the other hand, an otter will often take over the

abandoned burrow of a bank beaver, and access to this abode must be by

an underwater entrance. In many instances, the den is merely a nest in a

thick clump of tules completely surrounded by water.

The two to four young are born in early spring. At birth they are blind,

toothless, and amazingly helpless in comparison with their development 6

weeks later. At this age they begin to leave the den, and before long

are quite at home in the water. Though the male may be in the

neighborhood, the female will not allow him near the young until they

are half grown. At this time, the family will begin to live together

until the young are fully able to make their own way.

Otters are cosmopolitan in their tastes; being carnivores, they will

prey on many species. Fish is their preferred food, and in most cases

they capture rough fish species, these as a rule being slow and easy to

catch. They are fully capable of catching trout, however, should other

supplies fail. Otters in captivity do not thrive on fish alone, so

evidently the great numbers of other small animals upon which they prey

must be necessary adjuncts to their diet. These include crayfish, frogs,

several species of small mammals, and such birds and eggs as may be

available.

The presence of otters in an area is not difficult to detect. A slide,

“rolling place,” or characteristic web-toed track are all sure

indications that this interesting animal is a neighbor. Cultivate its

acquaintance if you can. The otter is diurnal as well as nocturnal, and

should you be so fortunate as to see this happy animal coast down his

slippery slide, I am sure you will get as big a thrill from it as he

does.

Mink

_Mustela vison_ (Latin: weasel ... forceful, powerful)

Range: The range of the mink is strikingly similar to that of the otter,

that is, it embraces most of northern North America, extending southward

into southwestern United States in the west, and to the Gulf of Mexico

in the east.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: This semi-aquatic animal seldom is found far from fresh water

streams or ponds.

Description: The mink is about as long as an average house cat, but is

much more streamlined in appearance. Total length for males 20 to 26

inches. Tail 7 to 9 inches. Weight up to 2¼ pounds. Females will average

almost one-third smaller. Color is dark brown over most of the body,

shading to lighter brown on the sides and darkening along the tail to a

black tip. There are usually a few irregular white spots on chest and

belly. The body is long, and round, tapering into the long, round neck.

The head is small with rather a triangular face, small ears, and dark,

beady eyes. The legs are short and, as would be expected on an aquatic

animal, the feet are webbed, but in this case only the bases of the toes

are joined by the webs. The underfur is thick and fine, the guard hairs

coarse and conspicuously shiny. Mink will bear as many as 10 young, but

the average is around 5. Dens usually are in a burrow, which may or may

not have an underwater entrance.

The presence of mink in any given area is usually quite easily

determined by scouting sand bars and mud flats along the water’s edge.

The tracks are quite distinctive, especially in softer mud, because here

the animal spreads its toes to keep from sinking, and in places the

outlines of the partially webbed toes become clearly apparent. In most

cases if tracks are at all discernible, marks of the claws are

conspicuous. The occurrence of mink away from water can not be

considered normal, because this creature ranks second only to the otter,

among southwestern carnivores, in its preference for an aquatic life.

Exceptions do occur, however; mink have been encountered crossing

mountain ranges where they might be many miles from the closest

watercourse. It is thought that these infrequent cases may be migrations

from unfavorable areas, or that such a trip may be undertaken in search

of a mate.

Much of the mink’s dependence on water stems from its diet. Some of its

preferred foods are fish, crayfish, and frogs, none of which are more

adept in the water than the mink. Other food items, taken whenever

circumstances permit, are birds and eggs and rodents. It is interesting

to note that the muskrat is no match for the agile mink, and that one of

these fierce carnivores moving into an area has resulted in the

extermination of a whole colony of muskrats. Cottontails, too, are

unable to cope with the tactics of the mink, although their reproductive

proclivities usually keep their numbers well ahead of such inroads. Even

with this wide variety of prey and its expertness at hunting, the mink

is so voracious that in some areas it has been estimated 100 acres are

only enough to support one adult. The continual hunt for food may be the

motivation for another interesting habit of the mink which is seldom

found among other carnivores.

Many beasts of prey will hide or bury a kill and come back to it later

for several more meals. In fact the wolverine, one of the mink’s close

relatives, will do this. However, the mink actually collects a

considerable store of food during periods of good hunting and caches it

away against time of need. Caches will often consist of larger animals,

such as muskrats and ducks, laid neatly away under an overhanging bank.

Since these stores are highly perishable, this is mostly a cold weather

practice. The mink is not normally a carrion eater.

A characteristic of the weasel family is the occurrence of anal glands

which secrete a liquid having a powerful odor. The skunks are best known

in this respect. In my opinion the mink and weasel both release an odor

which, by comparison, makes the skunk’s “almost nice.” The one saving

grace in their case is that the odor soon evaporates, while that

released by the skunks retains its strength for a long time, and regains

much of the original potency with every rain. Like the skunks, these

animals use the disagreeable odor as a defensive weapon. It no doubt has

other uses too, such as identifying the individual and its territory to

other animals of the same species.

Considering the weasel family as a group, it becomes apparent that here

is a rather large number of species, all closely related, yet having

widely divergent habits. For instance, the marten is as much at home in

trees as is the squirrel; the otter can catch fish with ease; and the

badger is able to dig better than even the ground squirrels and spends

much of its life underground. In the same way, the group varies widely

in temperament. At one end of the scale stands the wolverine, surly and

defiant; at the other are the marten and otter, playful and even

affectionate. The mink might be classified as nervous and irritable.

There seems in its temperament to be an actual blood lust. When the mood

is upon it, it will continue to kill even when a human is close by. I

have seen a mink continue to slaughter a flock of ducks even as I was

attempting to drive it away. A mink cornered is a creature to reckon

with; there are few animals its size that are so courageous.

[Illustration: mink]

As might be suspected, such wildly fierce creatures make poor parents.

The females sometimes desert the young while they are still too small to

make their own way. Yet this, after all, is but a human criticism. Who

is to condemn an animal which Nature has allowed to exist under

conditions that would have eliminated a more amicable species?

Short-tailed weasel (ermine)

_Mustela erminea_ (Latin: weasel ... from the fur ermine)

Range: From northern Greenland south to northern United States with one

extension south into Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. To be expected in

northern Arizona.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Generally found in forests of the Transition Life Zone and

higher. It will often be found in the Arctic Zone.

Description: A tiny predator with long body and short legs. Total length

from 7 to 13 inches. Tail 2 to 4 inches. Weight 1½ to 3⅔ ounces. This

wide range in statistics is from comparing the smallest females with the

largest males. Males consistently average from one-fifth to one-fourth

larger than females. Summer color is dark brown with white underparts

and feet. There is a white line down the insides of the hind legs

connecting the white of the feet with that of the belly. The tip of the

tail is black. Winter coat is all white with the exception of the black

tail tip. The body is long and supple, legs are short, the neck long and

round. The head is small with rather large, bulging dark eyes. The ears

are large for a creature of this size. Breeding dens are usually in the

ground under large rocks or among the roots under a tree. Average number

of young is thought to be about four.

I have a special affection for this tiny predator which, because of its

fearlessness, has given me many a glimpse into its private life which

would not have been possible in the case of a larger or more timid

creature. Let no one underestimate the courage of this small mustelid

which, if left alone, will continue its normal activities even under the

close scrutiny of an observer, but if molested will often turn on its

tormenter with a fury matched by few large animals. It shares these

characteristics with two other relatives of the United States: the

longtailed weasel (_Mustela frenata_), which is also found in the

Southwest, and the least weasel (_Mustela rixosa_), which inhabits part

of the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. The short-tailed

weasel will not be mistaken for either of the other species, since the

least weasel has no black tip on the tail and the long-tailed weasel has

a tail about one-third of its body length. The tail of the short-tailed

weasel is only about one-fourth of its body length, and this species is

considerably smaller than the long-tailed weasel.

Short-tailed weasels are the smallest carnivores in the Southwest. In

fact, except for the least weasel, they are the smallest on the North

American Continent. Despite its size, _Mustela erminea_ is so hardy it

ranges to the northernmost point of land in the Northern Hemisphere.

This, the north coast of Greenland, is but a few degrees from the North

Pole. The European form, not specifically distinct from ours, is equally

hardy. It, too, inhabits not only the more temperate zones, but

penetrates far north of the Arctic Circle wherever land is found. In our

Southwest they are sometimes encountered at low elevations but more

often in the higher mountains. Here they go through the winter change of

color, but not so regularly nor so completely as in the far north.

The term “ermine” refers to this animal’s fur in the winter pelage. This

is the royal ermine, reserved in days past for the use of the

aristocracy. At its best this fur is a spotless white, except for the

sharply contrasting black tail tip. In heraldry the pure white had

symbolic significance, but to the weasel it has more mundane uses. These

are as camouflage, both in pursuing prey and in avoiding attacks of

enemies. In the far north this seasonal change of garb is mandatory and

complete, but in the mild (by comparison) climate of our southwestern

mountains the situation is somewhat altered. Here the creature can

descend to lower elevations as winter comes on and, if it wishes, evade

most of the severe weather. Under conditions which to some extent are

left to its own choice, the degree of color change varies greatly. In

snowy areas on higher peaks it will change to true ermine; lower down it

probably will turn to a light yellow, and below snowline the animal will

retain the same brown above and white below that it wears all summer.

[Illustration: short-tailed weasel]

Like most other members of the weasel family, these small mustelids are

admirably adapted to do their part in Nature. Their size permits them to

enter the homes of all but the very smallest rodents. Their strength and

suppleness combined with ferocity enables them to subdue animals several

times as large. Surprisingly enough, though well able to climb, they do

not eat many birds. Most of their prey is rodents. Small mice seem to be

preferred, though chipmunks, ground squirrels, and woodrats also are

taken. Pikas and small rabbits fall prey to these mighty mites, and

there are many recorded cases of snakes being killed by them. Like the

mink, short-tailed weasels will gather a cache of food when hunting is

good. For their size they have a tremendous appetite; it has been

estimated that one will eat half of its own weight in food every 24

hours. From this it will be seen that they can live only in an area

where rodents are plentiful, and that they play a large part in keeping

these creatures under control.

I have been privileged to see this weasel many times and under varying

circumstances. In all of these encounters it has seemed evident that at

first the animal accepts the intrusion of man not so much as an enemy,

but rather as a competitor. Under these condition it will continue its

activities and pay very little attention to the intruder. However,

should any hostile action be taken against it, the weasel will make its

escape, if possible. If cornered it will savagely defend itself, and as

a last resort spray its attacker with the foul-smelling contents of the

anal gland. Not so long lasting as the skunk’s perfume, this odorous

mist is nearly as effective while it lasts. How much better to stand

aside and watch the little predator go about its work!

If you are fortunate enough to be in an area where a hay meadow is being

irrigated, you will see the meadow voles (meadow mice) being flooded out

of their homes. A careful watch may reveal one or more short-tailed

weasels taking their toll of these hapless refugees. You may even find a

cache laid away during this period of good hunting. Neither pity the

voles nor scorn the weasel; both are only fulfilling their destinies in

an ages-old plan.

Spotted skunk

_Spilogale gracilis_ (Greek: spilos, spot and gale, weasel ...

gracilis, Latin: slender)

Range: This species, together with several subspecies, is the common

spotted skunk of the Southwest. It has a “spotty” distribution over the

whole of the four-State area with which this book is concerned.

Habitat: Common in most situations which offer suitable environment from

near sea level, to an elevation of approximately 8,000 feet. Seldom

encountered above timberline. These skunks normally live in burrows in

the ground, but are not averse to taking up residence under buildings or

in the walls or attics of frame houses.

Description: A small, nocturnal, black and white animal about the size

of an average grey tree squirrel. Total length about 16 inches, of which

6 inches is taken up by the tail. One description of the color pattern

would be to call it marbled. The head usually has a prominent white spot

between the eyes, with several smaller spots on the sides of the face.

The forequarters are marked with four lateral, irregular white stripes

which reach to mid body. The rump is variously blotched with white. Tail

very bushy and about half white and half black. Eyes dark in color, ears

small. Feet small but plantigrade as in the larger species of skunks.

Young number three to six, born in early summer.

Although this little animal has a slight heaviness of the hind quarters,

reminiscent of the larger skunks, it is indeed, as both generic and

specific names suggest, much more like a weasel. This impression is

heightened by its quick movements and a bright-eyed attention to details

which its larger relatives would hardly notice. It lacks the wild and

fierce disposition of the weasels however, and becomes a charming and

confiding nocturnal visitor if properly encouraged. Remember though that

this acquaintance can be no more than an armed truce, and that should

the articles of Formal Conduct be violated it can be terminated at a

moment’s notice.

Probably no nocturnal mammal in the Southwest is more likely to be

encountered than this little skunk. How many of my readers can recall

drifting up from an uneasy sleep to the sibilant whisper of, “there’s

something in the tent.” While eyes strain to pierce the darkness, faint

patterings on the floor and urgent scratching at the grub box indicate

that there is indeed “something in the tent.” Turning over with the

utmost care, while the joints of the cot loudly complain, the flashlight

under the pillow is finally extricated. Surely the creature has been

frightened away, but no, the rattlings continue—in the dishes now. The

brilliant white beam stabs in that direction. Red eyes stare back,

interested perhaps, but unafraid. The rounded ball of black and white

fluff waits motionless to see if any harm is intended. When none is

offered, his highness makes his way to the door and ambles away into the

enveloping darkness. In the morning tiny squirrel-like tracks in the

dust show that _Spilogale_ has paid a nocturnal call. These, and perhaps

the contents missing from the butter and bacon grease containers,

because this little animal dearly loves animal fats. These are the foods

which attract these animals to camp sites in such numbers that they

frequently become a nuisance.

In the wild, spotted skunks live largely on insects. These are taken not

only in the adult form but also in great numbers in the larval stage, as

is shown by the well-winnowed debris under clumps of cactus and around

the bases of shrubs and trees. In these searches for insects small prey

of other kinds is captured as circumstances permit. Worms and scorpions

as well as small rodents are not refused. More rarely a ground-nesting

bird may be disturbed and the eggs or young taken. In rural communities

hen roosts are sometimes raided too but in the main the spotted skunk

should be considered beneficial, with control of grasshoppers and

beetles it’s chief function.

Like most predators, this member of the weasel family has few natural

enemies. This is not surprising; few animals willingly take a chance on

attacking this doughty little warrior, which sometimes does a handstand

the better to spray it’s enemies. These tactics avail nothing against

the steely monsters that rush up and down our highways in the dead of

night. In the space of 50 years the automobile has developed into the

most successful enemy of the spotted skunk. Yet even in death on the

highway the skunk has it’s revenge. Few will pass the spot for many a

day without paying unwilling tribute to this malodorous legacy.

Striped skunk

_Mephitis mephitis_ (Latin: a pestilential exhalation)

Range: The southern half of Canada, the whole of the United States, and

the northern half of Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: All life zones up to timberline in places which have a

sufficient food supply and proper cover.

Description: This is the “wood kitty,” approached with due respect by

all but the most naive. About the size of a house cat. Total length 22

to 30 inches. Tail 8 to 15 inches. Weight 6 to 10 pounds. Body color is

black, with black tail except for the tip, which is commonly white.

There are usually two white stripes on the back joining in a “V” at the

back of the head and a white stripe down the front of the face. The head

is small with a rather pointed nose, small black eyes, and small ears.

Front legs are short, and the small feet are tipped with stout claws.

Hind legs are longer and appreciably more of the large hind feet touch

the ground. The tail is quite long and extremely bushy. It is carried in

a downward curve when traveling; if its owner is startled or angry, it

is held straight up with the hairs flared out. Dens of the striped skunk

are usually in an underground burrow, but dens in hollow logs have been

recorded. The usual number of young average from four to six. The family

remains together for the greater part of a year before the young leave

to make their own way.

There are four species of skunks in the Southwest, but the observer in

the higher country will see only two. These are the striped and the

spotted. They are distinguished by two characteristics: first, the

striped skunk is easily double the size of the spotted skunk; and,

second, the spotted has a pattern of broken stripes and spots of white,

whereas the larger animal has definitely long, continuous white stripes

along sides or back. Both species have the same method of defense, but

the odor of the smaller skunk is said to be somewhat less pungent and

dissipates sooner than that of the striped. To the recipient of either

barrage this has the same consolation as if he were given a choice

between being hit by the H bomb or the A bomb. In the event of a direct

strike it makes little difference.

Should the reader be involved in an encounter with one of these

malodorous creatures, there are many remedies prescribed but few giving

any great measure of relief. If the skin is washed with a weak solution

of acid such as lemon or tomato juice and then scrubbed thoroughly with

soap and water, much of the odor will disappear. Clothes can be given

the same treatment, but usually it is cheaper and easier to burn them

and charge the cost to experience. Grandpa said to bury scented clothes

in damp earth. Perhaps in time this will do the trick; I contend they

are better left there.

So much misinformation exists about the skunk’s defensive mechanism and

the manner in which it is employed that brief explanation may not be

amiss. The scent is a fluid stored in two glands located near the base

of the tail. These glands are embedded in a mass of contractile muscle,

and each has a duct which connects with a tiny spray nozzle that can be

protruded from the anus. When danger threatens the tail is lifted, the

nozzles aimed at the enemy, and the contraction of the muscles around

the glands forces out a spray of fine droplets which may carry as far as

15 feet. The result is usually effective and lasting. Contrary to

popular belief, the odor is distressing to the skunk as well as to its

enemy. The tail is kept out of the way if possible, since its plumey

depths would hold the scent for a long time.

[Illustration: striped skunk]

Skunks of different species will use this defensive weapon against each

other. Whether individuals of the same species use it in their fights

together is not known. In situations involving humans the skunk will try

to bluff the enemy if possible. This consists of stamping the front

feet, of short runs at the intruder, and finally of hoisting the tail

and aiming the “guns.” If a skunk is approached deliberately and if

quick movements are avoided, it is surprising what liberties may be

taken before it will resort to scent. On the other hand, should it be

taken by surprise or should it be physically hurt, retaliation is swift

and certain. In all cases where skunks are encountered at close range,

remember that this little animal is one of the most independent

creatures on earth, that this nonchalance stems from a supreme

confidence in its defensive powers, and that if left alone or at least

treated with consideration it will go on its way as soon as possible.

This independent attitude inherent in all skunks probably has much to do

with the happy-go-lucky life that the young family lives. About

midsummer when the young are able to leave the burrow, the mother often

will take them for a stroll early in the afternoon. As she walks,

oblivious to danger, the young play along behind her, sometimes a ball

of struggling little bodies with now and then a fluffy tail breaking

free and again all at odds in a mock show of ferocity with front feet

stamping and flared tails held aloft. When the patient mother finds a

tidbit on the trail, there is a concerted rush for the prize, which is

seldom won without a struggle. All of this is excellent practice against

the time when they will be on their own. It is during this early age

that the young first learn to catch insects, items of great importance

in skunk diet. Later frogs and small mammals will also be preyed upon.

The striped skunk is generally considered a hibernating animal. This is

not strictly true for, while it may remain inactive in its den for weeks

at a time, the body processes do not slow down to the extent common in

true hibernation. The skunk does lay on a considerable amount of fat

each fall in preparation for this period of winter when food is scarce.

Actual retirement to a den for even a few days is rare in the Southwest,

however. The mild climate makes this unnecessary, except in the highest

part of their habitat.

Black bear

_Euarctos americanus_ (Latin: a bear ... of America)

Range: At present the range of the black bear in the United States is

confined to a narrow strip adjacent to both the Atlantic and Pacific

coasts, a few of the southeastern States, a narrow band in the Great

Lakes area, and the Rocky Mountain chain.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: In the Southwest, the higher mountains mostly in the Transition

Life Zone and above.

Description: The black bear needs little description because through

pictures and reputation it has become well known to almost everyone. It

averages 5 to 6 feet in total length with a tail so short as to be

inconsequential. Height at shoulders is 2 to 3 feet. Weight 200 to 400

pounds. Color varies in the Southwest from deep, shining black through

brown to light cinnamon. In all color phases the nose is brown almost

back to the eyes and there is usually a white “blaze” on the chest. The

legs are short and muscular. The feet are plantigrade, that is, the bear

steps on the whole foot, not just the toes. There are stout claws on all

four feet. The head proper is rather round, the muzzle long and pointed.

Ears are relatively small, as are the dark eyes. The young number from

one to four, with twins being very common. They are born while the

mother is still in winter quarters. When the weather moderates to a

point where she can leave, the cubs are large enough to follow her.

Bears are probably the most popular of our wild creatures to those who

visit the National Park Service areas. Why this should be is hard to

say. Perhaps it dates back to the nursery tale of the three bears,

familiar to all of us from the time we were able to walk. Perhaps too it

stems from the easy familiarity with which these roadside bandits hail

the tourist in hopes of a handout. At any rate, these seemingly friendly

clowns have become endeared to the hearts of the American public. This

is regrettable because actually in the Park Service areas these big

carnivores are the most dangerous of all animals. Native intelligence

indicates to the bears that food may be had merely by standing up

alongside the road when a car stops. More complicated routines are soon

learned to wheedle bigger and better handouts. At this professional

level, a substantial reward is expected when Bruin has “sung for his

supper,” and should none be forthcoming, trouble is apt to ensue. This

is but a minor annoyance to a bear, however, when compared with some of

the indignities dealt out to these big creatures by a thoughtless

public. It must be said in all fairness that anyone who teases a bear

deserves whatever is handed out in return. It is unfortunate that

retribution may be in the form of serious injury or even death. Though

this applies mainly to the half-tame bears which roam along the highways

in our National Parks, it is only common sense to avoid incidents with

any bear wherever encountered. This is especially true of an old female

with cubs, a combination well nigh irresistible to the average

vacationer with camera.

In more remote areas where bears have not had contact with man, they are

wary to the point of timidity. Gifted with a keen sense of hearing and

smell which makes up for their poor eyesight, they are difficult to

approach. Like most animals, they instinctively know that by “freezing”

they can in most cases escape being seen. The sunburned coat of the

brown phase of the black bear is especially hard to spot in the

underbrush. However, with patience and the aid of binoculars, it should

not be too difficult to get a glimpse into the private life of these

engaging creatures.

[Illustration: black bear]

Though bears, because of their dentition, are classed as carnivores,

they might more accurately be termed omnivores. It is a matter of record

that the black bear will eat almost anything, either animal or

vegetable. Nevertheless, its appetite is prodigious and demands little

variety, if but a few kind of foods are available. Its status as a

predator is somewhat confused. Technically speaking, since the black

bear preys on ground squirrels, mice and other small rodents it should

be classed as a predator. It will also take young deer and elk whenever

it can, but these opportunities come rarely. Actually this bear has

little direct influence on its mammal neighbors. As a scavenger it has

considerable value in cleaning up the remains of kills made by other

predators.

Some of the small animals eaten are in almost amusing contrast with the

huge size of their enemy. For instance, ants are eagerly lapped up by

most bears, and they will literally tear old logs apart to get at these

toothsome morsels. Grubs are another small item which may be found

around fallen logs and under stones. Bears are extremely fond of honey

and will go to great lengths to get at this delicacy, which they eat

comb, bees, and all. Another food item which seems unusual is fish. At

spawning time a bear will wade out into a stream and either snag a

passing fish on its long claws or flip it out on the bank where it is

more easily subdued. Finally, their natural animal diet is greatly

augmented in most Park Service areas by the scraps and bones which they

pick up on the garbage heaps. They can become a great nuisance in the

camping areas where, under cover of darkness, their ingenuity and great

strength enable them to steal many a ham and side of bacon.

Wide as this variety of animal food seems, it cannot equal the

cosmopolitan tastes of these bears in a vegetable diet. Roots and bulbs

of many species are dug up. Grass and browse are eaten during several

seasons of the year; even pine needles are recorded as having been

eaten. The liking of bears for berries of all kinds is well known.

_Arctostaphylos_, the generic name of the manzanitas, translated from

the Greek means “bear grape.” Pinyon nuts, acorns, chokecherries, and

other stone fruits all are gathered in season. These heavy animals often

damage trees severely in their search for fruit. On the garbage heaps,

watermelon rinds and seeds, peelings of all kinds, leafy vegetables, and

corn cobs add to the fare. All tin cans are licked clean, and in many

cases greasy paper and cellophane wrappings are eaten.

The yearly cycle of a bear’s life is a study in contrasts. Much of the

warm part of the year is spent in search for food with which to build up

a store of fat so that the winter may be spent in inactivity. Bears

hibernate or, more properly, retire for several months of the winter.

They do not fall into the deep sleep indulged by some of the rodents.

Theirs is an uneasy sleep broken by periods of lethargy when they are

awake but avoid any activity. By these means they conserve enough of

their thick layer of fat to live out the cold weather and emerge in

early spring with a considerable reserve.

Hibernation takes place in late autumn, usually after the first light

snows. Evidently the animals have a den already located, for when they

feel the urge to retire they strike out across country to it. The same

winter quarters often will be used by one individual for several

seasons. Dens are chosen in a variety of locations. They may be in old

hollow logs or in the bases of fire-gutted trees. Some are in crevices

among huge boulders, others in caves. The main concern seems to be to

find a place sheltered from the wind and snow. If the floor happens to

be covered with chips or leaves, so much the better. It usually is,

either from air currents which bring in falling leaves or through the

labors of woodrats which deposit much litter in such places. The bears

curl up on the floor, and after the first heavy snow there is nothing to

mark the spot. In the case of a small den, such as a cavity in the base

of a tree, an airhole may form in the drift from the warmth of the

animal’s respiration.

The cubs are born in late winter. From one to four in number, they are

incredibly small at birth. They develop rather slowly and at the time

the family emerges from the den are approximately 18 inches long. The

cubs may all be one color or some may be brown and some black. The male

bear has no part in raising the family; indeed, he is driven from the

scene by the irate mother, should he approach too closely. She has all

the responsibility for raising the family, and a busy time is assured

with such mischievous, carefree youngsters.

One of the first lessons learned by young cubs is that of obedience. The

mother insists on compliance with her every command, and enforces her

authority with a heavy paw. It is fortunate the cubs are sturdily built,

for some of the slaps they receive in the course of an average day’s

instruction would kill a less durable animal. The first haven of refuge

when danger threatens is in the trees. A special command note and a slap

or two sends them hustling. Now the cubs are out of the way and the

decks cleared for action, so to speak. The cubs will remain in the trees

until the mother lets them know they may come down. This is not a time

of boredom for the youngsters, however. Expert climbers, they carry on

the same games and rough play indulged on the ground, with never a fall.

Their confidence in the trees is amazing. It is not unusual to see a cub

sound asleep on the end of a 20-foot branch that is bending down with

its weight and swaying in the wind. As the months go on the cubs begin

to lose their juvenile ways. By autumn, they have put on enough fat to

last the winter. They usually hibernate with the mother, since they

remain with her for well over a year. During the following summer they

are well able to take care of themselves, and the mother deserts them.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

It is normal, rather than unusual, among black bears to breed only every

other year. The youngsters usually do not breed until about three years

old.

No account of this bear would be complete without mention of the

so-called “bear trees.” These are trees situated at the crossroads, that

is, near the intersections of bear trails or otherwise prominently

located. When a bear encounters one, it stands up and scratches at the

bark with its front claws as high as it can reach. Sometimes it will

also bite at the bark. Bears have been observed rubbing the sides of

their jaws against the bark. Whether this is a way of leaving their

scent is not known. It is thought this may be a way of communication

with others of the species, but this has not been definitely proven.

Many of the trees chosen for this purpose in mountains of the Southwest

have been aspens. The heavy black furrows left in the white bark will

persist until the death of the tree. Often they are the only evidence

that bears have ever been in the locality.

Another custom which will be observed very early in one’s experience

with bears is the scratching that goes on. It may be due in part to the

presence of ectoparasites, but the bear takes such an obvious

satisfaction in scratching that, one feels, this must be only

incidental. Trees, posts, rocks, and claws are all employed for this

purpose. Some of the smaller trees often suffer severe damage from the

treatment accorded them.

My cautious attitude toward bears is a result of early experiences with

them, ranging from humorous to tragic, and probably best typified by an

incident which took place near Yellowstone Park in the late 1920s. I was

on my first trip into the Rockies at the time and hired out on a

construction job at an isolated dude ranch. Horses were being used, and

their supplies, including a considerable store of oats, were kept in a

large tent adjacent to that in which some of the employees slept. On the

previous night a bear had gained access to the supply tent, torn open a

number of oat sacks, and wasted more of the grain than it had eaten. The

foreman, an old-time packer in the Park, vowed vengeance on the bear.

That night when he went to bed he leaned a small, double-bitted axe

against the entrance to the tent. During the night I awoke as the

foreman went out the entrance in his underwear. A partial moon shed a

weak light over the scene and revealed the foreman entering the other

tent with the axe in his hand. A short silence was followed by a heavy

splat, a tremendous grunt, and some frenzied shouts. The supply tent

heaved violently, went down, and split open as the bear hurtled out and

through the woods toward the creek. When order had been restored it

transpired that the foreman had stolen up to the bear, which had its

back to him, and had struck it across the rump as hard as he could with

the flat of the axe. The element of surprise apparently was all in his

favor because the startled bear charged directly away from him into the

far end of the tent. Although in this instance no injuries were

suffered, it has always seemed that this was an extremely foolhardy

thing to do. Although one of the most laughable happenings I have ever

seen, it also had all the elements of a possible tragedy.

Grizzly bear

_Ursus horribilis_ (Latin: a bear ... horrible)

Range: Alaska, western Canada, and in the United States confined to the

high mountains of the Continental Divide as far south as northern New

Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Except in National Park areas, grizzlies are seldom seen, since

they frequent only the most isolated places in the mountains; Transition

Life Zone and higher.

Description: The largest carnivore in the Southwest. Easily

distinguished from the black bear by the prominent hump on the

shoulders. Total length 6 to 7 feet. Tail so short as to be

unnoticeable. Height at shoulders 3 to 3½ feet. Weight 325 to 850

pounds. Color of the southwestern grizzlies is variable, ranging from

yellowish brown to nearly black, but has a characteristic grizzled

effect caused by the white-tipped hairs scattered through the fur. This

is especially noticeable along the back. The grizzly, though massively

built, gives an impression of leanness. The shoulders are higher than

the posterior, giving the animal a streamlined appearance. The head is

large and round with a square, uptilted muzzle. The legs are extremely

powerful, the feet large and with formidable claws, those of the front

feet being up to 4 inches long. The young will number from one to three,

with two being most common. Grizzlies breed every 2 or 3 years.

Probably no mammal in the United States is more certain soon to become

extinct than these great bears. Many factors contribute toward this end,

chief among them being the low reproduction rate and the rapid decrease

of its range because of an increase in stock raising and agriculture.

Ousted from its former haunts, the species is now found chiefly in only

the few areas where it is rigidly protected. It seems extremely unlikely

that it can long survive this reduction of its once unlimited range.

This is the culmination of a program of destruction wrought on the

grizzly since penetration of the white man into the West. It but follows

the disappearance of other, less well known bears which lived in the

Southwest at that time.

When the Mountain Men came into the West in the period from 1800 to 1850

they found a huge, light-colored bear roaming the foothills of the

desert country. For want of a better name they called it the “gray

bear.” From the accounts of that time it is now assumed that it was a

grizzly; at any rate, it was said to have been extremely ferocious, a

trait which led to its downfall. In the space of about 70 years this

animal was discovered, hunted and exterminated, all without a specimen

of any kind being preserved. Today not a trace of this big predator

remains. Its fate illustrates the usual result of contact between a

dangerous, highly specialized animal and man. The question which arises

is, should any group of men ever be allowed such control over a

wilderness that they are able to exterminate the fauna and flora to the

detriment of succeeding generations? The answer seems obvious if we

consider that “we but hold these things in trust.”

[Illustration: grizzly bear]

Many species of the grizzly are recognized by taxonomists, but few are

alive today. In the United States only New Mexico, Colorado, Utah,

Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho still have some of these big animals. In

some other western States they have but recently become extinct.

California is thought to have lost its last grizzly in 1925. The few

survivors are probably all of the species _horribilis_. Since grizzly

country is also black bear country, the layman may become confused in

identifying the two species. A few important differences make

identification easy.

The first and most conspicuous field mark is the prominent shoulder hump

of the grizzly. The male black bear will sometimes with age develop a

shoulder hump, but it cannot compare with that of the grizzly. Second,

the grizzly has what has been described as a “dish” face; that is, a

concavity in the general shape of the front of the face, whereas the

black bear develops a definite “Roman” nose. Third, the claws of the

grizzly are twice as long as those of the black bear; this is most

noticeable in the tracks. If one is close enough to see this

characteristic in the field, he probably is too close for safety!

Lastly, the attitude of the two species toward each other when they meet

on common ground is characteristic. As a rule, the approach of a grizzly

to a garbage dump is enough to put all black bears to flight. There is

no intermingling of the two species; the grizzly is the master and the

black bear will not challenge his authority.

In most of its habits the grizzly resembles the black bear. It is

omnivorous to the same degree, but somewhat more predatory. It also goes

into hibernation for the winter, and the cubs are born during this

inactive period. They receive the same rigorous training as that

accorded their black cousins, and like them, are able to climb into the

trees and out of harm’s way. As they grow older, this ability leaves

them with the growing of the long claws, and adult grizzlies are

supposed to be unable to climb. In one respect the grizzly differs from

not only the black bear but from most other native mammals. It has never

learned to fear man to the same degree that other creatures have.

Whether the grizzly’s belligerent attitude stems from fear or contempt

is a moot question. The important point to remember is that a grizzly

should be avoided at all times. Injuries suffered by humans in their

contacts with black bears are usually accidental rather than the result

of deliberate assault by the animal. Grizzlies have been known to charge

without other provocation than trespass on what they consider their

territory. Surely the public can afford to humor this irascible giant. A

little consideration for its irritable nature is not too great a price

to pay for its continued existence in our rapidly dwindling numbers of

large carnivores.

Vagrant shrew

_Sorex vagrans_ (Latin: a shrew ... wandering)

Range: Confined to mountains of western United States and Canada, and

northern and southern Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Moist places in forests of the Transition Life Zones and

higher.

Description: A tiny creature with a long nose. Total length 4 to 5

inches. Tail 1½ to 2 inches. Color reddish brown to black above with

sides drab and lightening to gray below. Tail indistinctly bi-color

except for the last half which is dark all the way around. Head round

and narrowing to a long, pointed, somewhat flexible nose. Long whiskers

are found along the sides of the upper jaw. Eyes and ears so small as to

be difficult to see. Little is known of breeding habits of the shrews.

The vagrant shrew is said to breed at any time of year and to have from

5 to 11 young in a litter.

Shrews are the smallest American mammals. Their size and secretive

habits combine to make them among the least known of native animals.

They are classed as insectivores, although they eat other small mammals

as well as insects. They may be distinguished from mice by their

bicuspid incisors and modified canine teeth. Another difference is that

shrews have five toes, in contrast to the four-toed feet of mice.

[Illustration: vagrant shrew]

As far as is known at present, certain species of shrews are the only

poisonous mammals. The big short-tailed shrew (eastern United States)

has a toxic substance in its saliva which helps subdue some of the

animals it captures. It is thought that some western species also have

this peculiarity. Though shrews are among the tiniest animals known,

they are not unduly persecuted by larger predators. This is thought to

be partly because of certain glands on the shrew’s body which give it an

offensive odor.

An outstanding characteristic of shrews is their need for a constant

supply of food. Because all small animals lose heat quickly, they must

eat almost constantly to replace this loss. Some species will eat their

own weight in food as often as every 3 hours. An outstanding exception

is the water shrew, which can do without food for as long as 2 days

without starving to death. Since most shrews live in or near the water,

they find ample food in the insects, spiders, minnows, and small mammals

which live in moist locations. The group is as ferocious as it is

voracious. Most shrews do not hesitate to attack animals outweighing

them several times. It has been said that if shrews were as big as

squirrels they probably would even attack man.

In the mountains of Utah, Colorado, and northern New Mexico the northern

water shrew (_Sorex palustris_) may be encountered. It is somewhat

larger than the vagrant shrew and will not be seen away from water. Gray

below and black above, it is wonderfully camouflaged, whether in water

or on land. It, like other shrews, has long whiskers known as vibrissae.

Land shrews use these whiskers as tactile organs to help them follow the

dark maze of their runways. Water shrews are thought to use them as

sense organs in place of eyes to pursue the minnows, tadpoles, and water

bugs they eat. Actually, the water shrew resembles a large water bug as

it darts about below the surface surrounded by the silvery bubbles of

air imprisoned in its fine fur.

Bats

Order _Chiroptera_ (Latin: chir, hand, and optera, wing)

The special treatment accorded bats in this book is not given them by

choice. It results from an inability to so clearly describe any one or

two species chosen that the layman might be able to distinguish these

from their numerous and equally interesting relatives. When one

considers that numerically bats are thought to compare favorably with

birds, that there are a great number of species divided into many

genera, and that the four-State area with which we are concerned is

invaded, so to speak, by eastern, northern, western and Mexican species

besides having several of its own, it soon becomes apparent that this

group can be described here only in the most general way. If some of the

popular superstitions about bats are contradicted here, it is to be

hoped the reader will find the facts no less interesting.

The adaptation for which bats are best known is their ability to fly.

This specialized talent is shared by no other type of mammal. It is made

possible by considerable modification of several structures of the body,

that of the forelimbs being the most extreme. The bones of both the

upper and lower forelegs are considerably lengthened, but cannot compare

with the extreme elongation of the digits. The clawlike protuberance

from the front of the wing corresponds to the thumb. The wing membrane

stretched across the “fingers” is attached to the side of the body and

to the hindlegs as far as the ankle. Most bats have another wing

membrane, called the interfemoral membrane, which joins both hind legs,

and in many species it also embraces the tail. The wing membranes look

and feel somewhat like thin leather. Running through them is an

intricate system of blood vessels. These not only supply nourishment to

the membrane but also act as a radiator in cooling the blood stream

during the strenuous physical labor involved in flight. The principles

of flight are similar to those used by birds; that is, the wings are

partially folded on the upstroke and fully extended during the down

beat. This maneuver produces a rustling sound that is clearly audible in

the quiet of a cave. In fact, if thousands of bats are disturbed at the

same time it becomes a low roar.

The fact that bats are nocturnal, and at the same time lead an aerial

life which necessitates flying through labyrinths plunged in total

darkness, has been the cause of much research as to the means by which

they can do this. It is now definitely known that they depend on a sonar

system where, by emitting shrill cries, they are guided by the echoes

rebounding from nearby objects. These “squeaks” range within a frequency

of from 25,000 to 75,000 vibrations per second, which is too high for

the human ear to register. The sounds are uttered at rates from about 10

per second when the bat is at rest to as many as 60 per second when it

is in flight and surrounded by the many obstacles to be found in a cave.

Fantastic as this performance seems, it is matched by a theory that tiny

muscles close the bat’s ears to each squeak and open them again to hear

only the echo.

The response of their vocal and hearing structure to this specialized

use is truly amazing. There are no more unique faces in the mammal

kingdom than those of the bats. Most bats have enormous ears with ridged

and channeled interiors that probably have much to do with amplifying

faint sounds. Set in front of the ear is a narrow, upright protuberance

known as the tragus. Farther down the face, in the region of the nose,

are other strangely shaped skin structures including the “nose leaf.” As

yet the functions of these appendages are not entirely known, but it is

suspected that at least part of their purpose is to beam the squeaks

along a definite line and thus help orient the bat with its

surroundings. With such an efficient system to guide it, the bat has

small need for eyes. The expression “blind as a bat” is misleading,

however, because most bats, in spite of their relatively small eyes, can

see rather well.

Since most southwestern bats are insectivorous, with the exception of a

very few species along the Mexican border which are considered fruit

eaters, the question arises as to how they exist during the winter

months when insects are not to be found. There are two common methods by

which animals avoid such a lean period: by migration and by hibernation.

Bats employ both. Some species are thought to fly as far south as

Central America. Others group together in caves and hang in a deep

torpor all winter. In this state of inactivity their body temperatures

may fall to within one degree of their surroundings, and their rate of

metabolism sometimes falls to one-eighteenth of that during active

periods. As a rule, bats prefer a cool place for hibernation, because

the cooler the temperature the slower the rate of metabolism. Body

temperatures as low as 33.5° F. have been recorded in hibernating bats.

The temperature must not fall below freezing, or the animals will

perish. During this period of inactivity bats have been known to lose up

to one-third of their weight.

Because of their secretive habits and nocturnal periods of activity,

bats have few enemies other than man that are capable of making any

serious inroads on their numbers. Consequently the birth rate is quite

low in most species. Many have no more than one young each year; and the

red bat, which bears up to four young, seems to be the most prolific in

the United States. There is great variety in the methods by which

different species care for the young. Some mothers leave the babies

hanging to the roof of the cave while they go on their nightly search

for food; others carry the young clinging tightly to their fur. The

young mature quickly. They are usually able to fly within a month after

they are born.

Despite much recent scientific study, bats are still among our least

known creatures. Their insectivorous diet surely makes them of great

importance to man. Beyond this, their immense numbers indicate that

ecologically they must have tremendous influence on any area in which

they live.