VILLAGE REPUBLICS.
A village is a republic, governed by a law, a custom, and a ruler of
its own.
In Western Europe and the United States a hamlet is no more than a
little town in which certain gentlefolk, farmers, tradesmen, and their
dependents dwell; people who are as free to go away as they were free
to come. A Russian village is not a small town, with this mixture of
ranks, but a collection of cabins, tenanted by men of one class and
one calling; men who have no power to quit the fields they sow; who
have to stand and fall by each other; who hold their lands under a
common bond; who pay their taxes in a common sum; who give up their
sons as soldiers in the common name.
These village republics are confined in practice to Great Russia, and
the genuine Russ. In Finland, in the Baltic provinces, they are
unknown; in Astrakhan, Siberia, and Kazan, they are unknown; in Kief,
Podolia, and the Ukraine steppe, they are unknown; in the Georgian
highlands, in the Circassian valleys, on the Ural slopes, they are
equally unknown. In fact, the existence of these peasant republics in
a province is the first and safest test of nationality. Wherever they
are found, the soil is Russian, and the people Russ.
The provinces over which they spread are many in number, vast in
extent, and rich in patriotic virtue. They extend from the walls of
Smolensk to the neighborhood of Viatka; from the Gulf of Onega to the
Kozak settlements on the Don. They cover an empire fifteen or sixteen
times as large as France; the empire of Ivan the Terrible; that Russia
which lay around the four ancient capitals--Novgorod, Vladimir,
Moscow, Pskoff.
What is a village republic?
Is it Arcady, Utopia, New Jerusalem, Brook Farm, Oneida Creek, Abode
of Love? Not one of these societies can boast of more than a passing
resemblance to a Russian commune.
A village republic is an association of peasants, living like a body
of monks and nuns, in a convent; living on lands of their own,
protected by chiefs of their own, and ruled by customs of their own;
but here the analogy between a commune and a convent ends; for a
peasant marries, multiplies, and fills the earth. It is an
agricultural family, holding an estate in hand like a Shaker union;
but instead of flying from the world and having no friendship beyond
the village bounds, they knit their interests up, by marrying with
those of the adjacent communes. It is an association of laymen like a
phalanx; but instead of dividing the harvest, they divide the land;
and that division having taken place, their rule is for every man to
do the best he can for himself, without regard to his brother's needs.
It is a working company, in which the field and forest belong to all
the partners in equal shares, as in a Gaelic clan and a Celtic sept;
but the Russian rustic differs from a Highland chiel, and an Irish
kerne, in owning no hereditary chief. It is a socialistic group, with
property--the most solid and lasting property--in common, like the
Bible votaries at Oneida Creek; but these partners in the soil never
dream of sharing their goods and wives. It is a tribal unit, holding
what it owns under a common obligation, like a Jewish house; but the
associates differ from a Jewish house in bearing different names, and
not affecting unity of blood.
By seeing what a village republic is not, we gain some insight into
what it is.
We find some sixty or eighty men of the same class, with the same
pursuits; who have consented, they and their fathers for them, to stay
in one spot; to build a hamlet; to elect an elder with unusual powers;
to hold their land in general, not in several; and to dwell in cabins
near each other, face to face. The purpose of their association is
mutual help.
A pack of wolves may have been the founders of the first village
republic. Even now, when the forests are thinner, and the villages
stronger than of yore, the cry of "wolf" is no welcome sound; and when
the frost is keen, the village homesteads have to be watched in turns,
by day and night. A wolf in the Russian forests is like a red-skin on
the Kansas plains. The strength of a party led by an elder, fighting
in defense of a common home, having once been proved by success
against wolves, it would be easy to rouse that strength against the
fox and the bear, the vagabond and the thief. In a region full of
forests, lakes, and bogs, a lonely settler has no chance, and Russia
is even yet a country of forests, lakes, and bogs. The settlers must
club their means and powers, and bind themselves to stand by each
other in weal and woe. Wild beasts are not their only foes. A fall of
snow is worse than a raid of wolves; for the snow may bury their
sheds, destroy their roads, imprison them in tombs, from which a
single man would never be able to fight his way. The wolves are now
driven into the woods, but the snow can never be beaten back into the
sky; and while the northern storms go raging on, a peasant who tills
the northern soil will need for his protection an enduring social
bond.
These peasant republicans find this bond of union in the soil. They
own the soil in common, not each in his own right, but every one in
the name of all. They own it forever, and in equal shares. A man and
his wife make the social unit, recognized by the commune as a house,
and every house has a claim to a fair division of the family estate;
to so much field, to so much wood, to so much kitchen-ground, as that
estate will yield to each. Once in three years all claims fall in, all
holdings cease, a fresh division of the land is made. A commune being
a republic, and the men all peers, each voice must be heard in
council, and every claim must be considered in parcelling the estate.
The whole is parted into as many lots as there are married couples in
the village; so much arable, so much forest, so much cabbage-bed for
each. Goodness of soil and distance from the home are set against each
other in every case.
But the principle of association passes, like the needs out of which
it springs, beyond the village bounds. Eight or ten communes join
themselves into a canton (a sort of parish); ten or twelves cantons
form a volost, (a sort of hundred). Each circle is self-governed; in
fact, a local republic.
From ancient times the members of these village democracies derive a
body of local rights; of kin to those family rights which reforming
ministers and judges think it wiser to leave alone. They choose their
own elders, hold their own courts, inflict their own fines. They have
a right to call meetings, draw up motions, and debate their communal
affairs. They have authority over all their members, whether these are
rich or poor. They can depose their elders, and set up others in their
stead. A peasant republic is a patriarchal circle, exercising powers
which the Emperor has not given, and dares not take away.
The elder--called in Russian starosta--is the village chief.
This elder is elected by the peasants from their own body; elected for
three years; though he is seldom changed at the end of his term; and
men have been known to serve their neighbors in this office from the
age of forty until they died. Every one is qualified for the post;
though it seldom falls, in practice, to a man who is either unable or
unwilling to pay for drink. The rule is, for the richest peasant of
the village to be chosen, and a stranger driving into a hamlet in
search of the elder will not often be wrong in pulling up his
tarantass at the biggest door. These peasants meet in a chapel, in a
barn, in a dram-shop, as the case may be; they whisper to each other
their selected name; they raise a loud shout and a clatter of horny
hands; and when the man of their choice has bowed his head, accepting
their vote, they sally to a drinking-shop, where they shake hands and
kiss each other over nippets of whisky and jorums of quass. An unpaid
servant of his village, the Russian elder, like an Arab sheikh, is
held accountable for every thing that happens to go wrong. Let the
summer be hot, let the winter be dure, let the crop be scant, let the
whisky be thin, let the roads be unsafe, let the wolves be out--the
elder is always the man to blame. Sometimes, not often, a rich peasant
tries to shirk this office, as a London banker shuns the dignity of
lord mayor. But such a man, if he escape, will not escape scot free. A
commune claims the service of her members, and no one can avoid her
call without suffering a fine in either meal or malt. The man who
wishes to escape election has to smirk and smile like the man who
wishes to win the prize. He has to court his neighbor in the
grog-shop, in the church, and in the field; flattering their weakness,
treating them to drink, and whispering in their ear that he is either
too young, too old, or too busy, for the office they would thrust upon
him. When the time comes round for a choice to be made, the villagers
pass him by with winks and shrugs, expecting, when the day is over, to
have one more chance of drinking at his expense.
An elder chosen by this village parliament is clothed with strange,
unclassified powers; for he is mayor and sheikh in one; a personage
known to the law, as well as a patriarch clothed with domestic rights.
Some of his functions lie beyond the law, and clash with articles in
the imperial code.
To wit: an elder sitting in his village court, retains the power to
beat and flog. No one else in Russia, from the lord on his lawn and
the general on parade, down to the merchant in his shop and the rider
on a sledge, can lawfully strike his man. By one wise stroke of his
pen, the Emperor made all men equal before the stick; and breaches of
this rule are judged with such wholesome zeal, that the savage energy
of the upper ranks is completely checked. Once only have I seen a man
beat another--an officer who pushed, and struck a soldier, to prevent
him getting entangled in floes of ice. But a village elder, backed by
his meeting, can defeat the imperial will, and set the beneficent
public code aside.
A majority of peasants, meeting in a barn, or even in a whisky-shop,
can fine and flog their fellows beyond appeal. Some rights have been
taken from these village republicans in recent years; they are not
allowed, as in former times, to lay the lash on women; and though they
can sentence a man to twenty blows, they may not club him to death.
Yet two-thirds of a village mob, in which every voter may be drunk,
can send a man to Siberia for his term of life!