INTRODUCTION

_Geographic Limitations_

The only point in the United States at which four states adjoin is where

Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico come together. With adjacent

portions of California, Nevada, and Texas, they contain all of our

Southwestern Desert. Arizona and New Mexico especially, are known as

desert States and for the most part deserve that appellation. Scattered

over this desert country as though carelessly strewn by some giant hand

are some of the highest and most beautiful mountains in our Nation. They

may occur as isolated peaks magnificent in their loneliness, or as short

ranges that continue but a little way before sinking to the level of the

desert. On the other hand it is in Colorado that the Rocky Mountains

reach their greatest height before merging with the high country in New

Mexico, and all of the States mentioned have at least one range of major

size.

Two great highways cross this area from East to West. U.S. 66,

“Mainstreet of America,” goes by way of Albuquerque and Flagstaff to Los

Angeles; farther north U.S. 50 winds through the mountains from Pueblo

to Salt Lake City and terminates at San Francisco. Significantly, they

meet at St. Louis on their eastward course, and here for the moment we

digress from geography to history.

_Westward Ho_

St. Louis in 1800 was a brawling frontier town. Strategically located at

the point where the Missouri River meets the Mississippi, it was the

jumping off place for those hardy souls adventurous enough to forsake

the comforts of civilization for the unknown perils of the West. Already

St. Louis was one of the fur centers of the world. Fashions of the day

decreed that top hats be worn by men. The finest hats were made of

beaver fur and no self-respecting dandy could be content with less.

Trapping parties ascended the Missouri River as far as the mountains of

Montana in search of pelts with which to supply the demand. When the

animals became scarce in more accessible areas, trappers turned their

attention to the mountains of New Mexico and Colorado. Hardships of the

overland route, coupled with danger of attack by hostile Indians,

discouraged all but the most hardy of a rugged breed. These “Mountain

Men” as they became known, traveled in small parties with all the

stealth and cunning of the Indians themselves. Gaunt from weeks of

travel across the plains, they could rest in the Spanish settlement of

Santa Fe for a few days before vanishing into the mountains. On the

return trip they might again visit the Spanish pueblo or, eager for the

night life of St. Louis, strike directly eastward across the prairies.

Today’s highways, while not following their trails directly, certainly

parallel them to a great degree.

Little is known today of these early adventurers. A few written accounts

have been printed, meager records of their catches have been noted, and

here and there crude initials and dates carved on isolated canyon walls

attest their passing. Their conquest of the West has faded into oblivion

but it must be regarded as the opening wedge of American progress into

the Southwest.

_Mountains as Wildlife Reservoirs_

Today’s traveler spans in hours distances across these same routes that

took weary weeks of heartbreaking toil a century ago. As he rides in

cushioned ease he seldom pauses to reflect on the changes that have

taken place since those early days. The great herds of bison with their

attendant packs of wolves have vanished and in their place white-faced

cattle graze on the level prairies. In the foothills the pronghorns have

taken their last stand. Cities have sprung up on the camping sites of

nomadic tribes that roamed the whole area between the Mississippi River

and the Rocky Mountains. Only the mountains seem the same.

In winter these massive ranges form a barrier against the storms that

sweep in from the northwest. More important—these great storehouses of

our natural resources that in early days meant only gold and furs, and

perhaps sudden death to the pioneers, have now been unlocked by their

descendants. The glitter of gold and the glamour of furs pales when

contrasted with the untold values that have since been taken out in the

baser metals and lumber. This phase too is now coming to an end. It is

becoming evident that in the face of our ever increasing population

these natural playgrounds are destined to become a buffer against the

tensions that we, as one of the most highly civilized peoples of the

world, undergo in our daily life. Within another century they will

represent one of the few remaining opportunities for many millions of

Americans to get close to nature. As such the proper development and

preservation of mountainous areas and their values is of vital

importance to our Nation.

Mountains of the Southwestern States have been formed by three major

agencies. These are, in order of importance, shrinkage of the earth’s

interior to form wrinkles on the surface; faulting, with subsequent

erosion of exposed surfaces; and volcanic action. The first method is

responsible for most of the large ranges, such as the coastal mountains

of California and the Rocky Mountains. Faulting is responsible for many

of the high plateau areas where one side may be a high rim or cliff and

the other a gently sloping incline. The Mogollon Rim, extending across a

part of Arizona and into New Mexico, is a classic example in this

category. Volcanic action may result in great masses of igneous rock

being extruded through cracks in the earth’s surface or it may take the

form of violent outbursts in one comparatively small area. Several

mountain regions in Arizona and New Mexico are covered with huge fields

of extruded lava. Capulin Mountain in New Mexico is an example of a

recent volcano which built up an almost perfect cone of cinders and

lava. Less noticeable than the mountains, but important nevertheless,

are the tablelands of the Southwest. These mesas, too high to be typical

of the desert, and in most cases too low to be considered as mountains,

partake of the characteristics of both.

_Desert “Islands”_

The mountains of the Southwest have been compared to islands rising

above the surface of a sea of desert. This is an apt comparison for not

only do they differ materially from the hot, low desert in climate, but

also in flora and fauna. Few species of either plants or animals living

at these higher altitudes could survive conditions on the desert floor

with any more success than land animals could take to the open sea.

Their death from heat and aridity would only be more prolonged than that

by drowning. Thus certain species isolated on mountain peaks are often

as restricted in range as though they actually were surrounded by water.

At times this results in such striking adaptation to local conditions

that some common species become hardly recognizable. This is the

exception to the rule however; most of the animals in this book are

either of the same species as those in the Northern States or so closely

allied that to the casual observer they will seem the same. Conditions

that enable these species ordinarily associated with the snowy plains of

the Midwest and the conifer forests of the North to live in the hot

Southwest are brought about either directly or indirectly by altitude.

_Life Zones_

There are in this nucleus of four States a total of six life zones, (See

map on page x.) The two lowest, the Lower and Upper Sonoran Life Zones,

range from sea level to a maximum elevation of about 7000 feet. These

two have been covered in the book “Mammals of the Southwest Deserts.”

The remaining four—Transition, Canadian, Hudsonian, and Alpine Life

Zones—will furnish the material for this book. The names of these zones

are self explanatory, because they are descriptive of those regions

whose climates they approximate. Unlike the two life zones of the

desert, which merge almost imperceptibly together, these upper zones are

more sharply defined. They may often be identified at a great distance

by their distinctive plant growth. It should be noted that plant species

are even more susceptible to environmental factors than animals and are

restricted to well defined areas within the extremes of temperature and

moisture best suited to their individual needs. Thus each life zone has

its typical plant species, and since animals in turn are dependent on

certain plants for food or cover, one can often predict many of the

species to be found in an individual area.

The Transition Life Zone in the Southwest usually lies at an altitude of

between 7000 and 8000 feet. It encompasses the change from low trees and

shrubs of the open desert to dense forest of the higher elevations. It

is characterized by open forests of ponderosa pine usually intermingled

with scattered thickets of Gambel oak. These trees are of a brighter

green than the desert growth but do not compare with the deeper color of

the firs that grow at a higher elevation.

The Canadian Life Zone begins at an altitude of about 8000 feet and

extends to approximately 9500 feet. The Douglas-fir must be considered

the outstanding species in this zone although the brilliant autumn color

of quaking aspens provides more spectacular identification of this area

during the fall. Through the winter months when this tree has shed its

leaves, the groves show up as gray patches among the dark green firs. At

this elevation there is considerable snow during winter and

correspondingly heavy rainfall in summer months. Under these favorable

conditions there is usually a colorful display of wildflowers late in

the spring.

The Hudsonian Life Zone is marked by a noticeable decrease in numbers of

plant species. At this altitude, (9500 to 11,500 feet), the winters are

severe and summers of short duration. This is the zone of white fir

which grows tall and slim so to better shed its seasonal burden of snow

and sleet. In the more sheltered places spruce finds a habitat suited to

its needs. Near the upper edge of the Hudsonian Life Zone the trees

become stunted and misshapen and finally disappear entirely. This is

timberline; the beginning of the Alpine Life Zone, or as it often

called, the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone.

Here is a world of barren rock and biting cold. At 12,000 feet and above

the eternal snows lie deep on the peaks. Yet, even though at first

glance there seems to be little evidence of life of any kind, a close

scrutiny will reveal low mat-like plants growing among the exposed rocks

and tiny paths leading to burrows in the rock slides. Among the larger

mammals there are few other than the mountain sheep that can endure the

rigors of this inhospitable region.

These are the zones of the Southwest uplands. Altitudes given are

approximate and apply to such mountain ranges as the San Francisco Peaks

of Arizona and the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in New Mexico. As one

travels farther north the zones descend ever lower until in the Far

North the Arctic-Alpine Life Zone is found at sea level. Since climate

more than any other factor, determines the types of plants and animals

that can live in a given area it is only natural that on these mountain

islands many species entirely foreign to the surrounding deserts are

found at home. Though it would seem that because of the relative

abundance of water at higher elevations the upland species would have

the better environment, this is not entirely true. Balanced against this

advantage are the severe winters which, in addition to freezing

temperatures, usher in a period of deep snows and famine. Even though

many species show a high degree of adaptation to these conditions, an

especially long or cold winter season will result in the death of weaker

individuals.

_Man and Wilderness_

The effects of man’s presence on the upland species is perhaps not as

serious as on those of the desert. Though he has been instrumental in

upsetting the balance of nature everywhere, it has been chiefly through

agriculture and grazing. Because of the rough broken character of much

high country in the Southwest the first is impossible in many cases and

the second only partially successful. There are other factors however

which menace the future of the upland species. Among these are: hunting

pressures, predator control, and lumbering. Even fire control, admirable

as it may be for human purposes, disrupts the long cycles which are a

normal part of plant and animal succession in forested areas. These are

only a few of the means by which man deliberately or unconsciously

decimates the animal population. They are set down as a reminder that

unless conservation and science cooperate in management problems, it is

conceivable that many of our common species could well become extinct

within the next 100 years. Our natural resources are our heritage; let

us not waste the substance of our trust.

As our wilderness areas shrink it seems that our people are gradually

becoming more interested, not only in the welfare of our native species

but in their ways as well. This type of curiosity augurs well for the

future of our remaining wild creatures. In times past an interest in

mammals was limited mainly to sportsmen who often knew a great deal

about where to find game animals and how to pursue them. Their interest

usually ended with the shot that brought the quarry down. Today many

people have discovered that a study of the habits of any animal in its

native habitat is a fascinating out-of-doors hobby in a virtually

untouched field. With patience and attention to details the layman will

occasionally discover facts about the daily life of some common species

that have escaped the attention of our foremost naturalists. This is no

criticism of the scientific approach. It is recommended that for his own

benefit the nature enthusiast learn a few of the fundamentals of

zoology, particularly of classification and taxonomy, which mean the

grouping and naming of species.

_Classification of Animals_

Classification of animals is easy to understand. Briefly, they are

divided into large groups called _orders_. These are further divided

into _genera_, and the genera in turn contain one or more _species_.

Scientific names of animals are always given in Latin. Written in this

universal language they are intelligible to all scientists, regardless

of nationality. It is a mistake to shy away from them because they are

cumbersome and unfamiliar to the eye. They usually reveal some important

characteristic of the animal they stand for. This is their true

function; it seems to this writer that it is a mistake to name an animal

after a geographical location or a person, although it is frequently

done. The literal translations of specific names in this book will

illustrate this point. See how much more interesting and how much more

easily remembered those names are which describe habits or physical

attributes of the creature.

Described herein are but a part of the species native to the

Southwestern uplands. Those chosen were selected because they are either

common, rare, or unusually interesting. Collectively they make up a

representative cross section of the mammals that live above the deserts

of the Southwest.

For further information on these and other mammals of the region see the

list of references on page 123.

HOOFED ANIMALS

_Artiodactyla_

(_even-toed hoofed animals_)

This order includes all of the hoofed animals native to the United

States. These are the mammals which are ordinarily spoken of as the

“cloven-hoofed animals.” An odd-toed group (_Perissodactyla_), which

includes the so-called wild horses and burros, cannot properly be

included as natives since these animals date back only to the time of

the Spanish conquest of our Southwest. In earlier geologic ages horses

ranged this continent, but in more primitive forms than those now found

in other parts of the world.

Through a study of fossil forms it has been determined that our present

hoofed animals evolved from creatures which lived on the edges of the

great tropical swamps that once covered large areas of our present land

masses. They were long-legged and splay-footed, well adapted to an

environment of deep mud and lush vegetation. As the waters gradually

disappeared and the animals were forced to take to dry land, their

strange feet underwent a slow transformation. Because they had become

accustomed to walking on the tips of their toes to stay up out of the

mud, the first toe did not touch solid ground at all in this new

environment. Since it was of no use it soon vanished entirely or became

vestigial. Some species developed a divided foot in which the second and

third toes and the fourth and fifth toes combined respectively to bear

the animal’s weight. Eventually the third and fourth toes assumed this

responsibility alone, and the second and fifth toes became dew claws.

These are the cloven-hoofed animals of today. In other species the third

toe was developed to bear the weight, and this resulted in a single-toed

group of which the horse is an example. In all cases an enormous

modification of the nails or claws with which most animals are equipped

has resulted in that protective covering called the hoof. The under

surface of the foot is somewhat softer and corresponds to the heavy pad

that protects the bottom of a dog’s toe. This brief explanation refers

only in the broadest sense to the order as represented in the United

States. The feet of the various species have become so specialized to

their separate ways of life that an individual can usually be easily

identified by its tracks alone. It is quite possible that many species

are still undergoing subtle changes in this respect.

With but one exception the cloven-hoofed animals of our southwestern

mountains bear either horns or antlers. The exception is the collared

peccary, “javelina,” (_pecari tajacu_) which, during the heat of the

summer, sometimes ascends to the Transition Life Zone in southern

Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. Essentially an animal of the low

desert, it will not be included in this book. The species which have

hollow, permanent horns are the bighorn and pronghorn. The pronghorn is

distinctive in shedding the sheaths of its horns each year, but the

hollow, bony core remains intact. In this group both sexes bear horns.

Animals bearing antlers are the elk and the deer. The antlers are

deciduous, being shed each year at about the same time as the winter

coat. Only the males of these species have antlers, any female with

antlers can be considered abnormal.

The Southwest is fortunate in still having a number of the species of

this order native to the United States. The bison can hardly be

considered a wild species, since it exists now only through the efforts

of a few conservationists who brought it back from virtual extinction.

Mountain goats, caribou, and moose are the only other species not known

to inhabit the Southwest.

In Nature’s balance the order _Artiodactyla_ seems to have been meant as

food for the large predators. Their protection against the flesh eaters

consists mainly in fleetness of foot, keen hearing, and a wide range of

vision, as evidenced by the large eyes set in the sides of the head.

They are but poorly equipped to actively resist attack by the larger

carnivores. Their best defense is flight.

Bighorn (mountain sheep)

_Ovis canadensis_ (Latin: a sheep from Canada)

Range: This species, with its several varieties, inhabits most of the

mountainous region of the western United States. In Mexico it occurs in

the northern Sierra Madres and over almost the whole length of Baja

California.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Among or in the vicinity of more precipitous places in the

mountains.

Description: A blocky animal, rather large, with heavy, curving horns.

Total length of adult male 5 feet. Tail about 5 inches. Weight up to 275

pounds. General color a dark gray to brown with lighter areas underneath

belly and inside of legs. The rump patch is much lighter than any other

part of the body; in most cases it can be described as white. Females

are similar in appearance to the males except that they are smaller and

the horns are much shorter and slimmer. Young, one or two, twins being

common.

Interesting as the desert varieties of this species may be in their

adaptation to an environment that seems foreign to their nature, they

cannot compare with the high mountain animal. Seen against the backdrop

of a great gray cliff or silhouetted against the skyline of a snowy

crest the bighorn has a magnificence that is thrilling. In flight it is

even more spectacular as it bounds from one narrow shelf to another in

an incredible show of surefootedness. Yet this airy grace is exhibited

by a chunky animal that often weighs well over 200 pounds. The secret

lies in the specially adapted hooves with bottoms that cling to smooth

surfaces like crepe rubber and edges that cut into snow and ice or gain

a purchase on the smallest projections of the rocks. The legs and body,

though heavy, are well proportioned and so extremely well muscled that

no matter what demands are placed on them this sheep seems to have a

comfortable reserve of power. No doubt the display of complete

coordination adds to the illusion of ease with which it ascends to the

most inaccessible places. Descents often are even more spectacular, the

animal seldom hesitating at vertical leaps of 15 feet or more down from

one narrow ledge to another.

[Illustration: bighorn]

In the high mountains where this sheep prefers to make its home it

usually ranges near or above timberline. During winter storms it may

sometimes be forced down into the shelter of the forests, but as soon as

conditions warrant it will go back to its world of barren rocks and

snow. Here, with an unobstructed view, its keen eyes can pick out the

stealthy movements of the mountain lion, the only mammal predator

capable of making any serious inroads on its numbers. It has few other

natural enemies. A golden eagle occasionally may strike a lamb and knock

it from a ledge, or a high ranging bobcat or lynx may be lucky enough to

snatch a very young one away from its mother, but these are rare

occurrences.

Bighorns depend mainly on browse for food. This is only natural since in

the high altitudes they frequent little grass can be found. Usually

there is some abundance of low shrubs growing in crevices on the rocks,

however, and many of the tiny annuals are also searched out during the

short summer season. At times a sheltered cove on the south exposure of

a mountain will become filled with such shrubs as the snowberry, and the

sheep take full advantage of such situations. As a rule they keep well

fed for, scanty though it seems, there are few competitors for the food

supply above timberline.

I have observed these sheep many times in the Rockies. Perhaps my most

memorable experience with this species was on Mount Cochran in southern

Montana. It was a gray, blustery day in September with occasional snow

flurries sweeping about the summits. On the eastern exposure of the

mountain a steep slope of slide rock extended for perhaps 1,000 feet

from one of the upper ridges to timberline. Not expecting to see any

game at that elevation, I made my way up this slope with no effort to

keep quiet. In my progress several rocks were dislodged and went

rattling down across the mass of talus. At the summit of the ridge a low

escarpment made a convenient windbreak against the gale that was tearing

the clouds to shreds as they came drifting up the opposite slope, and I

sat down to catch my breath before entering its full force. As I sat

there surveying the scene spread out below, my attention was attracted

by a low cough close by. Looking to the left about 40 feet away and 15

feet above me, I saw two magnificent rams standing on a projecting point

looking down at me. They seemed to have no fear; rather they evinced a

deep curiosity as to what strange animal this was that had wandered into

their domain. For the better part of a half hour I hardly dared breathe

for fear of frightening them. At first they gazed at me fixedly,

occasionally giving a low snorting cough and stamping their feet. Then

as I did not move, they would wheel about and change positions,

sometimes taking a long look over the mountains before bringing their

attention back. Finally when the cold had penetrated to my very bones, I

stood up. They were away in a flash, reappearing from behind their

vantage point with two ewes and an almost full-grown lamb following

them. While I watched they dashed at a sheer cliff that reared up to the

summit, and with hardly slackening speed bounded up its face until they

were lost in the clouds.

Although this happened in 1928 the experience is as vivid in my mind as

though it happened yesterday. Perhaps the most striking feature of

bighorns seen at this close range is the eyes. They might be described

as a clear, golden amber with a long oval, velvety black pupil. Credited

with telescopic vision, they must be some of the most useful as well as

beautiful eyes to be found in the animal kingdom.

Pronghorn (antelope)

_Antilocapra americana_ (Latin: antelope and goat, American)

Range: West Texas, eastern Colorado and central Wyoming to southern

California and western Nevada, and from southern Saskatchewan south into

northern Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Grasslands of mesas and prairies, mostly in the Upper Sonoran

Zone.

Description: A white and tan colored animal, considerably smaller than a

deer; horns with a single flat prong curving forward. Total length about

4 feet. Tail about 6 inches. Average weight 100 to 125 pounds. Color,

tan or black shading to white under belly and insides of legs. Two

conspicuous white bands under the neck, and the large white rump patch

of erectile hairs are unlike the markings of any other native animal. A

short, stiff mane of dark hairs follows the back of the neck from ears

to shoulders. Hooves black, horns also black except for the light tips

on those of older males. Both sexes horned. Young, usually two, born in

May.

[Illustration: pronghorn]

Pronghorns are unique among cloven-hoofed animals of the Southwest.

There is only one species, with several subspecies; a variety

_mexicana_, once common along the Mexican border, is considered extinct

in this country. The pronghorn has no “dew claws” like most other

animals with divided hooves. It has permanent bony cores in its horns

but sheds the outer sheaths each year. When these drop off the

succeeding sheaths are already well developed. Although at first these

new sheaths are soft and covered with a scanty growth of short stiff

hairs, corresponding to the velvet in antlered animals, it does not take

long for them to harden and become dangerous weapons. They reach full

development at about the time of the rut; bucks have been known to fight

to the death in the savage encounters that break out at this time.

Were it not for its unusual horns the pronghorn probably would be known

by a common name such as the white-tailed antelope, for the beautiful

white rump patch is undoubtedly its next most conspicuous feature.

However, at least two other animals have been named “antelope” because

their posteriors have some similarity. They are the white-tailed ground

squirrel and the antelope jackrabbit of the Sonoran Life Zone. The

ground squirrel (_Citellus leucurus_) has merely a white ventral surface

on its tail which may or may not act as a flashing signal when flipped

about, but the antelope jackrabbit (_Lepus alleni_) has a rump patch

that bears a striking likeness to the pronghorn’s both in appearance and

manner of use. In both cases the rump patches are composed of long,

erectile white hairs which are raised when the animal is alarmed. In

flight they are thought to act as warning signals; at any rate they are

very effective in catching the eye, and on the open plains the

pronghorn’s can be seen at a distance where the rest of the animal is

indistinguishable. It may well be, on the other hand, that this flashy

ornament is meant to attract the attention of an enemy and lead it in

pursuit of an adult individual rather than allowing it to discover the

helpless young. Neither animal can be matched in speed on level ground

by any native four-footed predator.

In times past the pronghorn usually lived in the valley and prairie

country. In the Southwest it roamed over much of both the Upper and

Lower Sonoran Life Zones, wherever suitable grass and herbage could be

found. On the prairies of the Midwest bands of pronghorns grazed in

close proximity to herds of buffalo. During the middle of the last

century it was the only animal whose numbers even approached those of

the latter. More adaptable than the buffalo, it has retreated before the

advance of civilization and taken up new ranges in rough and broken

country which is unsuited to agriculture. As a rule this is much higher

than its former range. Pronghorns are no longer found in the Lower

Sonoran Life Zone, except as small bands that have been introduced from

farther north. The greatest population now ranges in the upper portions

of the Upper Sonoran and along the lower fringe of the Transition Life

Zone. The animal has always been considered migratory to some extent

because it moved from mesa summer ranges to the protection of warmer

valleys during winter months. This habit is even more pronounced in

later years at the higher levels it now inhabits. These slim,

long-legged creatures are virtually helpless in deep snow and avoid it

whenever possible. They have even been known to mingle with cattle and

join with them at the feed racks during severe winters, an indication of

the extreme need to which shy pronghorns are sometimes reduced.

They are essentially grazing animals. In the past they ate prairie

grasses during the summer; in winter these same grasses made excellent

hay that lost little in nourishment from having dried on the roots. In

addition, they ate low herbage and nibbled leaves, buds, and fruits from

shrubs that grew along the watercourses. Their food today is much the

same except that in the many areas where they receive competition from

range cattle they undoubtedly resort to more browse than formerly.

Natural enemies of the pronghorn are legion, their success indifferent.

Every large carnivore will snap at the chance to take one, and even the

golden eagle has been known to kill them. The most serious depredations

are carried out on those young too small to follow the mother. However,

these attacks are fraught with danger, for the females are very

courageous in the defense of their young and at times several will join

in routing an enemy. In addition to this protection accorded them by

adult members of the band, the young have an almost perfect camouflage

in their plain coats that blend so closely with the color of the grass

in which they usually lie concealed. Because of their fleetness, few

adults fall prey to predators. Many attempts have been made to clock the

speed of the pronghorn in full flight but the estimates vary greatly.

Although a fast horse can keep up with one on smooth, level ground, it

is soon outdistanced on stony soil or in rough country.

[Illustration: baby pronghorn]

Bison (buffalo)

_Bison bison_ (Teutonic name given to this animal)

Range: At present bison exist only in widely scattered sanctuaries. In

Colonial times they ranged from southern Alaska to the Texas plains,

from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, and as far south as Georgia.

They are known in historic times in Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Mainly grasslands; a comparatively small number known locally

as “wood” bison lived in the fringes of the forests.

Description: Although bison are familiar to almost everyone, some

figures on weights and dimensions may be surprising. Bulls weigh up to

1800 lbs., reach 6 feet height at the shoulders and up to 11 feet in

length, of which about 2 feet is the short tail. Cows average much

smaller from 800 to 1000 pounds, and rarely over 7 feet long. Both sexes

have heavy, black, sharply curving horns, tapering quickly to a point,

and a heavy growth of woolly hair covering most of the head and

forequarters. A large hump lies over the latter and descends sharply to

the neck. The head is massive, horns widely spaced, and small eyes set

far apart. A heavy “goatee” swings from the lower jaw. All these

features combine to give the animal a most ponderous appearance.

Nevertheless, bison are surprisingly agile and are not creatures with

which to trifle, especially in the breeding season, when bulls will

charge with little provocation. Like most wild cattle, bison normally

bear but one calf per year. Twins are uncommon.

The history of the bison is unique in the annals of American mammalogy.

It hinges on simple economics, reflecting transfer of the western

prairies from Indian control to white. It is a pitifully short history

in its final stages, requiring only 50 years to drive a massive species,

numbering in the millions, from a well balanced existence to near

extinction. Yet considering the nature of civilization and progress

there could have been no other end, so perhaps it is well that it was

quickly over.

For countless centuries the bison had roamed the prairies, their

seasonal migrations making eddies in the great herds that darkened the

plains. They were host to the Indian, and to the gray wolf, yet so well

were they adapted to their life that these depredations were merely

normal inroads on their numbers. They drifted with the seasons and the

weather cycles, grazing on the nutritious grasses of the prairie.

Weather and food supply; these were the main factors which controlled

the “buffalo” population until the coming of the white man.

The first white man to see an American bison is thought to have been

Cortez, who in 1521 wrote of such an animal in Montezuma’s collection of

animals. This menagerie was kept in the Aztec capitol on the site of

what is now Mexico City. There the bison was an exotic, hundreds of

miles south of its range. In 1540 Coronado found the Zuni Indians in

northern New Mexico using bison hides, and a short distance northeast of

that point encountered the species on the great plains. The eastern edge

of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico seems to have been the western

limit of bison in the Southwest. Unfavorable climate, plus the

comparatively heavy Indian population of the valley probably combined to

halt farther penetration in that direction.

From 1540 until 1840 the white man limited his activities on the western

plains to exploring. American colonization had reached the Mississippi

River, but remained there while gathering its forces for the expansion

which later settled the West. Under Mexican rule, the Southwest

progressed very slowly. Then in the span of 50 years a chain of events

occurred which determined the destiny of the West and sealed the fate of

the bison herd.

[Illustration: bison]

Outstanding among these events were: the War with Mexico, 1844; the 1849

Gold Rush to California; the Gadsden Purchase in 1854; and completion of

the transcontinental railroad in 1868. The first three added new and

important territory to the United States. This made construction of

transportation and communication facilities a vital necessity, hence the

railroad. Completion of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868 divided the

bison population into southern and northern herds and made market

hunting profitable. Three factors contributed to extermination: profit

in the traffic of hides, meat, and bones; control of troublesome Indian

tribes through elimination of one of their major sources of food; and

finally, removal of any competition on the grassy plains of Texas and

Kansas against the great herds of Longhorn cattle which were beginning

to make Western range history. In 1874, only 6 years after completion of

the Union Pacific, the slaughter of the southern herd was complete. It

is of interest to note that not one piece of legislation was passed to

protect the southern herd.

The northern herd did slightly better. Closed seasons were established

in Idaho in 1864, in Wyoming in 1871, Montana in 1872, Nebraska in 1875,

Colorado in 1877, New Mexico in 1880, North and South Dakota in 1883.

Nevertheless, the herd dwindled, and by 1890 was nearly extinct. Since

that time, through careful management, a few small herds have been

established in Parks and refuges, but today the bison must be considered

more a domesticated animal than a wild one.

Although the animal was not as important economically to the

southwestern as to the plains Indians, it was a religious symbol of some

value. Archeological finds far west of the historic range, and dances

still used in ceremonies, reveal that several southwestern tribes sent

hunting parties eastward into bison country. This must have been very

dangerous, for plains Indians would have considered them invaders. Bison

were food, shelter, and clothing to them. Imagine their consternation

when white men began to slaughter the source of their living.

There are today but few reminders of the great herds of the west.

Perhaps one well versed in the ways of these wild cattle could still

find traces of the deeply cut trails which led to the watering places,

or shallow depressions where the clumsy beasts once wallowed in the mud.

Many of the Indian dances recall the importance of this animal to

primitive man. Perhaps our most constant reminder is the coin which

commemorates this symbol of the wild west, showing the Indian on one

side and the bison on the other.

Mule deer

_Odocoileus hemionus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Greek:

hemionus, mule)

Range: Western half of North America from Central Canada to central

Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Forests and brushy areas from near sea level to lower edge of

the Alpine Life Zone.

Description: A large-eared deer with a tail that is either all black

above or black tipped. Total length of an average adult about 6 feet.

Tail about 8 inches. The coat is reddish in summer and blue-gray in

winter. Under parts and insides of legs lighter in color. Some forms of

this species have a white rump patch, others none. The tail may be

black-tipped, or black over the whole dorsal surface, but is more

sparsely haired than that of other native deer and is naked over at

least part of the under surface. Only the bucks have antlers. These are

typical in forking equally from the main beam. They are shed every year.

[Illustration: mule deer]

The mule deer is typical of the western mountains. Even in early days it

was never found east of the Mississippi and now is seldom seen east of

the Rockies. Only one species is recognized in the United States,

although over its vast range are many subspecific forms. All are notable

for the size of their ears, from which derives the common name “mule.”

The black-tailed deer of the Pacific Coast, long considered a distinct

species, is now rated a subspecies of the mule deer.

In a general way the deer of the United States may be divided into two

groups, these separated geographically by the Continental Divide. East

of this line is the territory occupied by the white-tailed group;

westward of it live the mule deer. Inasmuch as species seldom stop

abruptly at geographical lines, we find in this instance that a

whitetail subspecies, locally known as the Sonora fantail, is found

along the Mexican border as far west as the Colorado River, territory

also occupied by desert-dwelling mule deer. In like fashion the mule

deer of the Rocky Mountains can even now be seen in the Badlands of

North Dakota, several hundred miles east of the Continental Divide and

well within the western range of the plains white-tailed.

Though the two species mingle in places, they are easily distinguished

from each other, even by the novice. Because in many cases the animal is

seen only in flight, the manner of running is perhaps the most prominent

field difference. The mule deer, adapted to living in rough country,

bounds away in stiff-legged jumps that look rather awkward on the level

but can carry it up a steep incline with surprising speed. The

white-tailed, on the other hand, stretches out and runs at a bobbing

gallop. Deer seldom take leisurely flight from a human, usually

straining every muscle to leave their enemy as soon as possible. In the

rough, broken country frequented by mule deer this tactic often makes

considerable commotion.

I am reminded of a herd of an estimated 70 deer that I jumped on a steep

mountainside in southern Utah. The crashing of brush, crackling of

hooves, and noise of rocks kicked loose in their flight created the

impression of a landslide.

Another easily seen field difference between mule and white-tailed deer

is the dark, short-haired tail of the former as compared with the great

white fan of the latter. The tail of the mule deer seems in no way to be

used as a signal. In flight it is not wagged from side to side as is

that of the white-tailed.

Antlers of the mule deer are unlike those of any other large game

species inhabiting their range. They are impressively large as a rule

and, because of the high angle at which they rise from the head, often

look larger. The spread is wide in proportion to the height; thus it is

not unusual for a well-antlered buck to be mistaken for an elk,

especially at a distance. The antlers are unique in having a beam that

forks equally to form the points. Thus a typical head might have five

points, these being: the basal snag, a small tine rising from the beam

near the head; and four points, two from the forking of each division of

the beam. The western manner of counting the points consists of

numbering those of one antler only; the method often used in the East

counts all of the points of both. The number of points does not

necessarily denote the age of a deer. Under normal conditions the

antlers will increase in size and points with every new pair until

maturity is attained. They will then grow to approximately the same size

for several years. In old age, the antler development will usually

dwindle with each succeeding year until, in senility, they may be as

small as those of a young deer. The condition of teeth and hooves is a

more accurate indication of age even though this method lacks prestige

of the time-honored system of points.

It would seem, from the ease with which this big deer can be established

in varying types of habitat, that it is in little danger of extinction.

It is probable that the various subspecies will disappear before long

because their range is rapidly being taken up by agriculture or

lumbering. Given some protection, the species will endure in the higher

mountains for many years to come.

White-tailed deer

_Odocoileus virginianus_ (Greek: odous, tooth and koilus, hollow. Latin:

of Virginia)

[Illustration: white-tailed deer]

Range: Mostly east of the Continental Divide in the United States, north

into southern Canada, and most of Mexico except Baja California.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Brushy and wooded country.

Description: A deer with a large, white tail, held aloft and wagged from

side to side as it runs away through the underbrush. In the Southwest,

two geographic variants occur, the subspecies _virginianus_ and the

subspecies _couesi_; the latter known locally as Sonora fantail, and

seen in the United States only in a limited range along the border.

_Odocoileus virginianus_ of the Southwest is a large deer. It usually

weighs between 150 and 250 pounds, and sometimes up to 300. The average

adult animal will measure around 6 feet in total length. Tail about 10

inches. Color is reddish in summer, changing to gray with the winter

coat. Belly, insides of legs, and undersurface of tail are white. Ears

are small. Antlers have upright tines from a single beam.

As the specific name indicates, this is the same deer that is found in

the Eastern States. It is also known as the plains whitetail, because it

was once common along brushy draws and river bottoms throughout the

prairie regions. Preeminently an eastern animal, it occurs most

abundantly in the Eastern States, dwindling in numbers westward to the

Continental Divide. A few scattered groups are found in the Pacific

Northwest, and the subspecies _couesi_ extends westward along the

Mexican border to the Colorado River.

The white-tailed deer may be distinguished from mule deer by any of

three characteristics, all readily apparent in the field. These are:

shape and construction of antlers, size and color of tail, and method of

running. Antlers consist of two main beams which, after rising from the

head, curve forward almost at right angles with a line drawn from

forehead to nose. The tines rise from these main beams. In the mule deer

the beams rise at a higher angle from the head and fork rather than

remain single. The white-tailed tail is long and bushy, fully haired all

around and pure white beneath. In flight it is erected and “wigwagged”

from side to side. This, together with the white insides of the hams,

presents a great show of white hair as the animal retreats. The mule

deer has a thin, sparsely-haired tail that is bare underneath and does

not wave from side to side in running. The “whitetail” runs at a brisk

gallop with belly close to the ground; the mule deer bounds away with a

series of ballet-like leaps.

This is the deer that contributed so much to the pioneers in their

westward trek from the Atlantic States. It was important not only for

its flesh but for its hide, which after tanning became the buckskin

moccasins, breeches, and coats commonly worn by outdoorsmen in early

days. Its distribution is now spotty compared with the former range,

although there are today probably more white-tailed deer in the United

States than in colonial times. This is mainly because in the thickly

settled Eastern States predators have been reduced to a minimum and

hunting seasons carefully regulated. It is too early yet to know if

predator elimination will result in an inferior strain of deer, but the

relative overpopulation in many localities has been indicated by lack of

browse, disease, and excessive winter kill. The latter especially has

been a problem in some of the Northern States. “Whitetails” are

gregarious creatures, banding together in considerable numbers at times,

especially during winter. A band of them in deep snow will stay together

and their hooves will soon tramp down the snow over a small area. As

succeeding snows fall, the drifts become deeper around the “deer yards”

and eventually the occupants become as imprisoned by this white barrier

as though they were fenced. If the number of animals in the yard is too

great, available browse soon disappears and many will starve to death

before warm weather returns. Over most of the mountainous area occupied

by white-tailed deer in the Southwest snow is no problem. The herds

merely move down to lower country when the snow gets too deep. This

seasonal movement is so pronounced that this deer is classed as a

migratory animal in some localities.

In line with this migratory tendency the “whitetail” follows a varied

but well-marked routine in its life pattern. About the time of shedding

the winter coat late in the spring, the bucks also cast their antlers.

With the loss of these beautiful weapons their personalities suffer.

They leave the group with which they have spent the winter and ascend to

the higher mountains, there to consort with a few similarly afflicted

individuals until a new growth of antlers restores their dignity. The

does, left behind, have problems of their own. These include driving the

yearling fawns away to fend for themselves in order that the does may

give undivided attention to the tiny, spotted newcomers that arrive in

midsummer. By this time the adults have put on the short, yellowish-red

summer coat. The fawns are reddish too, but covered with pale spots, a

combination that blends well with lights and shadows in the brushy

places where the does choose to hide them. As soon as the fawns are

large enough to follow their mothers the little family groups begin a

gradual trek up the mountainside. There are several reasons for this

exodus, chief of which are cooler temperatures, better browse, and fewer

stinging insects.

While the does have been rearing their young, the bucks have been

staging a slow comeback on the ridges above. By early fall their new

antlers have hardened, been cleaned of velvet, and polished in the

brushy thickets. With restored weapons they again seek company of the

does. The season of the rut comes in a time when the bucks are at the

peak of vigor and combativeness. Yearlings and weaker bucks are soon

outclassed, leaving the most virile and aggressive males to become

progenitors of the following year’s fawns. The simplicity of this system

is equalled only by its effectiveness. Natural selective breeding is one

of the most important items in perpetuation of a species. A decline in

numbers of the best breeding animals often results in an inferior

strain. In conservation of deer herds it is well to remember that it is

not always the _number_ of animals that is the prime consideration. A

smaller group of healthy, vigorous individuals is usually more to be

desired than a larger population in average condition.

Although the species has vanished from many of its haunts in the Prairie

States, it will not likely become extinct for a long time. Ranked by

many authorities as our foremost game animal, it has been the “guinea

pig” in many conservation experiments. Adaptable to almost any

environment with suitable shelter and browse factors, it needs only a

little protection to become well established. The “key” deer of the

Florida Everglades, a tiny animal attaining a weight of only 50 pounds,

is, however, on the verge of extinction. Another subspecies, the “Sonora

fantail,” native to Mexico and the southwestern United States, is

greatly reduced in numbers and seems destined to vanish.

Elk

_Cervus canadensis_ (Latin: stag or deer, from Canada)

Range: Along the Rocky Mountains of the United States and Canada. Also

found in central Canada, western Oregon and Washington, central

California, and various small areas in those Western States where it has

been introduced.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Wooded places and high sheltered mountain valleys.

Description: A very large deer with enormous antlers, a thin neck, and a

light rump patch. Total length 80 to 100 inches. Tail 4 to 5 inches.

Shoulder height 49 to 59 inches. Average weight 600 to 700 pounds, with

a maximum of about 1100. Coat dark in summer, lighter in winter. Longer

hair on neck and throat of the bull forms a mane that is distinguishable

at some distance. Antlers extremely large, usually six points on adult

males. Females do not normally bear antlers. Hooves are black. Young

usually one, although twins not rare.

The elk is the largest member of the deer family native to the

southwestern United States. It was once widely distributed, known not

only throughout the Middle West but also in most of the Eastern States.

In fact, one of its common names, “wapiti,” is of eastern American

Indian origin; it was so called by the Algonquins. The Crees of Canada

and the Northern States call it “wapitiu” (pale white) to distinguish it

from the darker colored moose with which it was associated in that

region. It is now confined to the Rockies and westward in the United

States, and to the Rockies and central portion of Canada. Many herds now

found in Western States have been introduced to take the place of those

thoughtlessly exterminated in the early days. This has been the case in

Arizona and New Mexico, where Merriam’s elk disappeared before 1900.

This elk, now known only from scanty records and a few mounted heads and

skulls, was a giant of its kind. Not only was it larger than the Wyoming

elk which now takes its place, but it had correspondingly massive

antlers. Its passing is a grim warning of what could happen easily to

the tule elk, a pygmy elk of central California which has been reduced

to a dangerously small herd. The elk now present in the Southwest,

chiefly if not all, are descendants of individuals brought down from the

large herds of the Yellowstone Park area. In their new homeland they

maintain the same habits that characterize the species in Wyoming.

Next to buffalo, elk are the most gregarious large mammals in the United

States. The degree to which they band together varies with the seasons

and can be attributed to their migratory instincts. During summer months

the bands are small and widely scattered high in the Transition Life

Zone and even higher at times. With the advent of cold weather they work

their way down to lower country, and winter finds them gathered in

sheltered grassy valleys. This exodus to winter quarters can be one of

the most thrilling sights in Nature. In the north it is not uncommon for

herds of a thousand or more of these stately animals to move into one of

the more favored valleys. They have the instinct so highly developed

among most animals of knowing when a storm is imminent, and the

migration may be completed within a period of 48 hours, or even less if

foul weather is brewing.

The concentration of hundreds of these hungry animals into one small

area creates numerous problems, the most serious being that of feed.

Before the white man came, the elk population was more scattered, and

many winter feeding grounds were available. In those ungrazed areas they

were able to paw down through the snow to the nourishing dry grass

beneath. Large herds must now be fed on hay to avoid winter losses that

would otherwise result. In the Southwest, with its comparatively mild

winters and small population, the animals experience little difficulty

in weathering the storms without human aid. The present herds appear

well established, and with proper conservation measures should be a

valuable part of our wildlife for many years to come.

[Illustration: elk]

Migratory though they are, elk still must weather a great seasonal range

of temperature. In adapting to these changes they have developed two

definite coats, one for summer and one for winter. The winter garb is

put on early in the fall; it consists of a heavy coat of brown woolly

underfur with guard hairs that vary from gray on the sides to almost

black on neck and legs. Old bulls tend to be more black and white than

the cows and younger animals. This heavy pelage, often called the “gray”

coat, effectively wards off cold winds that sweep through the mountains

and insulates the wearer against snow that is driven into the outer

surface. In the spring this coat is shed to make way for a light summer

coat. The matted hair falls away in great bunches, and the animals are

unkempt in appearance for 2 months or more. The summer coat is made up

of short, stiff hairs with little underfur. The pelage is glossy when

compared with the harsh guard hairs of the winter coat. In color it is

tawny, appearing reddish at a distance. The rump patch is a light tawny

color in both coats.

With the coming of spring the bulls lose the great antlers which they

have carried through the winter. This takes place through a general

deterioration of the antler base accompanied by some reabsorption of

tissues at that point. The antlers may simply drop off or, in their

weakened condition, be snapped off on contact with low hanging branches.

They are usually shed in March, and by May a new pair begins to grow. As

with the rest of the deer family, a thick growth of velvet covers the

new growth. The first stages look rather ludicrous as the antlers

develop points by successive stages, each tine coming to maturity before

the next begins to grow. Eventually the height of the antlers “catches

up,” so to speak, with the overprominent base. At full maturity,

attained by August, there are few sights so impressive as a bull elk in

the velvet. When this stage is reached the antlers, until now extremely

tender, begin to harden and lose their sense of feeling. The bulls strip

off the velvet by rubbing against branches and brush. Gradually the hard

core emerges, stained a rich brown, except for the tips of the tines

which are a gleaming ivory white. The antlers are so beautifully

symmetrical that they seem graceful despite their size. One of the

largest pairs on record has a length of beam of 64¾ inches and a spread

of 74 inches.

A mature bull usually has six tines on each antler. These have definite

names. The first tine extends forward from the head and is known as the

“brow” tine; the next to it as the “bez” tine. Collectively they are

called the “lifters,” formerly known as “war tines.” The next point

inclines toward the vertical; this is the “trez” tine. The fourth is the

“royal” or “dagger” point, and the terminal fork of the antler forms the

final two points which are called “surroyals.”

Unwieldy as this tremendous rack of antlers appears, the animals handle

them with comparative ease. In the normal walk or trot the body is

carried along smoothly with the nose held up and forward. In this

posture the antlers are well balanced and are carried without undue

strain. In running through brush the nose is lifted still higher; this

throws the antlers farther back along the shoulders, and as the nose

parts the branches they slide along the curving beams without catching

on the tines. Despite these cumbersome impediments, the elk creates less

disturbance than most large forest animals when in flight. Antlers as

weapons of offense are far overrated, for they seldom serve this

function. Males have been severely injured and even killed in fights

among themselves, but these are exceptions, and most fighting is done by

striking with the front feet. If antlers are used it is usually with a

chopping, downward motion that rakes, rather than puncturing the hide of

the opponent.

Despite the fine appearance he presents, the bull elk is not content

merely to be seen, but insists on being heard as well. His vocal effort

is a high, clear, mellow tone commonly known as bugling, although it

seems to have more the quality of a whistle than the sound of a horn.

The call begins on a low note that is sustained for perhaps two seconds

and then rises swiftly for a full octave to a sweet mellow crescendo,

drops by swift degrees to the first note, and dies away. This is

followed by several coughing grunts that can be heard only at close

range. Bugling can be heard for a great distance, and on a clear quiet

evening one of the greatest charms of wilderness camping is to hear this

clear challenge flung out from some nearby ridge. The response is

quickly returned from other hillsides, some so far away as to be mere

whispers in the distance.

Bugling is indulged mainly during the rutting season and lasts from

August to November. During this time it undoubtedly is intended as a

challenge to other bulls and perhaps also to impress the cows with their

lords’ great importance. At other seasons it is heard but infrequently,

and then probably is simply an expression of abundant animal spirits.

Cows have been known to bugle, but this is a rare occurrence.

The single calf is born between mid-May and mid-June. Twins are not

uncommon. At birth the calf will weigh 30 to 40 pounds, and is an

awkward animal. It has a pale brown coat liberally sprinkled with light

spots, and a very prominent rump patch. For several days it remains

hidden in the grass while the mother grazes nearby and keeps constant

vigil. Several times daily she will return to let the calf suckle, but

this is done as hurriedly as possible. Many are the predators that are

only too anxious to catch the little one, such as mountain lions,

wolves, bobcats, coyotes, bears, and even golden eagles. Should the calf

be molested it emits a shrill squeal and the cow charges in with sharp

hooves flashing. She usually is successful in driving away the smaller

predators and sometimes intimidates even the largest with her bristling

show of fury. After the calf is large enough to follow the mother, she

warns it of danger with a hoarse, coughing bark.

The presence of canine teeth in elk is a peculiarity not found in other

American deer. They are of modified form, being bulbous growths without

known function. They occur in both sexes but those in bulls have the

greatest development. At maturity they become highly polished and stain

a light brown.

RODENTS

_Including the Lagomorphs_

(_hares and pikas_)

Rodents are the most numerous mammals of the Southwest. This is not an

unusual condition; they enjoy numerical superiority over other mammals

throughout the world. As a rule rodents are small animals; the largest

to be found in the uplands of the Southwest are the beaver and the

porcupine. Although these two are considerably larger than all others of

the group, they cannot be classed as big animals. Because of the large

number of species represented and the varying conditions under which

they live, rodents have wide differences in physical characteristics.

They can all be identified as belonging to this group, however, by one

common characteristic—that of having long, curving incisors. As a rule

these number two above and two in the lower jaw, the only exception

being the hares and some of their closely allied species. These properly

belong to the order _Lagomorpha_ but will be included here with rodents.

The incisors are deeply set in the jaws, that part above the gums being

a hollow tube filled with pulp. Unlike the incisors of other mammals,

they continue a slow steady growth throughout the life of the animal.

This is a means of compensating for the wear the cutting edges must

undergo. The fronts of these teeth are covered with a heavy coat of

enamel, while the back surfaces are either bare dentine or at best

covered with very thin enamel. The wear thus results in a bevel-edged

surface much like that of a chisel which, with the whetting it receives

during the normal movements of eating, remains sharp. A uniform

sharpening of both upper and lower incisors is assured by a peculiar

arrangement of the hinge of the lower jaw. A more-than-average play in

this ball and socket joint allows the lower incisors to slide either

behind or in front of the uppers so that both sets receive approximately

the same wear on both sides. Should one of the incisors be broken or

otherwise damaged so that normal attrition cannot take place, its

opposite will grow to such a degree that the animal is unable to take

food and then may starve to death. Canine teeth are absent in all

rodents, and premolars are lacking in many species. The large gap thus

left between the narrow incisors and the comparatively massive molars

accounts in part for the wide skull that tapers quickly to the laterally

compressed face so typical of rodent features.

Food habits of the various types of rodents differ to a great degree.

Perhaps the term omnivorous might be applied to most of them because

virtually all rodents will eat insects and meat in addition to the usual

fare of vegetable matter. A few might be classed as insectivorous or

even carnivorous. Some species store up hoards of food against lean

seasons; others eat like gluttons when food is abundant and hibernate

through times of want; still others are equipped to spend the whole year

in a busy search for something to eat.

Habitats are equally diverse. Some species live below the earth, some on

the surface of the ground, at least two species are aquatic, and a few

are arboreal. Regardless of where they live, the great majority are home

builders. They strive to locate their homes in the most protected places

and usually line their nests with soft materials. Outstanding exceptions

are the jackrabbit and the porcupine, both of which lead nomadic lives.

In spite of their secretive habits, rodents suffer a tremendous

mortality. Practically all carnivorous animals, most predatory birds,

and many snakes prey on rodents, and for many of them these persecuted

animals form the chief food. This situation is not as harsh as it might

seem, for most rodents are prolific to a high degree. Elliott Coues

summed up their place in Nature’s balance very aptly: “Yet they have one

obvious part to play,... that of turning grass into flesh, in order that

carnivorous Goths and Vandals may subsist also, and in their turn

proclaim, ‘All flesh is grass.’”

Snowshoe hare

_Lepus americanus_ (Latin: hare ... of America)

Range: Found throughout the greater part of Canada and Alaska with

extensive penetrations into the Southwest in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico,

and western Nevada. Its occurrence in northern California is rather

rare, and is confined to only a few higher mountain ranges.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: In the vicinity of streams or in conifer forests in the

Canadian and Hudsonian Life Zones.

Description: A small, chunky hare with medium long ears and large hairy

hind feet. An average individual will have a total length of about 18

inches with a tail less than 2 inches. Hind foot about 6 inches in

length. Summer pelage brown, except feet and belly white, and tail

brownish black above. Winter coat white except for the tips of the ears

which are black. Young, three to six, born in May or June.

The snowshoe hare, found sparingly in mountains of the Southwest, is the

same as that which lives in the muskeg not far from the Arctic Circle.

The climate of the mountain zones is surprisingly like that of the north

country even though the terrain is different. The closest equivalent is

to be found in the brushy borders of mountain streams, and here the

“snowshoes” are most often found. During summer they feed on grasses,

herbs, and leaves of many different shrubs and the tender tips of young

branches. Winter, a period of famine for many animals, is just the

opposite for these large-footed hares. Able to run about on the surface

of snowdrifts, each new snowfall lifts them closer to the tender twigs

that earlier in the year were far above their reach. Clean diagonal cuts

much like those made with a knife mark their depredations and, since

they are hearty eaters, the whole tops of many favorite food shrubs may

be pruned out in one season.

In common with several other hunted creatures and a comparatively few

that hunt, the “snowshoe” undergoes a complete change of color between

its summer and winter coat. The transformation begins when the first

snows are due, and usually the white coat is complete when the snows lie

deep on the mountains. It is not, as was once supposed, a case of the

brown guard hairs turning white, but a molt. The summer guard hairs are

shed and white ones taken their place. The under fur changes color to a

less marked degree. Close to the skin the animal is still brown.

Outwardly it is pure white except for black ear tips. Marvelous as this

protective coloration is, it is not absolute proof against enemies.

There are many, and chief among them are lynxes, bobcats, wolves,

weasels, and great horned owls. In many places in the far north the

snowshoe hare is the chief host of the lynx, their numbers fluctuating

in unison.

[Illustration: snowshoe hare]

Like most other hares the “snowshoe” spends a great share of its leisure

time in a “form.” This is usually nothing more than a well concealed

hollow. The semi-darkness under low hanging evergreens is much favored

by these nocturnal animals for this purpose. They do not, at any time,

frequent burrows, the closest approach to this kind of home being in

winter when they are sometimes completely snowed under. They suffer but

little during severe storms, because their long, fluffy fur is

protection against the cold. Their greatest danger lies in the

possibility of being buried alive in the event of a freezing rain

following the snow.

The young are born in late spring or early summer. They come into the

world amid plushy surroundings indeed. The mother has lined the surface

nest with soft hair pulled from her own coat, and a softer, more

comfortable nursery could hardly be imagined. The little hares are born

fully furred, with eyes open, and usually with the incisor teeth already

through the gums. Their development is rapid, and long before cold

weather arrives they are out on their own.

White-tailed jackrabbit

_Lepus townsendi_ (Latin: hare ... for J. K. Townsend)

Range: North of the Canadian border to the southern portion of Colorado

and Utah, and from the Cascade Mountains east to the Mississippi River.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Plains and open country, in the foothills, and even in the high

mountains. Found in both Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones.

Description: A large hare with a white tail and a lanky build, found

usually only in open country. Total length (average) 18 to 24 inches.

Tail up to 4 inches. Ears up to 6 inches in length. Weight 5 to 8

pounds. Color varies with the seasons. The summer coat is buffy gray,

the winter coat is white. The tail, long for a hare, is white throughout

the year. The tips of the ears are black both summer and winter. Young,

three to six in a litter, born in May. There may be a second litter

during late summer. As with all the hare family, the young are well

furred and have their eyes open at birth.

The white-tailed jackrabbit is the largest hare native to the United

States. Its great size is further emphasized by its rangy build and long

legs and ears. Such physical characteristics are usually marks of an

animal that is fiercely pursued by its enemies. This denizen of the open

country is no exception. It is preyed upon by innumerable predators,

including man, the most relentless and cunning of all. Yet its place in

the modern world is still secure, for though it is almost totally

lacking in offensive weapons, Nature has given it defensive advantages

far beyond most other creatures. Perhaps the most important is the

deceptive speed with which it floats across the prairie. Fastest of its

tribe and exceeded in this respect by only one native animal, the

pronghorn, this lanky jackrabbit simply runs away from most pursuit.

Effective though this tactic is, the animal uses it usually as a last

resort, preferring to employ the exact opposite, that of crouching

motionless in an effort to avoid detection. Absolute immobility is

itself an admirable defense, but when augmented by camouflage such as

this creature possesses it is even more effective.

Like most members of the hare family, the white-tailed jackrabbit is

more active at night than during the day. It spends most of the daylight

hours resting in a form that it hollows out under shelter of a low shrub

or large tuft of grass. In summer the tawny coat blends well with the

color of the surroundings, and the winter coat is possibly even more

effective. Then the crouched body resembles nothing more than a mound of

snow; the black tips of the ears suggest black weed stems sticking up

through the white surface.

[Illustration: white-tailed jackrabbit]

Mountain cottontail

_Sylvilagus nuttalli_ (Latin: sylva, wood and Greek: lagos, hare. For

Nuttal)

Range: Western United States but east of the coastal range of mountains.

The northern limits are along the Canadian border; the southern limits

in central Arizona and New Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Mountains of the west through the Transition and Canadian Life

Zones. Seldom found below the pines.

Description: The “powder puff” tail is the best field characteristic by

which to recognize this rabbit, usually the only cottontail in its range

at the elevations given above. It is one of the largest of its kind,

averaging 12 to 14 inches in total length with the tail less than 2

inches long. Average weights run from 1½ to 3 pounds. Ears are

relatively short and wide for a cottontail. Color varies somewhat with

relation to habitat, but in general it is gray with a faint yellowish

tinge. Darkest areas are about the back and upper sides; under parts are

light to almost white. The winter coat is heavier than the summer, but

much the same color. The underside of the tail is the cottony white so

well known to city and country dwellers alike. From the scanty records

available on the number of young it would seem that three to four

constitute the average litter. Perhaps the higher elevations at which

they live keep them free from many of the predators to which their

lowland cousins succumb, and thus they are able to maintain their

numbers with smaller families.

Though often found in the depths of the forest, these shy rabbits prefer

to live in the brushy thickets that border high mountain meadows and

line the streams. There, in true cottontail fashion, they venture into

the open to feed, always ready at the first sign of danger to scurry

back to safety under tangled branches. Once fairly entered into the maze

of paths that they alone know, there is little danger of capture. There

they can count themselves safe from further pursuit by the larger

predators and have a distinct advantage over those their own size or

smaller. Although so clever at turning and doubling back in their chosen

refuges, they seldom use much evasive action when surprised in the open.

Their first thought seems to be to reach cover in the straightest

possible line, and as a consequence many are snapped up by predators who

not only rely on this behavior but often gain the advantage of a

surprise attack as well.

Food habits are much the same as those of other cottontails, modified to

some extent by the different plant associations with which they are

found. In summer, tender grasses and herbs are the favorite fare, but in

winter when deep snow isolates them from even the taller herbs, these

adaptable animals turn to bark and such small twigs as meet their taste.

At this time even the tips of conifer twigs are often eaten. Access to

this food, which during the summer is usually out of reach, is

facilitated by the growth of long hair on the bottom of the feet,

especially on the hind feet. Though these seasonal “snowshoes” do not

approach those of the Arctic hare in size, they serve very well to

support the lighter cottontails as they move over the soft surface. They

are especially useful when the animal stands on its hind feet to reach

some inviting bit that would be out of reach in the normal crouching

position. During this operation it reaches for food with the mouth

alone; the forepaws cannot be used to gather food, but hang loosely in

front of the body as an aid to balance.

[Illustration: mountain cottontail]

This inability to grasp or handle objects with the front feet is

characteristic of all those animals which in the United States we call

“rabbits.” Though here included with the rodents, the jackrabbits,

snowshoe hares, and cottontails all lack the dexterity with the forepaws

with which the rest of the group is endowed. The structure of the bones

is much like that of the ungulates in that the feet cannot be turned

sideways. Thus front legs are used mainly for running, digging, and

washing the face and ears, a procedure much like that employed by

domestic cats, except that it is carried out with the sides of the paws

rather than the insides of the wrists as Tabby does.

Though it lives in a different habitat than other closely related

species, the mountain cottontail shares many of their habits. It is a

nocturnal animal, seldom seen at large except at dusk or in early

morning hours. During the greater part of the day it seeks refuge under

some brush pile or deep in the recesses of the slide rock. On occasion

it will make itself a form in long grass or under a shrub, but usually

prefers more substantial protection. In areas which are being logged,

cottontails are quick to take advantage of the shelter offered by huge

piles of limbs and debris left by loggers. Later in the season, when the

piles are burned, it is not unusual to see as many as three or four

cottontails scurry from one pile.

Nests for rearing the young are not of such great concern to these

rabbits. Perhaps they instinctively choose places where an enemy would

never expect to find them. Many are mere hollows in tall grass or

shallow burrows in an accumulation of pine needles. They are lined with

soft grasses or needles and hair which the mother pulls from her own

body. More hair and grass fibers are cleverly matted together to form a

loosely woven blanket which she pulls over the nest when she leaves. It

is arranged with such cunning and blends so well with the surrounding

that unless one sees the rabbit leave it is only by accident a nest is

discovered. The three to five young are born blind and naked, but thrive

so well in the warm nest that in about a month they are fully furred and

able to leave. At this age they are extremely playful little creatures,

often indulging in a game much like tag, although to a human observer it

is never quite clear just who is “It.”

In this connection it is interesting to note than among the “hunted”

mammals the play spirit is usually manifested by running games in which

there is little if any physical contact. By contrast, the young of

predators indulge in wrestling games featuring use of teeth and claws,

often beyond the point where fun ceases and anger begins.

Pika

_Ochotona princeps_ (Mongol name of pika ... Latin: chief)

Range: Mountainous areas of the western United States, western Canada,

and southern Alaska. Found in the southwestern United States in Utah,

Colorado and New Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Talus slopes of the Hudsonian and Alpine Life Zones.

Description: A small animal bearing some resemblance to a guinea pig;

found only among or in the vicinity of rock slides. Total length from 6½

to 8½ inches. No visible tail. Color, gray to brown. Eyes small, ears

large and set well back on head. The front legs are short and are

exceeded but little by the hind legs. They are all quite concealed by

the long hair of the sides. This gives the animal much the appearance of

a mechanical toy as it glides smoothly over the rocks. The soles of the

feet are covered with hair, the only bare spots on the feet being the

pads of the toes. The call is distinctive, the most common being an

“eeh” repeated several times. This sound is shrill, but has a falsetto

quality as though it were being produced during an inhalation. Young

thought to number from three to six.

[Illustration: pika]

Far up on the mountainside, above timberline but below the eternal

snows, a great field of talus rests uneasily on the massive slopes of

bedrock. From a distance it seems merely a smooth gray scar that softens

the otherwise abrupt lift of the summit. A closer inspection reveals it

as a tumbled mass of variously shaped slabs of stone varying from tiny

fragments to huge blocks weighing many tons. Its entire bulk is shot

through with chinks and crevices of every conceivable shape and form.

Here and there a wisp of grass or an occasional stunted shrub has found

a precarious foothold among the slabs. Other low matlike plants occur in

considerable numbers. The only sounds are faint whisperings of wind

among the rocks and a distant sighing from the forest below. Suddenly a

sharp “eeh-eeh” breaks the silence, then all is quiet again. The shrill

sounds are repeated, this time from a different quarter. You look toward

the sound but see nothing. Finally, if you are lucky, your eyes focus on

a little face somewhat resembling that of a tiny cottontail rabbit,

peering at you from the safety of a home among the rocks. It is the pika

you see and this rock slide is his castle.

The pika bears a superficial facial resemblance to the rabbit, to which

it is most nearly related. This is occasioned no doubt by the long silky

whiskers and deeply cleft upper lip, for the eyes are small and the

ears, while large, are shaped much differently from those of its larger

relative. Its other physical characteristics are entirely unlike those

of the rabbit. The chunky body, short legs, and almost total lack of a

tail are more like those of the guinea pig to which it is more distantly

allied. Several species are known. All are inhabitants of the Northern

Hemisphere and all, whether Asiatic, European, or American, are found

living in rock slides at or above timberline. In the western United

States the pika is known by a variety of other common names of which

“coney,” “little chief hare,” and “rock rabbit” are perhaps the best

known.

Living as it does in only one type of habitat, the pika has developed

highly specialized habits. The most remarkable is its practice of

cutting hay for winter food. At timberline the growing season is short,

but the herbs and grasses which this animal eats spring up and mature in

a matter of weeks. During this time the pika lives high on the succulent

leaves and stems, but during the latter part of the season it carefully

harvests enough food to last through the coming winter. None of this

hoard is carried directly into the burrow. Instead, it is painstakingly

transported to suitable areas which are exposed to the hot sun, and

there piled in miniature haycocks and left to cure. No human harvester

ever worked harder to gather his crop or laid it up with more care than

this tiny husbandman. Fortunately its tastes are not critical; thus,

although the individual plants are scattered, the pika is able to select

a sufficient store from the considerable number of species represented

at this altitude.

In Utah and Colorado the “haying” time arrives with the height of the

summer blooming season. At timberline this usually occurs during August.

As though realizing that a hard frost would ruin its delightfully

fragrant crop, the pika sets furiously to work. After cutting down as

much herbage as it can handle at one time, it gathers the mass into an

unwieldy bundle and carries it by mouth to one of the sites it has

selected as a curing place. Usually these areas have been used the

previous season for the same purpose, and a mass of the least edible

stems remain to mark their location. Depositing the load on this base,

the pika scurries away for another bundle. Long familiarity with routes

across the uneven rocks enables it to make its way with never a misstep,

even though the load carried may be of such size that vision to the

front is completely obscured. Working early and late the pika

distributes its harvest among the various piles. As a result, the hay

dries out evenly and when cold weather calls a halt to the work each

little stack is perfectly cured without a trace of mildew. The truly

monumental work to which this little creature goes is shown by as many

as a half dozen haycocks, each of which may contain up to a bushel or

more of feed.

Comparatively little is known of the pika’s life history. What has been

recorded has been noted during those periods when it was seen on the

surfaces of rock slides. What goes on deep in the labyrinths of its

habitat can only be conjectured. It seems reasonable to suppose that in

some subterranean cavity the pika has constructed a comfortable nest

lined with soft grasses. Certainly it remains active all winter,

although buried under many feet of snow, for in the spring its stacks of

hay have been largely consumed.

The number of young is thought to range from three to six. They probably

are born in early summer, as when they appear on the surface, usually in

late July or early August, they are about half grown. Though family ties

are closely knit until the young mature, pikas cannot be considered

gregarious animals. The scarcity of food alone would be sufficient

reason to prohibit large groups in one small area. Each adult takes up

squatter’s rights on a territory large enough to support it, and

thereafter holds it with but little interference from others of its

kind.

Few natural enemies prey on the pikas. The very openness of their

habitat prevents the larger predators from stealing up unseen. Hawks and

eagles account for some, and weasels are able to penetrate their

underground maze at will, but the natural fecundity of the species seems

to balance these losses very well. To the nature student the pika offers

a tempting challenge. It is far from being a rare animal, yet at the

same time it is one about which almost nothing is known. As

qualifications for learning its secrets, one must be somewhat of a miner

and considerable of an arctic explorer.

Tassel-eared squirrel (Abert’s)

_Sciurus aberti_ (Latin: shade-tail ... for Col. J. J. Abert)

Range: Northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, extreme southeastern

Utah, and south central Colorado in the United States; also found in the

Sierra Madre Mountains of northern Mexico.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests of the Transition Life Zone.

Description: The only squirrels in the United States that have

conspicuous pencils of hair on the tips of the ears. _Sciurus aberti_ is

a large squirrel with a total length of about 20 inches. Tail about 9

inches. The summer pelage is brown on the back, with gray sides and pure

white underparts. The beautiful bushy tail is silvery below and gray

above. During summer the long ears have no tassels on the tips.

Beautiful as is the summer coat, it is far surpassed by the winter one.

Then the heavier fur becomes richer brown on the back, and the contrast

between the gray and white areas is further emphasized by appearance of

a narrow black band between them. The ears too become more spectacular

with the addition of the penciled tufts which give this animal its

common name. Breeding habits of this squirrel are variable and evidently

depend to a great extent on the food supply. There may be as many as two

litters in a fruitful year and none at all in a lean year. The usual

number is three or four young to a litter. These are born sometimes in a

hollow tree, but more often in a bulky nest of leaves built in a tree

top.

No mammal of the United States has a more appropriate generic name than

the large tree squirrel. _Sciurus_ literally translated means

“shade-tail” and refers of course to the beautiful and useful appendage

sported by all of our arboreal types of squirrels. It is doubtful if any

can equal the striking plume carried by _aberti_; certainly none can

surpass it. Its distinctiveness is not occasioned by its size, for

several species have tails that are longer. Rather, its elegance is

derived from the width, the striking coloration, and the easy grace with

which the animal displays its beauty. Whether in full flight across a

grassy clearing or in repose on some lofty limb, the first field mark of

this unusual squirrel will be the tail; the second, the tasseled ears.

As the map shows, _Sciurus aberti_ and its many forms are confined in

the United States mainly to the high country along parts of the Colorado

River, and also to that great escarpment known as the Mogollon Rim,

whose length is divided about equally between New Mexico and Arizona. In

this range is found what is often referred to as the “greatest unbroken

stand of ponderosa pine to be found in this country.” Of the many

species of plants and animals found as associates of this forest,

perhaps none is more dependent on ponderosa pine than the tassel-eared

squirrel. This rough-barked tree furnishes a major source of food and

shelter. In return, for Nature always demands that restitution be made,

the squirrels plant a part of the seeds that insure continuation of the

ponderosas.

It is a common belief that squirrel’s diet consists of nuts and little

else. This is true only to a degree. A squirrel is fond of nuts and will

eat and hoard them during the short season when they are available. For

the greater part of the year, when its stores have been depleted, it

turns to many other types of food among which are fruit, herbage, leaf

buds, and flowers. Favorite food of the tassel-eared squirrel is, of

course, the large single-winged seeds found under scales of ponderosa

pine cones. Next favored are acorns from the oak that mingles with pine

at the lower edge of the Transition Life Zone. If the season is good,

great quantities of cones and acorns are buried for future use. These

are hidden singly, not in caches, as is the habit of some squirrels. In

the event the squirrel does not return for its hidden stores, some of

the seeds will sprout eventually and take their part in the slow cycle

of growth and decay that is continually going on in the forest.

During months when these favorite foods are scarce, squirrels find the

cambium layer of young pine twigs very acceptable. This is the tender

layer that lies between the wood and the bark. In the growing season it

is especially sweet and nutritious. This was as well known to the

Indians as the squirrels, and they too took advantage of the supply

during times of famine. The squirrel obtains this food by cutting off

the terminal clusters of needles, then severing a denuded portion of the

branch, of a size that may be conveniently carried to a favorite eating

place. Here the outer bark is deftly removed, the edible portions

consumed, and the base wood cast to the ground. Although large numbers

of the terminal twigs are taken, the trees seem to suffer no serious

damage from this seasonal pruning.

[Illustration: tassel-eared squirrel]

In selecting a nesting site the tassel-eared squirrel turns again to its

favorite tree, the ponderosa pine. Because few of these healthy giants

have knotholes or cavities of a size to accommodate this large species,

the nests are usually built in the thick upper growth of branches.

Material for their construction consists of small twigs of deciduous

trees, cut with the leaves on them. These are cleverly woven together so

that as the leaves wither and dry they tend to hold the bulky mass

together. Aspen branches frequently are used when available, the large,

almost round leaves combining to form a warm wall and at the same time a

thatch impervious to all but the most driving rains. Several exits are

provided in case an enemy should enter the nest, and the interior is

lined with soft fibers. Usually more than one nest is built by each

squirrel, so that in an area where they are common the bulky homes are

conspicuous not only for their size but by reason of their numbers. With

several ports in a storm, so to speak, the squirrels weather the winter

very well. During the coldest days they remain snugly curled up in their

nests, but on bright, still days they will be seen searching out their

hoarded supplies, even though they may have to dig through several

inches of snow to get to them. At such time their gruff bark, deep in

timbre, may be heard for a considerable distance.

Breeding takes place in early spring, often before the snow is off. The

squirrels are fully polygamous, which is one of the reasons this species

can almost disappear and then restores its numbers within a season or

two. There may be two litters each year, the first arriving as early as

May and the second in August or September. As mentioned before, this

species is variable and the young may differ in coloration from their

parents and from each other. Melanistic individuals are frequent; these

should not be confused with the Kaibab squirrel which they resemble

superficially. Several subspecific forms are recognized but are not

easily identified by the layman.

One’s first introduction to this beautiful species is an experience long

to be remembered. It was no less interesting to the early naturalists

who first penetrated the wild regions where it lived. Their accounts

abound with adjectives such as, “handsome,” “graceful,” etc. Dr. S. W.

Woodhouse, who accompanied the Sitgreaves expedition on the exploration

of the Zuni and Colorado Rivers, noticed it at once and formally

described it as a species in 1852. Since that time it has been

introduced into many of the “sky island,” mountains that lie south of

its original range. It adapts very well to new conditions, seeming to

need only a favorable climate and a ponderosa pine forest in which to

live. What effect its presence will have on these new surroundings is

not yet known. There is always danger that the native plants and animals

will suffer from such new competition in an established association.

Such introductions should never be made without a study of all the

factors involved.

Kaibab squirrel

_Sciurus kaibabensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... from the Kaibab, a forest

in northern Arizona)

Range: An area approximately 30 × 70 miles in size in northern Arizona.

The southern limit is bounded by the north rim of the Grand Canyon of

the Colorado, and much of the range is included within the boundaries of

Grand Canyon National Park.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Ponderosa pine forests in Canadian and upper Transition Life

Zones.

Description: A tassel-eared squirrel with an _all white_ tail. In size

this species is the same as _Sciurus_ _aberti_ but the coloration is

different. The Kaibab squirrel has the same rich, chestnut brown area

along the back and upper part of the head, but the sides are deep gray

and underparts gray to black. The tail is either all silvery white or it

may have barely discernible light gray edging on the upper surface.

Nesting and breeding habits are the same as with _aberti_.

[Illustration: Kaibab squirrel]

This beautiful squirrel has a distinctive appearance and an uncertain

specific rank. It is included here because of all the mammals discussed

in this booklet it best exemplifies the effects of isolationism. There

is little doubt that the ancestors of both _aberti_ and _kaibabensis_

were of one common stock. How the progenitors of the Kaibab squirrel

came to be marooned on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon is of little

moment. Perhaps they were already there when the Colorado plateau was

young and the river was just beginning its mighty task. Possibly they

emigrated later when the gorge was not as deep as it is now. At any

rate, it can be assumed that they have lived on the North Rim for

thousands of years, isolated from their cousins on the South Rim by only

20 miles of thin air horizontally, but a trip on foot that involves a

descent of a mile through two life zones (Upper Sonoran and Lower

Sonoran), a crossing of a wide and turbulent river, and an ascent to the

South Rim through the same two desert zones. Surely this is an

undertaking for a squirrel of the cool forests that would be too

hazardous to be successful, even if attempted.

The factors that have changed this squirrel’s coloration are not

definitely known, but climatic conditions are probably at least

partially responsible. The North Rim is approximately a thousand feet

higher than the South Rim and is considerably colder. At this higher

elevation much of the Kaibab squirrel’s habitat falls within the

Canadian Life Zone. This in turn makes certain vegetable food available

which is rare or unknown on the South Rim. Thus diet also may have

something to do with its unusual appearance.

At various times the Kaibab squirrel has been known as a distinct

species, _Sciurus kaibabensis_; at others, it has been considered merely

a subspecies of _Sciurus aberti_. The latter is its standing at this

time. Regardless of specific rank, it is a form that should be

stringently protected. The population is small and goes through the same

fluctuations as _Sciurus aberti_. During the summer of 1946 only one

individual was known in the area around Grand Canyon Lodge, where they

usually were found in some numbers. At such times the heedless

destruction of only a few squirrels could conceivably result in the

extermination of this rare and beautiful animal.

Arizona gray squirrel

_Sciurus arizonensis_ (Latin: shade-tail ... of Arizona)

Range: Central to southeastern Arizona and adjacent parts of western New

Mexico in the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Associated with the native black walnuts of canyons, or often

found among the pines on canyon rims.

Description: The common gray tree squirrel to be found in the range

given above. The Arizona gray is a large animal. Total length is from 20

to 24 inches with a large tail accounting for from 10 to 12 inches of

this measurement. In the typical form the color is dark gray above with

underparts and feet pure white. The tail also is dark gray with a

silvery white margin. The finest examples of this species may be found

along the edge of the Mogollon Rim in Arizona and New Mexico. Farther

south the pelage often has a yellowish or brownish tinge. In the

mountains along the border the Arizona gray squirrel should not be

confused with the Mexican fox squirrel (Apache squirrel) which here

barely invades the United States. The Mexican cousin, about the same

size as _Sciurus arizonensis_, is definitely yellowish brown and has

lighter underparts of the same color. Like other large tree squirrels of

the west, the Arizona gray builds a bulky nest of leaves and twigs,

usually in the upper branches of a deciduous tree. Young, four or five

to a litter; under exceptionally favorable conditions two litters may be

reared in one season.

When compared with the royal tribe of Abert’s squirrels, this common

gray animal of the Southwest seems but a peasant. When it is seen alone

comparisons are forgotten. Deliberate in its movements, whether crossing

the forest floor or traveling the leafy aisles of the tree tops, it

seems always to have calculated its next maneuver. The result is a

careless grace that presents the sturdy body and beautiful tail to the

best advantage. Calm in temperament and with but little of the

suspicious nature that is characteristic of the smaller squirrels, the

Arizona gray may easily be tamed in outdoor surroundings and becomes one

of the most satisfactory of wild friends. It is not recommended,

however, that they be fed from the hand or handled at any time.

“Familiarity breeds contempt” is a saying that does not apply to humans

alone. A squirrel’s bite can be serious as well as painful.

Both Mearns and Bailey, who wrote of this species many years ago,

mention it as occurring mostly among the walnut trees of the Upper

Sonoran Life Zone. Perhaps during the intervening years the press of

civilization has driven them from their chosen habitat into a higher

elevation. At any rate, although they still frequent the more isolated

valleys, they are now found also in considerable numbers among the pines

of the Transition Life Zone. The rough broken country along the Mogollon

Rim seems best suited to their requirements, and they are now quite

abundant there.

[Illustration: Arizona gray squirrel]

Along the border of the Upper Sonoran and Transition Life Zones this

adaptable animal finds a wide variety of food. Although the squirrels

generally are known as gatherers and storers of nuts, there are many

other types of vegetable food that they will take when conditions

warrant. The cambium layer of bark and leaf buds of various species of

trees are eaten in spring when nut stores have been depleted. Berries,

fruit, and even flowers form a considerable part of the diet during the

summer. In the fall the ripening crop of pine nuts and walnuts provides

not only food for immediate use but stores for the long winter season

when, unless enough has been laid by, the unfortunate may starve to

death. The gathering period is a time of unremitting labor. From dawn to

dusk the squirrels work feverishly carrying nuts to the hiding places

they have selected. Sometimes these are in a hollow tree or a nest, but

usually the harvest is buried in the humus and debris that collect about

the bases of trees.

There are two phases to the work. In the first the squirrel works in the

tree cutting off the cones or nuts and letting them fall to the ground.

When a considerable number have been thrown down, it descends and

carries them away, one at a time. The latter operation is the most

dangerous since enemies have an undue advantage over this aerialist when

it is on the ground. During the harvest the squirrels plainly show the

effects of their work. In gathering pine cones the fur of their forelegs

and undersides becomes matted with pitch. The juice of walnut fruits

(related to the eastern black walnut, _Juglans nigra_, which the early

pioneers used as a source of dye for coloring their hand-loomed cloth)

stains their underparts a dirty brown. These marks of their labor remain

with them until the summer coat is shed to make way for the heavy winter

pelage.

When the generic name _Sciurus_ (meaning shade-tail) is mentioned, I am

reminded of an Arizona gray squirrel I observed several years ago.

During late fall my wife and I were camped near the headwaters of the

Hassayampa River in a mixed forest of hardwoods and conifers. Our

arrival had interrupted the work of a squirrel which was gathering

walnuts in the immediate vicinity, but he soon became accustomed to our

presence and renewed activities. Every sunny hour he was busy storing

the nuts, many of them at the base of an old pine tree near camp.

Shortly thereafter a fall storm set in and lasted for several days. It

developed into a pattern of misty drizzle followed by periods of

clearing weather when the sun might appear for a few minutes. During

sunny intervals the squirrel would appear, but as soon as it became

overcast again he would as quickly disappear. Finally we discovered his

retreat. When it would threaten more rain he would run up the trunk of

the pine to the first branch. Here he would turn his rump to the hole

and hunch up into a small furry ball with his long bushy tail laid

forward over his back and head and extending down in front of his nose,

forming an admirable protection against the few drops that spattered

down through the thick foliage overhead.

Squirrels are not the only animals who use their bushy tails for

protection against the elements. Many mammals curl up and wrap the tail

around themselves for warmth, but only the squirrel tribe has a tail

long, wide, and flat enough to be used as a roof. Though the origin of

the term _Sciurus_ has been lost, it is not too far fetched to suppose

that it was suggested by a squirrel’s use of its tail as a parasol.

Spruce squirrel, Pine squirrel

(DOUGLAS SQUIRREL, CHICKAREE)

_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus fremonti_ (Greek: tamia, steward and Latin:

sciurus, shade-tail ... of the Hudson, named after Fremont)

[Illustration: spruce squirrel]

Range: Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico in the Hudsonian and

Canadian Life Zones.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Conifer forests, preferably spruce, in the higher mountains.

Description: A small gray squirrel, usually the only squirrel to be

found at the elevation at which it lives. Total length 13 to 14 inches.

Tail 5 to 6 inches. Two distinct colors of pelage are seasonal. The

winter coat is olive gray to rufous gray above with lighter underparts;

the summer coat is brownish gray to yellowish gray with almost white

belly and feet. A black stripe along the sides is prominent at all

seasons. The tail is narrow and noticeably shorter than the body. It is

gray beneath, rufous gray above, with black border and a black tip.

Little is known of the breeding habits. The four young are born in early

summer and by August are usually out foraging with the mother.

Spruce squirrels (distribution shown in accompanying map) include

several of the more than two dozen varieties of red squirrels in the

United States belonging to the species _hudsonicus_. Combined with

several subspecies of the Douglas squirrels, (species _douglasi_, the

“chickaree” of the far western mountains), they make up the genus

_Tamiasciurus_. This term, a combining form of _Tamias_ (the genus of

chipmunks) and _Sciurus_ (that of squirrels) clearly indicates

relationship of the red squirrels to both groups. It is equally apparent

in the field where the short narrow tail, the black stripe along the

side, and the nervous disposition remind one of the chipmunks, while the

arboreal habits, comparatively large size, and coughing bark are

distinctively squirrel-like.

The spruce squirrel is seldom, if ever, found below an elevation of 6500

feet, and then only in the shady canyons on the northern exposure of

mountains. From this low it will be found up to timberline, or rather

just below that point at which the trees are too stunted to offer the

required protection. It prefers the dense shade of heavily forested

areas, so is rare near the southern limit of its range, and increasingly

common in the northern portion.

In common with the rest of its group, this bright-eyed little animal

keeps well informed on everything that goes on in the territory it has

chosen as its own. Any intruder is thoroughly investigated, then as

thoroughly castigated, and driven out if possible. Since these squirrels

seem to recognize each other’s domain, a trespasser of its own kind

usually leaves at the first sign of trouble. With larger animals and

humans the attack consists of psychological rather than physical

warfare. From a limb at a safe distance above the ground, the doughty

warrior chatters and scolds with increasing vehemence as long as a

passive interest is displayed by the imagined adversary. At the first

threatening movement it disappears in a flash around the opposite side

of the tree. Scratching noises and falling flakes of bark, together with

noises of peevish defiance, indicates that it is working its way up the

trunk. Suddenly it reappears on another limb some distance above the

first and the real show begins. Paroxysms of rage, stamping of feet,

waving of tail, and streams of invective all are meant to show that one

step closer spells trouble. A few squeaks from your pursed lips and this

tremendous bluff gives up to curiosity. In a few minutes the erstwhile

challenger is back on the first limb trying to make out what this

strange creature is about. This amusing procedure can be carried out

over and over again, and usually is, just to observe the stuttering

rages of which this tiny creature is capable. With more considerate

treatment they soon become quite tame, although even then a quick

movement will send them helter skelter to the closest tree.

It is well that this squirrel is a quick and tireless worker. The seeds

it extracts from the spruce cones are so tiny it takes an enormous

number of them to provide that energy. With such a quantity to handle,

it is not so careful in storing the crop as some larger squirrels. A

comparatively few cones are buried in the soft loam beneath the trees;

the rest are stuffed into holes beneath the spreading roots or simply

piled in heaps near the base of the trunk. In a year when cones are

plentiful there may be a bushel or more in one of these piles. With

several such piles within easy reach of the warm nest fastened in the

branches of a nearby conifer, the small harvester has prospects of an

easy winter ahead. Only in the most inclement weather are these active

animals confined to their nests. They keep tunnels open to their

supplies, and each snowfall adds to the security of the caches. All

winter long the stockpiles diminish while the snow beneath some favorite

perch becomes littered with the scales and discarded centers of the

cones. By spring, which comes late at this elevation, the cones are gone

and the squirrel returns to its summer diet of leaf buds, seeds,

berries, mushrooms, and herbs.

The spruce squirrel is the last of what might be called the true

squirrels in this book and, because the group has much in common as

regards food, enemies, and relations to mankind, a short summary might

be in order.

As has been mentioned, the principal diet of these animals is vegetable.

However, all of them, if opportunity offers, will take birds’ eggs and

young birds. This is not intended in any way as a condemnation of the

squirrel tribe. Their inroads on the bird population are what might be

termed “natural losses.” Nature long ago established a norm in bird

reproduction which takes such losses into account.

The enemies of squirrels are legion. From the air, the larger hawks and

owls, and even eagles, are ever alert to swoop in on them. On the ground

lynx, bobcats, foxes, and coyotes take their toll. In northern Utah and

Colorado the marten is one of the most important local controls on the

squirrel population. Fast and powerful, the marten is equally at home on

the ground or in the trees, and it is a fortunate squirrel that can

escape one. The toll taken by all of these predators is high, yet the

natural fecundity of the squirrel is so great that the population

sometimes gets out of hand and disease has to eliminate the surplus.

In their relationship to man the squirrels are among the most remarkable

of our native mammals. It is not ordinarily the purpose of this book to

point out the economic importance of our mammals, but the beneficial

work carried on the squirrels is too important to pass by. One of the

most valuable natural resources that America has is forests. To the arid

Southwest the mantles of living green that cover the mountains are

invaluable. These are sweeping statements, but they are sober facts.

Squirrels play a considerable part in perpetuating this national

heritage. The fact that they do this more or less accidentally merely

serves to call attention to the subtle patterns in which all living

things move to serve one another. Take their simple mechanics of storing

a pine cone, for instance. A hole is dug to a depth of several inches in

the soft duff under a shady conifer. The cone is pushed firmly into the

bottom of the hole and tamped into place with several vigorous shoves of

the nose. Then the hole is carefully filled and smoothed over so that no

marauder will discover it. This procedure may be repeated hundreds of

times by one individual. If the animal never returns (and the rate of

mortality among squirrels is high), the cone can be considered planted.

Not only is it planted at the correct depth and in the most suitable

material for successful germination and growth, but it is full of plump

fertile seeds. Through some instinct the squirrel knows which nuts and

cones are healthy and fully developed. If you doubt this, examine some

of those they have left on the tree. Invariably they will be infested by

insects or “inferior” in some other respect. One of the favorite sources

of pine nuts for reforestation projects in the Northern States is the

stockpiles of the red squirrel. The scales of the cones are tightly

closed when they are taken, but as they open on the drying floor the

healthy, fertile nuts prove the unerring judgment of the harvester.

Northern flying squirrel

_Glaucomys sabrinus_ (Greek: glauco, silvery and Greek: mys, mouse)

Range: Widely distributed throughout most of our Northern States and

Canada. In the section covered by this book, found only in northeastern

and south central Utah, with possible occurrence in northwestern

Colorado.

[Illustration: Habitat map]

Habitat: Associated with conifer forests of Transition to Alpine Life

Zones.

Description: Our only airborne mammal with a long bushy tail. Total

length 9¾ to 11½ inches. Tail 4½ to 5½ inches. Characteristic of this

species is the fold of skin along each side from the fore to the hind

leg. There is considerable color variation in the numerous subspecies of

this squirrel. In general the upper parts vary from dark brown to

cinnamon brown. Sides of face gray; underparts white to pinkish cinnamon

beneath. Hind feet are brown, fore feet gray. The flying membrane is

brownish black above, white to cinnamon beneath. The eyes are large and

dark brown. Young, two to six in a litter, born in spring; a second

litter is sometimes produced in early autumn.

Because flying squirrels are almost entirely nocturnal, they are seldom

seen. This is unfortunate, for they are among the most interesting

forest creatures. Probably more people have seen flying squirrels

through the predations of a house cat than in any other way. Gentle and

unafraid, the squirrels fall easy prey to this night prowler, which

sometimes brings them home to show its owners. Strangely enough, the

victims often are not injured seriously, and if taken from the cat and

allowed to recover from their initial fright they will glide about the

room with much of the grace they display in the wild.

Properly speaking, these squirrels do not fly; that is to say, they are

incapable of sustaining level or ascending flight. Rather they climb to

some height in a tree then launch out and glide to a lower point,

usually the trunk of another tree. As the angle is usually quite sharp

they attain considerable speed. They check this momentum by inclining

upwards just before reaching their objective. This results in a

four-point landing against the tree trunk, sometimes with an impact that

can be heard for some little distance on a quiet night. During these

flights, which may extend 50 yards or more, they are able to change

direction or maneuver against wind currents. This is done by

manipulating the flying membrane and using the tail as a rudder. After a

flight they usually ascend to the safety of the foliage above. They

cannot be considered awkward on the ground, but it is not their chosen

habitat. Flying squirrels are more arboreal than any of our mammals,

excepting a few species of bats.

[Illustration: northern flying squirrel]

Little is known of the habits of this unusual squirrel, but they differ

considerably from those of its relatives who are active during the sunny

hours. Instead of living in a bulky nest hung in tree branches, this

nocturnal aerialist chooses a hollow tree or an abandoned woodpecker’s

hole where the sun’s rays never penetrate. Nests have been found also

under slabs of bark hanging to old lightning-blasted snags. Lined with

soft fibers and shredded bark, they often shelter whole families of

flying squirrels for, unlike the other squirrels, these gentle creatures

get along together. In fact, they might almost be considered gregarious.

Contrary to ordinary squirrel behavior, they never bark or scold. Their

only utterance is a fine whistling squeak, and this is heard usually

only in the nest.

Though delicate in appearance the flying squirrel is extremely hardy. It

is abroad throughout the winter, being confined to its nest only during

stormy weather. It stores food for the winter, but its caches are

usually above ground in hollow trees and crevices rather than buried in

the loam. Their food consists mostly of pine nuts, seeds, and acorns,

but they are also fond of meat. Many a flying squirrel has met its death

trying to take the bait from a trap set for larger game. This taste is

unexplained; it is not known to prey on other animals.

Western chipmunks

Genus _Eutamias_ (Greek: eu, well or good and tamias, steward)

There are at least four species of chipmunks native to the area covered

by this book. Ordinarily but one, or perhaps two, species of a genus

have been chosen for discussion. In this case, however, the chipmunks

are such provocative little creatures and their presence causes so much

interest that all four species will be included, although briefly. Since

the ranges and life zones of some of them overlap in many areas,

positive identification of a species will be difficult in those places,

but in others one species will be dominant or alone. Here the more

subtle characteristics and behavior of that type can be fixed in mind,

and in time it will be less difficult to separate one from the other.

Remember that most of these species have several subspecies. These

generally occur along the upper or lower edges of the life zone

frequented by the type. In the field they are usually indistinguishable

from the type to any but the most practiced observer.