THE PRESENT CENTURY
It has been said that printing sprang into the world fully armed. At
least this is certain, that for nearly four centuries after its birth
the printing-press in use in all printing-houses remained the same in
form as that which Caxton's workmen had used in the Red Pale at
Westminster. There had been some unimportant alterations made in it by
an Amsterdam printer in the seventeenth century; but until the year 1800
no important change in the form or mechanism of the printing-press had
ever been introduced. Some such change was sorely needed. The productive
powers of the old press were quite unable to keep pace with the
ever-increasing demand for books and newspapers that a quickened
intelligence and national anxiety had awakened. Up to 1815 England was
constantly at war, and men and women alike were eager for news from
abroad. In 1800 Charles Mahon, third Earl Stanhope, invented a new
printing-press.
The Stanhope press substituted an iron framework for the wooden body of
the old press, thus giving greater solidity. The platen was double the
size of that previously in use, thus allowing a larger sheet to be
printed, and a system of levers was adopted in place of the cumbersome
handlebar and screw used in the wooden press. The chief merits of the
new invention were increased speed, ease to the workman, evenness of
impression, and durability. Further improvements in the mechanism of
hand machines were secured in the Columbian press, an American
invention, brought to this country in 1818, and later in the Albion
press, invented by R. W. Cope of London, and since that time by many
others. Yet even with the best of these improved presses no more than
250 or 300 impressions per hour could be worked off, and the daily
output of the most important paper only averaged three or four thousand
copies. But a great and wonderful change was at hand.
In 1806 Frederick Kœnig, the son of a small farmer at Eisleben in
Saxon Prussia, came to England with a project for a steam printing
press. The idea was not a new one, for sixteen years before an
Englishman, named William Nicholson, took out a patent for a machine for
printing, which foreshadowed nearly every fundamental improvement even
in the most advanced machines of the present day. But from want of
means, or some other cause, Nicholson never actually made a machine.
Nor did Kœnig's project meet with much encouragement until he walked
into the printing-house of Thomas Bensley of Bolt Court, who encouraged
the inventor to proceed, and supplied him with the necessary funds.
There is reason to believe that Kœnig made himself acquainted with the
details of Nicholson's patent during the time that his machine was
building. He also obtained the assistance of Andrew F. Bauer, an
ingenious German mechanic. His first patent was taken out on the 29th
March 1810, a second in 1812, a third in 1814, and a fourth in 1816. The
first machine is said to have taken three years to build, and upon its
completion was erected in Bensley's office in Bolt Court. There seems to
be considerable uncertainty as to what was the first publication printed
on it. Some say it was set to work on the _Annual Register_, one
writer[20] asserting that in April 1811, 3000 sheets of that publication
were printed on it; but Mr. Southward, in his monograph _Modern
Printing_, confines himself to the statement that two sheets of a book
were printed on the machine in 1812. Curiously enough neither Bensley's
publication, the _Annual Register_, nor the _Gentleman's Magazine_ takes
any notice of the new invention, although in the _Gentleman's Magazine_
for 1811 there is a notice of a printing machine invented at
Philadelphia, which apparently embodied all the same principles as
Kœnig's (_Gent. Mag._, vol. lxxxi. p. 576).
In 1814 John Walter, the second proprietor of the _Times_, saw Kœnig's
machine, and ordered one to be supplied to the _Times_ office, the first
number printed by steam being that of the 28th November 1814. This
machine was a double cylinder, which printed simultaneously two copies
of a forme of the newspaper on one side only. But it was a cumbersome
and complicated affair, and its greatest output 1800 impressions per
hour.
In 1818 Edward Cowper, a printer of Nelson Square, patented certain
improvements in printing, these improvements consisting of a better
distribution of the ink and a better plan for conveying the sheets from
the cylinders. Having joined his brother-in-law, Augustus Applegarth,
they proceeded to make certain alterations in Kœnig's machine in
Bensley's office which at one stroke removed forty wheels, and greatly
simplified the inking arrangements. In 1827 they jointly invented a
four-cylinder machine, which Applegarth erected for the _Times_. The
distinctive features of this machine were its ability to print both
sides of a sheet at once, its admirable inking apparatus, and great
acceleration of speed, the new machine being capable of printing five
thousand copies per hour.
These machines at once superseded the Kœnig, and were to be found in
use in all parts of the country for printing newspapers until quite
lately. In 1848 the same firm constructed an eight-cylinder vertical
machine, which was one of the sights of the Great Exhibition of 1851.
Shortly afterwards Messrs. Hoe, of New York, made further improvements
in the mechanism, raising the output to 20,000 per hour. All these
machines had to be fed with paper by hand, but in 1869 it occurred to
Mr. J. C. Macdonald, the manager of the _Times_, and Mr. J. C.
Calverley, the chief engineer of the same office, that much saving of
labour would result if paper could be manufactured in continuous rolls;
and the result of their experiments was the rotary press, which was
named after Mr. John Walter, the fourth of that name, then at the head
of the _Times_ proprietorship. Since then the improvement in printing
machines has steadily continued, and may be said to have culminated in
the Hoe 'double supplement' press in use at the present day in many
newspaper offices, which is capable of printing, cutting, and folding
24,000 copies per hour of a full-sized newspaper.
These great changes in presses and press-work have occasioned similar
changes in type-founding.
At the beginning of the century, the firm of Caslon had been given a new
lease of life by the energy of Mrs. Henry Caslon, who in 1799 had
purchased the foundry, a third share in which a few years earlier had
been worth £3000, for the paltry sum of £520. She at once set to work to
have new founts of type cut, and was ably helped by Mr. John Isaac
Drury. The pica then produced was an improvement in the style of Bodoni,
and quickly raised the foundry to its old position. Mrs. Caslon took
into partnership Nathaniel Catherwood, but both died in the course of
the year 1809. The business then came into the hands of Henry Caslon
II., who was joined by John James Catherwood. Other notable firms were
those already noticed in the last chapter--Mrs. Fry, Figgins, Martin,
and Jackson. One and all of these suffered severely from the change in
the fashion of types at the beginning of the century, the ugly form of
type, known as fat-faced letters, then introduced, remaining in vogue
until the revival of Caslon's old-faced type by the younger Whittingham.
Upon the advent of machinery and cylinder printing, the use of movable
type for printing from was supplemented by quicker and more durable
methods, and William Ged's long-despised discovery of stereotyping is
now an absolutely necessary adjunct of modern press-work. This, again,
was in some measure due to Earl Stanhope, who in 1800 went to Andrew
Tilloch, and Foulis, the Glasgow printer, both of whom had taken out a
patent for the invention, and learnt from them the process. He
afterwards associated himself with Andrew Wilson, a London printer, and
in 1802 the plaster process, as it was called, was perfected. This
remained in use until 1846, when a system of forming moulds in _papier
mâché_ was introduced, and this was succeeded by the adaptation of the
stereo-plates to the rotary machines.
It would be foreign to the purpose of this work, which is concerned with
printing as applied to books, to attempt to describe the Linotype and
its rival processes which have been recently introduced to further
facilitate newspaper printing. We must, therefore, return to our
book-printers, and note first that the Shakespeare Press of William
Bulmer, for which Martin the type-founder was almost exclusively
employed, continued to turn out beautiful examples of typographic work
during the early years of the nineteenth century. A list of the works
issued from this press up to 1817 is given by Dibdin in his notes to the
second volume of his _Decameron_, pp. 384-395. Some of the chief items
were _The Arabian Nights Entertainments_, 5 vols. 1802, 8vo; _The Book
of Common Prayer_, with an introduction by John Reeves, 1802, 8vo; _The
Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales_, translated by Sir R. C.
Hoare, 2 vols. 1806, 4to; Richardson's _Dictionary of the Arabic and
Persian Languages_, 2 vols. 1806-10, 4to; Hoare's _History of
Wiltshire_, 1812, folio; Dibdin's _Typographical Antiquities_, 4 vols.
1812, 4to; and the same author's _Bibliotheca Spenceriana_, 4 vols.
1814-15, 8vo, and _Bibliographical Decameron_, 3 vols. 1817, 8vo. These
three last are considered to be some of the best work of this press,
which also turned out many books for private circulation only. William
Bulmer died on September 9th, 1830, after a long and active life, and
was succeeded by his partner Mr. William Nichol.
Nor had Thomas Bensley slackened anything of his enthusiasm for fine
printing. Twice during the first twenty years of the century he suffered
severely by fire: the first time in 1807, when a quarto edition of
Thomson's _Seasons_, an edition of the _Works_ of Pope, and many other
books were destroyed; the second in 1819, on June 26th, when the
premises were totally burnt down. This was followed by the death of his
son, and shortly afterwards he retired from business, and died on
September 11th, 1835. Not only was he an excellent printer, but he did
more than any other man of his time to introduce the improved printing
machine into this country.
John Nichols was another of the great printers of his day, and he too
was burnt out on the night of February 8th, 1808. No better account of
the magnitude of his undertakings at that time could be found than his
own description of the disaster, which he contributed to the
_Gentleman's Magazine_ in the following March:--
'Amongst the books destroyed are many of very great value, and some that
can never be replaced. Not to mention a large quantity of handsome
quarto Bibles, the works of Swift, Pope, Young, Thomson, Johnson, etc.
etc., the _Annals of Commerce_, and other works which may still be
elsewhere purchased, there are several consumed which cannot now be
obtained at any price. The unsold copies of the introduction to the
second volume of the _Sepulchral Monuments_; Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_;
Bigland's _Gloucestershire_; Hutchinson's _Durham_; Thorpe's _Registrum_
and _Custumale Roffense_; the few numbers that remained of the
_Bibliotheca Topographica_; the third volume of _Elizabethan
Progresses_; the _Illustrations of Ancient Manners_; Mr. Gough's
_History of Pleshy_, and his valuable account of the _Coins of the
Seleucidæ_, engraved by Bartolozzi; Colonel de la Motte's _Allusive
Arms_; Bishop Atterbury's _Epistolary Correspondence_; and last, not
least, the whole of six portions of Mr. Nichols' _Leicestershire_, and
the entire stock of the _Gentleman's Magazine_ from 1782 to 1807, are
irrecoverably lost.'
'Of those in the press, the most important were the concluding portion
of Hutchins' _Dorsetshire_ (nearly finished); a second volume of Manning
and Bray's _Surrey_ (about half printed); Mr. Bawdwin's translation of
_Domesday for Yorkshire_ (nearly finished); a new edition of Dr.
Whitaker's _History of Craven_; Mr. Gough's _British Topography_ (nearly
one volume); the sixth volume of _Biographia Britannica_ (ready for
publishing); Dr. Kelly's _Dictionary of the Manx Language_; Mr. Neild's
_History of Prisons_; a genuine unpublished comedy by Sir Richard
Steele; Mr. Joseph Reid's unpublished tragedy of _Dido_; four volumes of
the _British Essayists_; Mr. Taylor Combe's _Appendix to Dr. Hunter's
Coins_; part of Dr. Hawes' annual report for 1808; a part of the
_Biographical Anecdotes of Hogarth_; two entire volumes, and the half of
two other volumes of a new edition of the anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer,' etc.
Writing to Bishop Percy in July of that year, Nichols stated that he had
lost £10,000 beyond his insurance in this outbreak.
John Nichols died on the 26th November 1826, after a long and laborious
life. He was a born antiquary, and a voluminous author, his chief works
being _The History and Antiquities of the Town and County of Leicester_,
completed in 1815 in eight folio volumes, and _Literary Anecdotes of the
Eighteenth Century_, 1812-15, an expansion of the _Biographical and
Literary Anecdotes of William Bowyer_, which had been printed in 1782.
This work was afterwards supplemented by _Illustrations of the Literary
History of the Eighteenth Century_, 6 vols. 1817-31, to which his son
afterwards added two additional volumes. John Nichols was Common
Councillor for the ward of Farringdon Without from 1784 to 1786, and
again from 1787 to 1811. In 1804 he was Master of the Stationers'
Company. He was succeeded in business by his son John Bowyer Nichols,
and the firm subsequently became J. Nichols, Son, and Bentley. Like his
father, John Bowyer Nichols was editor and author of many books, and was
appointed Printer to the Society of Antiquaries in 1824. He died at
Haling on October 16th, 1863, leaving seven children, of whom the
eldest, John Gough Nichols, born on 22nd May 1806, became the head of
the printing-house, and editor of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, as his
father and grandfather had been before him. He was one of the founders
of the Camden Society (1838), and edited many of its publications. He
was the promoter and editor of _The Herald and Genealogist_, and his
researches in this direction were of great importance. The _Dictionary
of National Biography_ enumerates thirty-four works from his pen, most
of which it would be safe to say were also printed by him. He died on
14th November 1873.
Another press of importance in the first half of the nineteenth century
was that of Thomas Davison. He was the printer of most of Byron's works,
and many of those of Campbell, Moore and Wordsworth; but his chief
claim to notice rests upon the magnificent edition of Whitaker's
_History of Rickmondshire_ in two large folio volumes, printed in 1823,
and upon that of Dugdale's _Monasticon_, in eight folio volumes, issued
between 1817 and 1830, an undertaking of great magnitude. In Timperley's
_Encyclopædia_ it is stated that Davison made important improvements in
the manufacture of printing ink, and that few of his competitors could
approach him in excellence of work.
The story of the firm of Eyre and Spottiswoode would, if material were
available, form an interesting chapter in the history of English
printing. It is the direct descendant in the royal line of Pynson,
Berthelet, the Barkers, and finally of John and Robert Baskett, the last
of whom assigned the patent to John Eyre of Landford House, Wilts, whose
son, Charles Eyre, the great-grandfather of the present George Edward
Briscoe Eyre, succeeded to the business in 1770. During the seventeenth
century, the work of the Government and the sovereign had been divided
among several firms, but in the eighteenth century it was again given to
one man, John Baskett. In the printing of the Bible and Book of Common
Prayer the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have also a share; but
all the other Government work is done by Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode.
Charles Eyre, not being a practical printer, obtained the co-operation
of William Strahan. On the renewal of the patent in 1798, the name of
John Reeves was inserted, but Mr. Strahan purchased his interest. In
1829, the patent was again renewed to George Eyre, the son of Charles,
John Reeves, and Andrew Strahan. George Edward Eyre, son of George
William Strahan, was born at Edinburgh in April 1715, and, after serving
his apprenticeship in Edinburgh, took his way to London, where, it is
believed, he found a post in the office of Andrew Miller. In 1770 the
printing-house was removed from Blackfriars to New Street, near Gough
Square, Fleet Street. William Strahan was intimately associated with the
best literature of his time, among those for whom he published being Dr.
Johnson, Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and many other eminent writers. In
1774 he was Master of the Stationers' Company, Member of Parliament for
Malmesbury, and sat for Wootton Bassett in the next Parliament. Among
his greatest friends was Benjamin Franklin, who kept up a correspondence
with him in spite of the strong political differences between them.
Strahan died at New Street on July 9th 1785, leaving three sons and two
daughters. The youngest son, Andrew, succeeded his father in the Royal
Printing House, and one of the daughters married John Spottiswoode of
Spottiswoode, whose son, Andrew, afterwards entered the firm. Andrew
Strahan was noted for his benevolence, and on his death in 1831 he left
handsome bequests to the Literary Fund and the Company of Stationers.
Andrew Spottiswoode, who died in 1866 at the ripe age of seventy-nine,
had a large printing business apart from the office of Queen's Printer,
and his imprint will be found in much of the lighter literature of the
period. His son, William Spottiswoode, after a distinguished career at
Oxford, ultimately attained high rank as a mathematician, and in 1865
became President of the Mathematical Section of the British Association.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1853, and became its
President on 30th November 1878. He died on 27th June 1883.
Equally renowned is the firm of Gilbert and Rivington. Early in the
second half of the eighteenth century (the exact date is not known) John
Rivington, the fourth son of John Rivington the publisher, and direct
descendant of Charles Rivington of the Bible and Crown in Paternoster
Row, succeeded to the business of James Emonson, printer, of St. John's
Square, Clerkenwell. John Rivington died in 1785, and was succeeded by
his widow, who in 1786 took as partner John Marshall. A series of
classical works, of which they were the printers, was very favourably
received. These included the Greek Testament, Livy, and Sophocles, as
well as a series of Latin poets and authors, edited by Michael
Maittaire. The business next passed into the hands of Deodatus Bye. He
in turn admitted Henry Law as partner, and the firm became successively
Law and Gilbert and Robert and Richard Gilbert. The partnership being
dissolved early in the present century by the death of Robert Gilbert,
Richard carried on the business alone until 1830, when he took into
partnership Mr. William Rivington, a great-grandson of the first Charles
Rivington, and from that day the firm has gone by the name of Gilbert
and Rivington. Richard Gilbert died in 1852, and for eleven years after
his death the printing business was carried on by Mr. William Rivington,
who issued many valuable and standard works on subjects of classical and
ecclesiological interest.
William Rivington retired from business in 1868, being succeeded by his
son, William John Rivington, and his nephew, Alexander. The business
increased largely in their hands; one of their first undertakings being
the purchase in 1870 of the plant of the late Mr. William Mavor Watts,
by which they secured a large addition to their collection of Oriental
types. In 1875 Mr. E. Mosley entered the firm, and Mr. William John
Rivington left it to join the publishing house of Sampson Low, Marston
and Searle. Mr. Alexander Rivington retired from the firm in 1878,
being thus the last Rivington connected with the house, which shortly
afterwards was turned into a limited liability company.
Messrs. Gilbert and Rivington's collection of Oriental and other foreign
types enables them to print in every known language, their specimen
books embracing 267 distinct tongues. They are Oriental printers to the
British Museum, India Office, British and Foreign Bible Society.
Speaking of the Oriental work, the most striking feature in the firm's
business, a correspondent to the _British Printer_ (March-April 1895),
says:
'Most of the type faces noticed were on English bodies, and the
composition is somewhat similar. Arabic is composed just as with
English. Sanskrit possesses some little features of accents and
kerned sections, which render justification quite a fine art,
accents on varying bodies needing to be utilised.... The firm does
much Hindustani work, and possesses seven sizes of type in this
language. Amongst the curiosities are the cuneiform types, the
wedge-like series of faces in which old Persian, Median, and
Assyrian inscriptions are written; and last, but by no means least
in interest, the odd-looking hieroglyphic type faces, which are on
bodies ranging from half nonpareil to three nonpareils, and some
idea of their extent may be derived by noting that this type
occupies fourteen cases of one hundred boxes each.'
To the firm of Messrs. Clowes of Stamford Street belongs the credit of
being the first to print cheap periodical literature. William Clowes the
elder, a native of Chichester, born in 1779, was apprenticed to a
printer of that town, and coming to London in 1802 commenced business on
his own account in the following year 1803. By marriage with the
daughter of Mr. Winchester of the Strand, he obtained a share of the
Government printing work. On moving to Stamford Street, Blackfriars
Road, he was chosen to print the _Penny Magazine_, edited by Charles
Knight, the first attempt to provide the public with good literature in
a cheap periodical form. The work was illustrated with woodcuts, and so
great was its success that from No. 1 to No. 106 there were sold twenty
million copies; but the undertaking was heavily handicapped by the paper
tax of threepence per pound (see _The Struggles of a Book_, C. Knight,
1850, 8vo). In 1840 an article appeared in the _Quarterly Review_,
written, it is said, by Sir F. B. Head, but which is more in the style
of T. F. Dibdin, on the Clowes printing-office. Even at that time there
were no less than nineteen of Applegarth and Cowper's machines at work
there, with a daily average of one thousand per hour each. Besides these
there were twenty-three hand presses and five hydraulic presses. The
foundry employed thirty hands, and the compositors numbered one hundred
and sixty.
In 1851 Messrs. Clowes printed the official catalogues of the Great
Exhibition, for which they specially cast 58,520 lbs. of type. They
subsequently printed the catalogues of the Exhibitions of 1883-1886, and
the Royal Academy catalogues, and have been connected from their
inception with two works of a very different character, _Hymns Ancient
and Modern_--the circulation of which has to be reckoned in
millions--and the great _General Catalogue_ of the Library of the
British Museum, for their excellent printing of which all 'readers' are
indebted to them. William Clowes the elder died in 1847. He was
succeeded by his son, William, who died in 1883; and a third William, a
grandson, is one of the managing directors of the firm which in 1881 was
turned into a limited liability company.
But the chief honours of book production in London during the present
century have been rightly awarded to the Chiswick Press.
Charles Whittingham the elder was born at Calledon, near Coventry, in
1767, and was apprenticed to a printer of that city. As soon as his time
was out he came to London, and set up a press in Fetter Lane, his chief
customers being Willis, a bookseller of Stationers' Court, Jordan of
Fleet Street, and Symonds of Paternoster Row. His beginning was humble
enough, his chief work lying in the direction of stationery, cards, and
small bills. His first important publisher was a certain Heptinstall,
who set him to print new editions of Boswell's _Johnson_, Robertson's
_America_, and other important works. This was enough to set him going,
and in 1797 he moved to larger premises in Dean Street, Fetter Lane,
and then began to issue illustrated books. In 1803 he took a second
workshop at 10 Union Buildings, Leather Lane, and again in 1807 he moved
to Goswell Street. In 1811 he took his foreman Robert Rowland into
partnership, and shortly afterwards left him to manage the city
business, while he himself set up a press at Chiswick and took up his
abode at College House. Here he continued to work until his death in
1840. For a short time, from 1824 to 1828, he was joined with his nephew
Charles, to whom at his death he left the Chiswick business.
There is not much to be said of the work of the elder Whittingham. He
confined his attention to the issue of small books, such as the _British
Classics_, which he began to print in 1803. His books are chiefly
notable for the printing of the woodcuts, which by the process known as
overlaying, he brought to great perfection. His relations with the
publishers were, however, none of the best. They accused him of piracy,
and considered it to be against the best interests of the trade to issue
small and cheap books. The productions of the elder Whittingham's press
have, moreover, been largely overshadowed by those of his nephew.
Charles Whittingham the younger was a genuine artist in printing. He
loved books to begin with, and thought no pains too great to bestow upon
their production. Born at Mitcham, on October 30th, 1795, he was
apprenticed to his uncle in 1810. In 1824 he was taken into partnership,
but this lasted only four years, and he then set up for himself at 21
Took's Court, Chancery Lane. A near neighbour of his at that time was
the publisher William Pickering, who since 1820 had been putting in the
hands of the public some excellently printed and dainty volumes. It is
stated in the _Dictionary of National Biography_ that the series known
as the _Diamond Classics_ was printed for Pickering at the Chiswick
Press. But this was not the case. He had no dealings whatever with the
Whittinghams or the Chiswick Press before his introduction to Charles
Whittingham the younger in 1829. The _Diamond Classics_, which he began
to issue while he was living in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1822, were
printed by C. Corrall of Charing Cross, and the _Oxford English
Classics_, in large octavo, chiefly by Talboys and Wheeler of Oxford,
while most of his other work, amongst it the first eleven volumes of the
works of Bacon, was done by Thomas White, who is first found at Bear
Alley, and subsequently at Johnson Court and Crane Court in Fleet
Street.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Old-faced Type.]
Few of these early books of Pickering's had any kind of decoration
beyond a device on the title-page. Simplicity, combined with what was
best in type and paper, seem to have been the publisher's chief aim at
that time; but in some of the _Diamond Classics_ will be found the
small and artistic border-pieces which he afterwards used frequently.
The first of Pickering's books in which anything of a very ornamental
character occurs is _The Bijou, or Annual of Literature_, a publication
which fixes very clearly his association with Whittingham. _The Bijou_
first appeared in 1828, printed by Thomas White, with one or two
charming head-pieces designed by Stothard. The volume for 1829 was also
printed by White, and is noticeable as having the publisher's Aldine
device, showing that this came into use during the year 1828. The volume
for 1830 was printed by C. Whittingham of Took's Court. The meeting
between the two men had been brought about by Basil Montagu in the
summer of 1829. They found themselves kindred spirits on the subject of
the artistic treatment of books, and a friendship sprang up between
them, that ceased only with Pickering's death in 1854, and was
productive of some of the most beautiful books that had ever come from
an English press. Mr. Arthur Warren in his book, _The Charles
Whittinghams, Printers_ (p. 203), tells us: 'The two men met frequently
for consultation, and whenever the bookseller visited the press, which
he often did, there were brave experiments toward. The printer would
produce something new in title-pages, or in colour work, or ornament,
and the bookseller would propound some new venture in the reproduction
of an ancient volume.... They made it a point, moreover, to pass their
Sundays together, either at the printer's house or at Pickering's.'
[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Early Chiswick Press Initials.]
In the artistic production of books they were ably assisted by
Whittingham's eldest daughter Charlotte, and Mary Byfield. The former
designed the blocks, many of which were copied from the best French and
Italian work of the sixteenth century, and the latter engraved them.
Among the notable books produced by these means were the _Aldine Poets_,
editions of Milton, Bacon, Isaak Walton's _Complete Angler_, the works
of George Peele, reprints of Caxton's books, and many Prayer-books. In
1844 Pickering and Whittingham were in consultation as to the production
of an edition of _Juvenal_ to be printed in old-face great primer, and
the foundry of the latest descendant of the Caslons was ransacked to
supply the fount. The edition was to be rubricated and otherwise
decorated, and this, or the printer's stock trouble, 'lack of paper,'
occasioning some delay, the revived type first appeared in a fiction
entitled _Lady Willoughby's Diary_, to which it gave a pleasantly
old-world look in keeping with the period of which the story treats. By
the kindness of Mr. Jacobi, the present manager of the Chiswick Press,
an exact copy of the title-page of this book is here given, and with
it, examples of the decorative initials and devices, in the revival of
which also the Chiswick Press led the way.
[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Early Chiswick Press Devices.]
Pickering died in 1854, and though Charles Whittingham the younger lived
to the age of eighty-one, his death not taking place till 1876, he had
retired from business in 1860. The business was afterwards acquired by
Mr. George Bell.
In the English provinces Messrs. Clay, of Bungay, in Suffolk, have made
for themselves a reputation both as general printers and more
particularly for the careful production of old English texts; and
Messrs. Austin, of Hertford, are well known for their Oriental work. But
the pre-eminence certainly rests with the Clarendon Press at Oxford,
whose work, whether in its innumerable editions of the Bible and
Prayer-book, its classical books, or its great dictionaries, is
probably, alike in accuracy of composition, in excellence of spacing and
press-work, and in clearness of type, the most flawless that has ever
been produced. Book-lovers have been known to complain of it as so good
as to be uninteresting, but it certainly possesses all the distinctive
virtues of a University Press.
If England has no lack of good printers at the present day, in Scotland
they are, at least, equally plentiful.
The Ballantyne Press was founded by James Ballantyne, a solicitor in
Kelso, with the aid of Sir Walter Scott. Ballantyne and Scott had been
school-fellows and chums, and an incident in their school life recorded
by Ballantyne aptly illustrates the characters of the two men.
Ballantyne was studious but not quick, and often when he was bothered
with his lessons, Scott would whisper to him, 'Come, slink over beside
me, Jamie, and I'll tell you a story.' Although their roads lay apart
for some years, while Scott was studying in Edinburgh and Ballantyne was
carrying on the Kelso _Mail_, they met and renewed their friendship in
the stage coach that ran between Kelso and Glasgow. Shortly afterwards,
Ballantyne called on Scott, and begged him to supply a few paragraphs on
legal questions of the day to the Kelso _Mail_. This Scott readily
undertook to do, and when the manuscript was ready he took it himself to
the printing-office, and with it some of the ballads destined for
Lewis's collection then publishing in Edinburgh. Before he left he
suggested that Ballantyne should print a few copies of the ballads, so
that he might show his friends in Edinburgh what Ballantyne could do.
Twelve copies were accordingly printed, with the title of _Apologies for
Tales of Terror_. These were published in 1799, and Scott was so pleased
with their appearance that he promised Ballantyne that he should be the
printer of a selection of Border ballads that he was then making. This
selection was given the title of _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_,
and formed two small octavo volumes, with the imprint, 'Kelso, 1802.'
Ballantyne's work, as shown in these volumes, was equal in every way to
the best work done by Bensley and Bulmer at this time. Good type and
good paper, combined with accuracy and clearness, at once raised
Ballantyne's reputation. Longman and Rees, the publishers, declared
themselves delighted with the printing, and Scott urged his friend to
remove his press to Edinburgh, where he assured him he would find enough
work to repay him for the removal. After some hesitation Ballantyne
acquiesced in the proposal, and having found suitable premises in the
neighbourhood of Holyrood House, set up 'two presses and a proof one,'
and shortly afterwards, in April 1803, printed there the third volume of
the _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border._ From this time forward Scott
made it a point that whatever he wrote or edited should be printed at
the Ballantyne Press. The first quarto, the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_,
was published in January 1805. The poem was printed in a somewhat
heavy-faced type; but in other respects the typography left nothing to
be desired. In the same year Ballantyne and Scott entered into
partnership, Scott taking a third of the profits of the printing-office.
So rapidly did James Ballantyne extend his business that in 1819 Scott,
in a letter to Constable, says that the Ballantyne Press 'has sixteen
presses, of which only twelve are at present employed.' In 1826 the firm
became involved in the bankruptcy of the publishers Messrs. Constable.
After this Ballantyne was employed as editor of the _Weekly Journal_,
and the literary management of the printing-house. He died on the 17th
January 1833. The firm is now known as Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., and
admirably sustains its old traditions.
Another great Scottish printing-house, that of T. and A. Constable, was
founded by Thomas Constable, the fourth son of Archibald Constable the
publisher. He learned his art in London under Mr. Charles Richards, and
on returning to Edinburgh, in 1833, he founded the present
printing-house in Thistle Street. Shortly afterwards he was appointed
Queen's Printer for Scotland, and the patent was afterwards extended to
his son Archibald, the present titular head of the house. Some years
later he received the appointment of Printer to the University of
Edinburgh. Thomas Constable inherited and incorporated with his own firm
the printing business of his maternal grandfather, David Willison, a
business founded in the eighteenth century. The firm has always been
noted for its scholarly reading and the beauty of its workmanship; and
only the fact that this volume is being printed by it prevents a longer
eulogy.
Among other Scottish firms who are doing excellent work mention may be
made also of Messrs. R. and R. Clark of Edinburgh, who tread very
closely on the heels of the Clarendon Press, and Messrs. Maclehose, the
printers to the University of Glasgow. In America also there is much
good work being done, that of Mr. De Vinne and of the Riverside Press,
Cambridge, being of the very highest excellence.
In the history of English printing, the close of the nineteenth century
will always be memorable for the brilliant but short-lived career of the
Kelmscott Press.
In May 1891 Mr. William Morris, whose poems and romances had delighted
many readers, issued a small quarto book entitled _The Story of the
Glittering Plain_, which had been printed at a press that he had set up
in the Upper Mall, Hammersmith.
Lovers of old books could recognise at once that in its arrangement,
and, to some extent, in its types, this first-fruit of the Kelmscott
Press went straight back to the fifteenth century, resembling most
nearly the quartos printed at Venice about 1490. Until within a few
years of that date printed books, like the old manuscripts, had
dispensed altogether with a title-page. Their first few pages might be
occupied with a prologue or a table of contents, and though, when the
text was reached, it was usual to herald it with an _Incipit_ or
_Incomincia_, followed by the title of the work, the information as to
date of issue, printer or publisher, and place of imprint or sale,
which we look to find in the title-page, was only given in a crowning
paragraph or colophon at the end of the book, save for one or two
accidental instances. The full title-page, as we know it, is not found
before about 1520, and did not come into general use, so as to supersede
the colophon, until many years after that date. But about 1480 the
advantage of getting the short title of the book clearly stated at its
outset was becoming pretty generally recognised, and from this date
onwards what may be called the label title-page--that is, a first page
containing the title and nothing else--is very frequently found. Ten
years later a practice occasionally adopted elsewhere became common at
Venice, and the first page of the text of a book was decorated with an
ornamental border, and occasionally with a little picture as well. It
was this temporary fashion which commended itself to Mr. Morris, and
_The Story of the Glittering Plain_ was issued with one of these label
title-pages and with the first page of the story surrounded by a very
beautiful border cut on wood from a design by Mr. Morris himself, here
reproduced by the kind permission of his executors. It contained also a
number of decorative initial letters, to use the clumsy phrase which the
misappropriation of the word capitals to stand for ordinary majuscules,
or 'upper case' letters, makes inevitable. Mr. Morris's initials were,
of course, true capitals--_i.e._ they were used to mark the beginnings
of chapters, and the only fault that could be found with them was that
they were a little too large for the quarto page. These also were from
Mr. Morris's own designs, ideas in one or two cases having been borrowed
from a set used by Sweynheym and Pannartz, the Germans who introduced
printing into Italy; but the borrowing, as always with Mr. Morris, being
absolutely free. As for the type, it was clear that it bore some
resemblance to that used by Nicolas Jenson, the Frenchman who began
printing in Venice in 1470, and whose finer books, especially those on
vellum, are generally recognised as the supreme examples of that
perfection to which the art of printing attained in its earliest
infancy. Mr. Morris's type was as rich as Jenson's at its best, and
showed its authorship by not being quite rigidly Roman, some of the
letters betraying a leaning to the 'Gothic' or 'black-letter' forms,
which had found favour with the majority of the mediæval scribes. At the
end of the book came the colophon in due fifteenth-century style, with
information as to when and where it was printed. The ornamental design
bearing the word 'Kelmscott,' by way of the device or trade-mark without
which no fifteenth-century printer thought his office properly equipped,
was not used in this book, but speedily made its appearance.
[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The first page of _The Story of the Glittering
Plain_.]
Pretty as was this edition of the _The Story of the Glittering Plain_,
it yet raised a doubt--the doubt as to whether there was any real life
in this effort to start afresh from old models, or whether it was a mere
antiquarian revival and nothing more. The history of printing--or rather
of the handwriting which the first printers took as their
models--recorded, at least, one instance in which an antiquarian revival
had been of permanent service; for the _Roman letter_, which the
printers have used now for four centuries, was itself a happy reversion
on the part of the fifteenth-century scribes to the Caroline minuscules
of 600 years earlier, which had gradually been debased past recognition.
There was no room for a second such sweeping reform as this, but those
who compared the best modern printing with the masterpieces of the craft
in its early days knew that the modern books by the side of the old ones
looked flat and grey; and the new _Glittering Plain_, though not
entirely satisfactory, was certainly free from these faults. A few
months later the appearance of the three-volume reprint of Caxton's
version of the _Golden Legend_ of Jacobus de Voragine, sufficed to show
that the Kelmscott Press was capable of turning out a book large enough
to tax the resources of a printing-office, and the new book was not only
larger but better than its predecessor. It became known that this, but
for an accident, should have been the first book issued from the new
press; and it was evident that the initial letters were exactly right
for this larger page, while the splendid woodcuts from the designs of
Sir Edward Burne-Jones revived the old glories of book-illustration. In
the _Golden Legend_ also appeared the first of those woodcut
frontispiece titles which formed, as far as we know, an entirely new
departure, and confer on the Kelmscott books one of their chief
distinctions. Printed sometimes in white letters on a background of dark
scrollery, sometimes in black letters on a lighter ground, these titles
are always surrounded by a border harmonising with that on the first
page of text, which they face. They thus carry out Mr. Morris's cardinal
principle, that the unit, both for arrangement of type and for
decoration, is always the double page. How persistently even the best
printers in the trade ignore this principle is known to any one who has
asked for a specimen of how a book is to be printed, it being almost
impossible to get more than a single page set up. If a double page is
insisted on, the craftsman, ingenious in avoiding trouble, will print
the same page twice over, thus confusing the eye by the exact
parallelism of line with line and paragraph with paragraph. But Mr.
Morris, who had all the capacity of genius for taking pains, understood
that, when a book lies open before us, though we only read one page at a
time, we see two, and in the selection of the type, the adjustment of
letterpress and margins, and finally in the pursuit of a decorative
beginning, either to the book itself, or to its sections, he never
arranged a single page except in relation to the one which it was to
face.
As far as permanent influence is concerned Mr. Morris's Roman letter,
the 'Golden type,' as it was dubbed, from its use in the _Golden
Legend_, is the most important of the three founts which he employed.
His own sympathies, however, were too pronouncedly mediæval for him to
be satisfied with it, and for the next large book which he took in hand,
a reprint of Caxton's _Recuyell of the Histories of Troy_, the first
work printed in the English tongue, he designed a much larger and bolder
type, an improvement on one of the 'Gothic' founts used by Anton
Koberger at Nuremberg in the fifteenth century. This 'Troy' type was
subsequently recut in a smaller size for the double-columned Chaucer,
and in both its forms is a very handsome fount, while the characters are
so clearly and legibly shaped that, despite its antique origin, any
child who knows his letters can learn to read it in a few minutes. With
these three founts the Kelmscott Press was thoroughly equipped with
type; but until his final illness took firm hold on him Mr. Morris was
never tired of designing new initials, border-pieces, and decorative
titles with a profusion which the old printers, who were parsimonious in
these matters, would have thought extravagantly lavish. Including
those completed by his executors after his death, he printed in all
fifty-three books in sixty-five volumes, and this annual output of nine
or ten volumes of all sizes, save the duodecimo, which he refused to
recognise, gave his work a cumulative force which greatly increased its
influence. Had he printed only a few books his press might have been
regarded as a rich man's toy, an outbreak of æstheticism in a new place,
of no more permanent interest than the cult of the sunflower and the
lily in the 'eighties. Even the great Chaucer by itself might not have
sufficed to take his press out of the category of experiments. But when
folio, quarto, octavo, and sexto-decimo appeared in quick succession,
each with its appropriate decorations, and challenging and defying
comparison with the best work of the best printers of the past, the
experimental stage was left far behind, and publishers and printers
awoke to the fact that a model had been set them which they would do
well to imitate.
[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The Kelmscott 'Troy' Type.]
As to what will be the permanent result of Mr. Morris's efforts to
reform modern printing it is too soon as yet to speak, but signs of
their influence are already abundantly visible. The books issued from
the 'Vale Press' of Messrs. Ricketts and Shannon have their admirers;
but they have that rather irritating degree of likeness which makes
every difference--and the differences are numerous--appear a wilful
and regrettable divergence.
[Illustration: FIG. 40.--The Macmillan Greek Type.]
The 'Macmillan Greek type,' designed by Mr. Selwyn Image, which has now
been in use for some time, may be regarded as another offshoot of Mr.
Morris's theories, and deserves all the praise due to a brave
experiment. By permission of the Messrs. Macmillan a page of it, taken
from their 'Parnassus' _Homer_, is here shown, and few modern types will
bear comparison with it. That it is not wholly and entirely successful
is due to the fact that for so many centuries Greek types have been
dominated by the models set by Aldus and the other printers of the early
sixteenth century, who tried to imitate the rapid cursive hand of the
Greek scholars of their day. Had the introduction of printing been
preceded by a revival of the beautiful Greek book-hand of the eleventh
century, similar to the revival of the Caroline minuscules, all would
have been well. But in going back himself to the eleventh century Mr.
Image was obliged perpetually to conciliate eyes used to the later
cursive forms, and the result is too obviously eclectic. The mere fact,
however, that such an effort has been made is full of promise for the
future, for it is only by new effort, joined with constant reference to
old models, that types can be improved.
[Footnote 20: _The History of Printing_. London: Printed for the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1855, 8vo.]
INDEX OF PRINTERS, TYPEFOUNDERS, ETC.
Abree, J., 253.
Alday. _See_ Alde.
Alde, Edward, 163, 169.
Alde, Elizabeth, 169.
Alde, John, 101, 163.
Allen, Edward, 271.
Allen, John, 220.
Alsop, Bernard, 171, 172, 179, 181, 194, 221.
Andrewe, Laurence, 53, 57, 58.
Andrews, J. and R., 210.
Arbuthnot, A., 146 _sq._
Archer, T., 171.
Aspley, W., 163.
Asplyn, ----, 137.
Austin, Messrs., 307.
Austin, R., 221.
B. T., _i.e._ Brudnell, T., 190.
Badger, R., 179.
Baker, J., 102.
Baldwyn, Richard, 101.
Baldwyn, W., 101.
Ballantyne, Hanson and Co., 309.
Ballantyne, James, 307 _sq._
Bankes, Richard, 55, 59, 60, 133.
Barber, John, 233, _sq._
Barbier, Jean, 30.
Barker, Christopher, 97, 118 _sq._,154, 208, 230.
Barker, Robert, 154 _sq._, 176, 216, 218, 230.
Barnes, Joseph, 124, 183.
Baskerville, John, xiii, 265 _sq._, 274.
Baskett, John, 230, 231, 232.
Bassandyne, T., 146 _sq._
Beale, John, 179.
Bell, Jane, 221.
Bensley, Thomas, 271 _sq._, 284, 289.
Bentley, W., 221.
Berthelet, Thomas, 61 _sq._, 69, 82.
Bignon, J., 41.
Bill, John, 155, 160.
Bishop, George, 112, 120, 155.
Bishop, Richard, 166, 179, 183, 194, 221.
Bliss, Joseph, 251, 252.
Blomefield, F. (private press), 279.
Blount, Edward, 163.
Blythe, Robert, 101.
'Bonere.' _See_ Bonham, W.
Bonham, John, 101.
Bonham, William, 52, 53, 74, 75, 76, 101, 129.
Bonny, W., 250.
Bourgeois, Jean le, 44.
Bourman, N., 101, 129.
Bourne, C., 254.
Bourne, N., 171.
Bowyer, William, the elder, 236 _sq._
Bowyer, William, the younger, 238 _sq._
Boyden, Thomas, 101.
Bradford, Andrew, 257, 258.
Bradford, W., 220, 221, 256.
Bremer, _alias_ Bulle. _See_ Bulle J.
Brice, Andrew, 252, 253.
Bridges, H., 224.
Broad, Alice, 218.
Broad, T., 218, 221.
Brodehead, G., 101.
Broke, R., 101.
Browne, E., 101.
Brudenell, J., 201, 208, 225.
Brudenell, T., 190, 222.
Bryan, S., 253.
Buck, J., 222.
Buck, T., 216, 222.
Bucks. _See_ Buck, T.
Bulkeley, S., 218, 219.
Bulle, _alias_ Bremer, J., 26.
Bullock, R., 112.
Bulmer, William, 271, 274, 288, 289.
Burges, F., 248, 249;
his widow, 249.
Burtoft, J., 101.
Butter, N., 171, 173, 189.
Byddell, John, 37, 66, 68 _sq._, 76.
Bye, Deodatus, 296.
Bylton, T., 101.
Bynneman, H., 137.
Caley, R., 102.
Case, J., 101.
Caslon I., letterfounder, xiii, 239 _sq._, 269;
his widow, 270.
Caslon II., letterfounder, 269, 287;
his widow, 270, 287.
Caslon III., letterfounder, 269.
Cater, E., 101.
Catherwood, N., typefounder, 287.
Cawood, Gabriel, 112.
Cawood, John, 83, 101, 109 _sq._
Caxton, William, ix, 1 _sq._, 33, 57.
Chandeler, G., 102.
Chandler, R., 255.
Charlewood, J., 102.
Charteris, H., 144, 149 _sq._
Charteris, Robert, 151.
Chase, W., 250.
Chepman, Walter, 139 _sq._
Child, Mr., 225.
Chiswick Press, xii, xiii, 300.
Clarendon Press, xiii, 214, 307.
Clark, Messrs. R. and R., 311.
Clarke, J., 101.
Clarke, Mrs., 233.
Clay, Messrs., 307.
Cleston, N., 101.
Clowes, John, 189, 222.
Clowes, William, 297 _sq._
Coates. _See_ Cotes, R.
Coe, A., 222, 224, 227.
Cole, P., 222.
Coles, A., 222.
Collins, Freeman, 250.
Constable, R., 222.
Constable, T., 310.
Cooke, Henry, 83, 101.
Cooke, W., 101.
Copland, Robert, 37, 47 _sq._, 61
Copland, William, 76, 101.
Corrall, C., 301.
Coston, S., 101.
Cotes, R., 222.
Cotes, T., 179, 182.
Cotes, Mrs., 224, 226.
Cottesford, H., 101.
Cottrel, J., 200, 222, 224, 225.
Cottrell, Thomas, typefounder, 270.
Cowper, E., 285.
Crespin, J., 147.
Croke, A., 101.
Crosse, R., 101.
Crossgrove, H., 250.
Crost, A., 101.
Crouch, E., 222.
Crouch, J., 222.
Crouch, N., 224, 227.
Crowndale, C., 248.
Dabbe, H. _See_ Tab, H.
Daniel, R., 216.
Darby, J., 209, 225, 227.
Darker, S., 251.
Davidson, T., 142.
Davison, T., 292, 293.
Davy, Rev. William (private press), 281.
Dawson, Gertrude, 194, 222.
Dawson, J., 179, 194.
Day, John, 29, 79 _sq._, 101, 106, 137, 154, 158, 198, 211.
Day, Stephen, 185.
Devell, T., 101.
De Vinne, F., 311.
Dexter, Gregory, 175.
Dicey, W., 251.
Dockwray, T., 101.
Doesborch, J. van, 57.
Dover, Simon, 206.
Drury, J., typefounder, 287.
Dugard, William, 191, 222.
Duxwell, T., 101.
East, T., 165, 169.
Eld, George, 169.
Ellis, W., 222.
Eyre, Charles, 294.
Eyre and Spottiswoode, 293.
Faques, R. _See_ Fawkes, R.
Faques, W., 40, 44.
Farley, Edward, 253.
Farley, Samuel, of Bristol, 251;
of Exeter, 251 _sq._
Farmer, Thomas, 278, 280.
Fawcett, Rev. John (private press), 280.
Fawcett, T., 172.
Fawkes, R., 45, 58.
Fayreberne, J., 101.
Field, John, 194, 222, 224.
Field, Richard, 117 _sq._, 162.
Fifield, Alexander, typefounder, 180.
Figgins, V., typefounder, 272.
Fleet, Thomas, 259.
Flessher. _See_ Fletcher.
Fletcher, James, 194, 197, 206, 209, 222, 224, 225.
Fletcher, Rev. John (private press), 281.
Fletcher, Miles, 169, 170, 179, 194, 237.
Foster, John, 220.
Foulis, A. and R., 261 _sq._
Fowle, D., 260.
Fox, John, 101.
Franklin, B., 258.
Franckton, J., 152.
Freez, F., 122.
Frenche, P., 101.
Fry, Edmund, Henry, and Joseph, typefounders, 268 _sq._
Gamlyn or Gammon, A., 101.
Gammon. _See_ Gamlyn.
Ged, William, stereotype founder, 235.
Gee, Thomas, 101.
Gent, Thomas, 246, 254 _sq._
Gibson, Thomas, 65, 79.
Gilbert, Richard and Robert, 296.
Gilbert and Rivington, 295.
Gilfillan, J., 255.
Glover, Joseph, 185.
Godbid, William, 200, 224, 225.
Goez, H., 122.
Goez, M. van der, 122.
Gonneld, James, 101.
Gough, John, 37, 53, 54 _sq._, 60, 101.
Grafton, Richard, 66, 70 _sq._, 73, 76, 113.
Green, S., 219.
Green, S., the younger, 220.
Grene, R., 101.
Griffin. _See_ Griffith, E.
Griffith, E., 170, 179, 222.
Griffith, W., 90, 101, 138.
Grismand, J., typefounder, 180, 194, 200, 222.
Grismond. _See_ Grismand.
Grover, James, 211.
Grover, T., 211, 212.
Gryffyth, Sarah, 224, 227.
Guine, H., 257.
Hacket, Thomas, 102.
Hall, H., 222.
Hamilton, A., 275.
Hare, A., 222.
Harper, Thomas, 169, 179, 192, 194, 222.
Harris, B., 220.
Harrison, John, 108.
Harrison, Luke, 108.
Harrison, Martha, 222.
Harrison, R., 101.
Harvey, R., 101.
Haviland, John, 166, 170, 179.
Hayes, J., 200, 202, 208.
Hayes, Mr., 225.
Heldersham, F., 222.
Herford, John, 127 _sq._
Heron, John, 53.
Hester, Andrew, 101.
Hills, Henry, 194, 222.
Hinton, Thomas, 251.
Hodge, Robert, 257.
Hodgkinson, R., 179, 195, 200, 224.
Hodgkys. _See_ Hoskins.
Holder, R., 101.
Holt, J., 257.
Holyland, J., 101.
Hopyl, W., 43.
Hoskins or Hodgkys, 139.
Hostingue, L., 140.
Huke, G., 101.
Hunscott, J., 222.
Hunt, J., 222.
Hunt, T., 24.
Hurdis, Rev. J. (private press), 281.
Husbands, E., 222.
Huvin, J., 30.
Hyll, J., 101.
Hyll, R., 101.
Hyll, W., 101.
Ibbitson, Robert, 189, 200, 222.
Ireland, R., 101.
Islip, A., 179.
Jackson, Joseph, typefounder, 270 _sq._
Jacobi, T., 43.
Jaggard, Isaac, 163.
Jaggard, William, 163.
James, J., 212.
James, T., letterfounder, 229 _sq._, 235, 239.
Jaques, J., 102.
Johnson, M., 219.
Johnson, T., 224, 227.
Jones, William, 173 _sq._, 180.
Judson, J., 102.
Jugge, Richard, 97, 102, 111, 112 _sq._, 147.
Keball, J., 102.
Keimer, S., 258.
Kele, John, 102.
Kele, Richard, 60, 75, 133.
Kele, Thomas, 53, 76.
Kelmscott Press, xiii, 311 _sq._
Kerver, Theilman, 47.
Kevall, R., 102.
Kevall, Stephen, 102.
Kingston, Felix, 162, 179.
Kirgate, Thomas, 278.
Kneeland, S., 259.
Kyng, J., 102.
Kyrforth, C, 124.
Lacy, ----, 137.
Lant, R., 76, 102.
Law, Henry, 296.
Leach, Thomas, 209, 224, 227.
Lee, W., 222.
Legate, John, 135 _sq._, 179.
Legg. _See_ Legge, C.
Legge, Cantrell, 136, 168.
Lekpreuik, R., 143 _sq._
Lettou, John, 11, 26, 27.
Leyborne, R., 222, 225.
Leybourne. _See_ Leyborne, R.
Lichfield, John, 183.
Lichfield, Leonard, 184, 223.
Lillicrapp, P., 224, 227.
Lillicropp. _See_ Lillicrapp.
Lloyd, H., 224, 227.
Lobel, M., 102.
Lownes, H., 167.
Lownes, M., 167.
Lucas, M., 176.
Lyon, B., 250.
Mabb, Thomas, 200, 205, 223.
Maclehose, Messrs., 311.
Machlinia, W. de, 27, 29.
Macmillan, Messrs., xiii.
Mansion, Colard, 4, 6, 10.
Markall, T., 102.
Marsh, Thomas, 97, 102.
Marshall, John, 295.
Marten, W., 102.
Martin, William, typefounder, 273.
Mathewes, Augustine, 173, 180.
Maxey, John, 192.
Maxey, T., 223.
Maxwell, Mr., 227.
Maxwell, Anne, 224.
Maxwell, D., 200.
Maycock, J., 209, 223, 224, 225.
Mayhewes, W., 53.
Mayler, J., 76.
Maynyal, George, 16.
Meredith, C., 223.
Meredith, H., 258.
Meteren, J. van, 72.
Middleton, ----, 76.
Middleton, W., 68.
Milbourne, T., 224, 225.
Miller, A., 223.
Miller, G., 179.
Milner, Ursyn, 123.
Moravus, Matthew, 26.
Mosley, E., 296.
Mottershead, E., 223.
Moxon, James, typefounder, 194.
Moxon, Joseph, typefounder, 210, 223.
Mychell, John, 75, 132.
Myllar, A., 139 _sq._
Neale, F., 223.
Newbery, R., 120, 155.
Newcomb, T., 194 _sq._, 209, 223, 224, 225.
Nichols, Arthur, typefounder, 180.
Nichols, John, 289 _sq._
Nichols, J. Bowyer, 292.
Nichols, J. Gough, 292.
Norton, Bonham, 75, 155, 161 _sq._, 169.
Norton, H., 102.
Norton, John, 155, 158 _sq._, 180, 194.
Norton, Mark, 112.
Norton, Roger, 194, 197, 224, 225.
Norton, William, 75, 102.
Notary, Julian, 30, 32, 37.
Nuthead, W., 221.
Nutt, R., 212.
Oakes, E., 225, 227.
Okes, J., 172, 182.
Okes, Nicholas, 167, 172, 180
Oporinus, ----, 86.
Os, Godfried van, 22.
Oswen, John, 131 _sq._
Oulton, Richard, 182.
Ouseley, Mr., 225.
Overton, J., 130.
Paget, R., 102.
Paine. _See_ Payne, T.
Palmer, Samuel, 240.
Parker, J., 257.
Parker, P., 210.
Parker, Thomas, 102.
Parsons, M., 179, 180.
Partridge, J., 223.
Pattenson, Thomas, 102.
Payne, T., 223.
Pelgrim, J., 43.
Pepwell, Henry, 37, 43, 49, 75, 129.
Petit, T., 66, 76.
Pickering, W., 102.
Pierce, R., 220.
Pigouchet, F., 60, 140.
Playford, J., 223.
Powell, H., 102, 151 _sq._
Powell, Thomas, 63, 102.
Powell, W., 68, 102.
Purfoot, T., 98, 102, 179.
Purslowe, Elizabeth, 182, 194, 223, 227.
Purslowe, G., 170, 179.
Purslowe, Thomas, 175, 179, 180, 194, 224.
Pynson, Richard, xi, 28 _sq._, 39 _sq._, 57, 68.
Radborne, R., 102.
Raikes, Robert, 251.
Rastell, John, xi, 51 _sq._, 74, 76.
Rastell, W., 110.
Ratcliffe, T., 223, 224, 225.
Rawlins, William, 225, 227.
Raworth, John, 179.
Raworth, Richard, 176, 180.
Raworth, Ruth, 176, 191, 223.
Redman, Elizabeth, 68.
Redman, John, 224, 227.
Redman, Robert, 66, 67 _sq._
Regnault, F., 72.
Reynes, John, 109.
Reynes, Lucy, 109.
Richardson, R., 102.
Richardson, Samuel, 241 _sq._
Richel, Wendelin, 86.
Riverside Press, 311.
Rivington, Messrs., 246, 295 _sq._
Roberts, J., 97, 154.
Robinson, William, 277.
Roger, G., 260.
Rogers, J., 102.
Rogers, O., 102.
Rood, Theodoric, 24.
Ross, J., 148.
Ross, T., 223.
Rothwell, J., 223.
Roycroft, Thomas, 194, 198, 200, 206, 209, 223, 224, 225.
Royston, J., 223.
Royston, R., 223.
Rycharde, Dan Thomas, 127.
Ryddall, W., 102.
Sawyer, T., 102.
Scolar, J., 123, 125.
Scoloker, A., 81, 129 _sq._
Scot or Skot, John, 142 _sq._
Seres, William, 76, 79 _sq._, 102, 130, 154.
Shereman, J., 102.
Sherewe, J., 102.
Shober, F., 257.
Short, J., 183.
Siberch, J., 125 _sq._
Simmes, V., 139.
Simmons, Mathew, 190, 194, 223, 224, 226.
Singleton, H., 102.
Skot. _See_ Scot, J.
Skot, John, 54, 62.
Smethwicke, J., 163.
Smith, H., 68.
Smyth, A., 102.
Smyth, R., 151.
Snodham, T., 169.
Solemne or Solempne, A. de, 133 _sq._
Solempne. _See_ Solemne, A.
Sparke, Michael, 173, 174.
Spottiswoode, A., 295.
Spylman, S., 102.
Stansby, W., 165, 170.
Staples, A., 255.
Steward, W., 102.
Strahan, W., 294.
Streator, J., 200, 224, 225.
Stroud, J., 137.
Sutton, E., 102.
Sutton, H., 102.
Symonds. _See_ Simmons.
Tab, Henry, 59.
Tab, J., 129.
Talboys and Wheeler, 301.
Talleur, Le, 29, 41.
Taverner, N., 102.
Taylor, William, 175.
Thomas, T., 135.
Thomlyn, A., 139.
Thompson, G., 223.
Tottell, Richard, 97, 102, 110, 113 _sq._
Tottell, W., 116.
Toye, Elizabeth, 111.
Toye, Robert, 74 _sq._, 83, 111.
Treveris, Peter, 56.
Turke, J., 102.
Turner, William, 173, 183.
Twyn, John, 205.
Tyer, R., 102.
Tyler, E., 224, 225.
Tysdale, J., 102.
Tyton, F., 223.
Urie, Robert, typefounder, 262.
Vaughan, Mr., 225.
Vautrollier, Thomas, 97, 116 _sq._, 150.
Waldegrave, Robert, 138, 149, 150.
Waley or Walley, C., 102.
Waley, J., 102, 110.
Walkley, T., 191, 223.
Wallys, R., 102.
Ward, Cæsar, 255.
Ward, Roger, 98.
Warren, Alice, 195, 200.
Warren, Thomas, 195, 223.
Warren, Mr., 225.
Watkins, Richard, 97, 154.
Watts, J., 239.
Watts, W. M., 296.
Way, R., 102.
Wayland, John, 102.
Weyman, William, 257.
Whitchurch, Edward, 70, 73.
White, Grace, 254.
White, John, 254, 255.
White, John, jun., 254, 256.
White, Robert, 224, 225.
White, Thomas, 301, 303.
Whitney, J., 102.
Whittingham, Charles, the elder, 299, 300.
Whittingham, Charles, the younger, 300 _sq._
Wilde, J., 241.
Wilkes, John (private press), 279.
Willison, D., 310.
Wilson, Dr. A., typefounder, 263.
Wilson, W., 223.
Windet, J., 165.
Winter, John, 225, 227.
Wolfe, John, 98, 195.
Wolfe, Reginald or Reyner, 102, 103 _sq._
Wolfgang, 43.
Wood, Mr., 225
Woodcock, T., 112.
Woodfall, Henry, 243 _sq._
Worde, Wynkyn de. _See_ Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde.
Wrench, W., 183.
Wright, J., 223.
Wright, Thomas, typefounder, 180.
Wright, W., 223.
Wyer, Robert, xi, 47, 57 _sq._, 76, 102.
Wynkyn, Jan, de Worde, 4, 16, 17, 18, 20 _sq._, 31 _sq._, 47, 54, 68,
69, 140, 211.
Young, R., 170.
Zenger, J. P., 257.
INDEX TO PLACES
Abingdon, 125.
America, 219 _sq._, 256, 311.
Antwerp, 16, 57, 72, 122.
Basle, 86.
Birmingham, 256.
Bishopstone, Sussex, 281.
Boston, Mass., 220, 259.
Brearley Hall, 280.
Bristol, 129, 218, 219, 250, 268.
Bruges, 4, 7.
Bungay, co. Suffolk, 307.
Cambridge, 10, 125 _sq._, 135 _sq._, 216, 222, 236, 248.
Cambridge, Mass., 219, 311.
Canterbury, 75, 132, 253.
Chester, 256.
Cirencester, 251.
Cologne, 4, 6, 24, 25.
Coventry, 139.
Darlington, 278 _sq._
Dublin, 152.
Edinburgh, 139 _sq._, 309.
Ewood Hall, 280.
Exeter, 218, 251.
Fawsley, near Daventry, 139.
Fersfield, co. Norfolk, 279.
Gateshead, 219.
Geneva, 147.
Glasgow, 261 _sq._, 311.
Glynde, Sussex, 281.
Gouda, 22.
Ham, East, 137.
Haseley, near Warwick, 139.
Hemel Hempstead, 137.
Hempstead. _See_ Hemel Hempstead.
Hertford, 307.
Ipswich, 129 _sq._
Ireland, 151 _sq._
Kelso, 308, 309.
Liverpool, 256.
Lustleigh, co. Devon, 281.
Madeley, Shropshire, 281.
Molesey, East, 138.
Naples, 26.
Newcastle, 218, 219, 236, 256.
New England, 185 _sq._
New Haven, Conn., 257.
New York, 220, 221, 256, 257.
Norwich, 133, 248 _sq._
Nottingham, 256.
Oxford, 23, 24, 123 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 214, 222, 223, 228, 247 _sq._,
301, 307.
Paris, 16, 30, 46, 47, 60, 72.
Pennsylvania, 220.
Philadelphia, 257.
Plymouth, 219.
Portsmouth (N. H.), 260.
Rome, 26.
Rouen, 29, 44, 140.
St. Albans, 25, 127.
Scotland, 139 _sq._
Shrewsbury, 219.
Southwark, 56, 222.
Stonor Park, 138.
Strasburg, 86.
Strawberry Hill, 276.
Tavistock, 126.
Tunbridge Wells, 253.
Virginia, 221.
Westminster, 7, 10, 14, 30.
Wolston Priory, 139.
Woodbridge (N. J.), 257.
Worcester, 131, 253.
York, 122 _sq._, 218, 219, 254.
Edinburgh: T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to Her Majesty