Archbishop Rojo, ad interim governor of the islands at the time of
the English attack on Manila, died on January 30, 1764, a prisoner
in the hands of the conquerors. [1] A few days later, Anda received
despatches from Spain notifying him of the treaty of peace made
with England, and he immediately entered into negotiations with the
English for the surrender of Manila, which was accomplished on March 31
following. There was a dispute over the question of who should succeed
Rojo in the government of the islands, an honor which was certainly due
to the patriot Anda, who was, however, opposed by some of the citizens;
but this was settled by the arrival of Colonel Francisco de la Torre,
appointed governor ad interim of the islands, to whom Anda surrendered
his command on March 17. The revolts and other disturbances in the
provinces, consequent on the English occupancy, and their suppression,
are noted in VOL. XLIX; cf. Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, ii,
chap. iii, and Ferrando, Hist. PP. dominicos, v, pp. 640-644, 651-740,
for fuller accounts of these, and of the Chinese insurrection which
then occurred. Ferrando makes (p. 739) the following interesting
citation from an unnamed but "reliable" writer: "There died in this
war some seventy Spaniards and two hundred and fifty natives, who,
as good subjects, fought even unto death for their king. Before
the insurrection there were in the province [of Pangasinan] 60,383
souls; and according to the computation which was made on May 13,
1766, there were in it only 33,456; consequently the loss for the
entire province was 26,927 souls. Many of these inhabitants emigrated,
others perished from their privations, and no small number were killed
by the barbarians." [2] During Torre's temporary command the most
important occurrence was a noisy controversy which was called forth
by the imprudent and meddlesome utterances of a Jesuit preacher in
Manila, Francisco Javier Puch, attacking government officials. [3]
The governor with the aid of the fiscal Viana, attempted to secure
the punishment or rebuke of Puch, but the Dominican theologians took
sides against them with the Jesuits; [4] the dispute was carried to
the court at Madrid, and produced long and bitter controversies and
dissensions, and probably was one of the motives which influenced
the king, some years later, to expel the Jesuits from his dominions.
On July 6, 1765, the new proprietary governor, José Raon, a military
officer of high rank, relieved Torre; he appears to have been able
but unscrupulous. [5] He is most conspicuous for his revision of
the "Ordinances of good government" drawn up by Arandía (see post,
pp. 191-264), the revision being dated February 26, 1768; and for
the expulsion of the Jesuits from the islands (1768), in pursuance of
the orders received from Madrid dated March 1, 1767--which matter is
related in detail in the last document of this volume. In 1769 he also
decreed the expulsion of the Chinese from Filipinas, although this was
not fully enforced. Early in October, 1766, the French astronomer Le
Gentil, whose Voyage (Paris, 1781) is a valuable contribution at once
to science and to the history of Filipinas at that time, arrived at
Manila, commissioned by the French government to make observations
on the approaching transit of Venus. "On account of the scarcity of
copper money in Manila, the senior regidor of the municipal council,
Domingo Gómez de la Sierra, in 1766 [6] requested authorization to make
the said coins, with the name of barrillas, because their shape was
that of a parallelogram. The government complied with this request,
ordaining that only [the amount of] 5,000 pesos should be coined,
to be used only in Tondo and Cavite. From that time, the Indians gave
the name barrilla to copper coins." "The municipal council again asked
for authority to make the barrillas, for use in various provinces;
and by royal decree of December 19, 1769, order was given to send
from Mexico 6,000 pesos in cuartillos (that is, fourths of silver
reals)--with the provision that the coin [previously] made should be
gathered in, and that what should be necessary should be made with the
royal arms, within the limits allowed to San Domingo, as appears in
ley 8, tit. xxiv, [book iv,] of the Recopilación de Indias." In 1766
there were two very fierce eruptions of the volcano Mayón, in Albay,
occurring on July 20 and October 23; in the second, vast quantities
of water were ejected, forming rivers and torrents, which destroyed
some villages and many lives, and ruined many homes and farms. [7]
On July 22, 1767, the new archbishop, Basilio Sancho de Santa Justa
y Rufina, [8] took possession of the see of Manila, and immediately
undertook to subject the regular curas to his diocesan visitation,
thus reviving the Camacho controversy of 1697-1700 (see VOL. XLII,
pp. 25-116) with the religious orders; but Santa Justa had the
support of the civil authority, which had orders to enforce the royal
rights of patronage. "The governor of the islands, on his side,
communicated to the provincials of the religious orders rigorous
commands that they must submit to the royal rights of patronage:
that within a short time-limit they should present their lists of
three names each [sus ternas] for appointments to all the curacies;
and that in future they might not remove any religious from his post
without informing the viceregal patron of the causes, whether public
or private, for such action." The Dominican province, in a provincial
council of August 5, 1767, yielded to the archbishop's claims, and
during the following year he visited all the parishes administered
by them; but some individuals refused to obey the council. The other
orders obstinately resisted the episcopal visitation, declaring that
they would abandon their curacies if it were enforced. Thereupon,
the archbishop appointed secular priests to the vacant curacies,
including those of the Parián, Binondo, and Bataan, which were
in charge of the Dominicans. [9] As the number of Spanish priests
was so small, the archbishop made up the deficiency by ordaining
natives from the seminaries; but this measure caused great resentment
among the regulars and their supporters, and Santa Justa himself was
disappointed in its effects, as the native clergy were generally so
unfit for the office of priest in both education and morals. [10]
Complaints to the king were made by both the religious orders and
the archbishop, filled with mutual accusations and recriminations;
and Raon withdrew his support from the latter, ceasing to press the
claims of the royal patronage--influenced thereto, according to Montero
y Vidal, by the intrigues of the Jesuits, who were enemies to Santa
Justa. The support given by the Dominicans to the Jesuits in the Puch
affair was censured by the Dominican general (Fray Tomás de Bojadors),
who punished the Philippine provincial, Fray Joaquín del Rosario,
and two of his brethren by depriving them of office and recalling
them to Madrid. They availed themselves of various technicalities to
delay their return for a long time; but finally two of them were sent
from Manila late in December, 1778. Fray Joaquín del Rosario (his
companion having died on the voyage) was captured by the English,
but afterward regained his liberty and proceeded to Madrid, where
the dispute was finally settled in an amicable manner.
After the capture of Manila by the English, the Moros renewed their
piratical incursions, the Spanish authorities being so burdened with
the insurrections of the natives and the Chinese, the lack of revenues,
and the general disturbance of the colony's affairs, that they could
do nothing to curb the insolence of the Moros. Those cruel pirates
therefore ravaged the entire archipelago, even capturing fishing-boats
in Manila Bay; and everywhere the coast villages were destroyed or
depopulated, and the native population kept in continual terror of this
inhuman foe. Bishop Ezpeleta, while temporary governor, had disbanded
the little fleet at Iligan commanded by the Jesuits Ducós, which had
been some check on the enemy, but Governor Rojo reëstablished the
Pintados fleet, with headquarters at Cebú; nevertheless, this could do
little to restrain them. There was a general attack by the Joloans and
Mindanaos, [11] well aided by the Tirones and Malanaos; and so insolent
did they become that they captured two richly-laden champans on the
Mariveles coast, and entrenched themselves at Mamburao, on Mindoro
Island, and sold their Filipino captives to the Macasar traders who
resorted thither. A small squadron was collected at Cavite, which
conveyed over 1,200 men to attack this Moro fort; [12] after several
days of skirmishing, the enemy fled, and the Spaniards seized their
stronghold, finding therein sufficient rice and other property to more
than pay the expenses of the expedition. Another Moro band, however,
made amends for this loss by gaining possession of the fort at Cateel,
with all its contents; but on going to besiege that at Tandag they
were repulsed and defeated, leaving behind all their arms and supplies.
In 1767 Anda went to Madrid, where he was praised and richly rewarded
for his brave conduct during the English invasion; and the king made
him a member of the Council of Castilla. Later, the post of governor of
Filipinas was offered to him; he several times refused the honor, but
finally yielded to the urgent request of the government, and in July,
1770 made his entry into Manila, where he was received with unbounded
enthusiasm. His instructions made it necessary for him to institute
legal proceedings against his predecessor Raon, who was accused of
having warned the Jesuits of their intended expulsion, and of having
secreted important official documents. Raon was held a prisoner in
his house, but died before the suit could be tried in court. In this
suit were also included two auditors and the royal fiscal, and they and
their friends attacked Anda bitterly, causing him numberless vexations
in his efforts to fix on them the responsibility for misconduct in
the affair of the Jesuit expulsion. It was reported in Spain that
the English intended to make another attack on Manila; Anda therefore
repaired the walls of the city [13] and constructed ships, and within
eight months had built and equipped twelve armed vessels of various
sizes, besides several smaller craft. Notwithstanding this enterprise,
the public revenues were greatly increased during the first year,
[14] and thus Anda was able to send several expeditions against the
Moro pirates. An earthquake [15] occurred on the night of February 1,
which fortunately did no great damage.
"The religious corporations, notwithstanding the support which they
generally lent to Anda during the war with the English, regarded with
displeasure his appointment as governor of Filipinas. That strict
magistrate, obeying the dictates of his conscience (which some
persons attribute, but without sufficient grounds, to feelings of
personal revenge), had addressed to the king on April 12, 1768, an
exposition which treated of 'the disorders which exist in Filipinas,
and which ought to be corrected.' In this document he points out most
serious abuses among the friars; in the university, which was in their
charge; among the Jesuits; among the Chinese, protected by the friars,
who preferred them before the Spaniards, driving away and expelling
the latter from their villages; and he censures certain frauds and
practices in the public administration in specified branches of the
civil service. The seventy with which Anda laid bare those abuses drew
upon him the hatred of the friars. [16] In this document he demanded a
remedy for the disorders which he denounced, pointing out the method
by which this might be effected, and declared that 'for the radical
correction of these evils it is indispensable to draw up and introduce
here a form of procedure which is clear, and capable of securing the
just system which corresponds thereto, conferring upon the governor
all the powers necessary for carrying it into execution, by those
measures which prudence and the actual condition of affairs shall
dictate to him.' He added: 'The choice of a zealous governor will
materially contribute to laying the foundations of that great work;
but it is necessary to reward him and give him authority, so that he
can work to advantage, and without the hindrances which have often,
by means of secret communications, cunning and disloyal maneuvers, and
other malicious proceedings, frustrated the best and most carefully
formed plans.' This exposition [17] by Anda was certainly taken into
account, for in the 'royal private instructions' which were given to
him when he was appointed governor of Filipinas we see that he was
ordered to put an end to specified abuses and disorders, the king using
the same terms which Anda had employed in describing those evils."
"The archbishop Santa Justa, a man of unparalleled firmness and
energetic character, from the first moment assailed the new governor
of Filipinas on the question of the diocesan visitation, to which
the friars continued their opposition, and demanded his support
in order to make it effectual. Anda, who regarded obedience to the
laws as a rule of conduct, and who brought orders from the court to
subject the regulars to the royal patronage, addressed an explicit
communication to the superiors of all the religious institutes,
requiring their obedience to the mandate of the sovereign, and
assigning a definite term, which could not be prolonged, for the
presentation of their lists of appointees, in order that the curacies
might be filled in this manner. All the orders of regulars openly
refused to yield obedience of this sort, excepting the Dominicans--who,
more circumspect, and endeavoring to avoid the dangers which they
foresaw in resistance, agreed to submit to this command--although
many of the parish priests of the order soon were disobedient to this
decision of their superiors."
The archbishop convened a provincial council at Manila, which held six
sessions during the period May 19-November 24, 1771; various matters
of ecclesiastical administration came before it, the chief of which
was the diocesan visit. In the fifth session, the subjection of the
parish priests to the diocesan visitation and the royal patronage
was ordained; and at the final one it was ordered that the decrees
of the council should immediately be promulgated, declaring that
those of the council of Mexico (which Urban VIII had ordered to be
observed in Filipinas) were not now binding. In the first session
the bishop of Nueva Cáceres, Fray Antonio de Luna (a Franciscan),
became involved in disputes over the appointment of secretaries,
and was expelled from the assembly; he then retired to his diocese,
and during the entire period of the council opposed its proceedings,
with protests, legal formalities, and official edicts. Bishop
Ezpeleta of Cebú died soon after the opening of the council, and
the government of that diocese devolved upon Luna, but, it seems,
not its representation in the council. A secretary of that body,
Father Joaquín Traggia, was sent to Madrid as its agent and bearer
of its despatches; but the king refused to accept his credentials,
and ordered him to go to his convent at Zaragoza, forbidding him to
return to Filipinas. (Toward the end of this council, the archbishop,
in concert with his suffragans, drew up a tariff for the parochial
fees to be collected by the curas.) The religious orders finally
secured, through influence at the court, the revocation of the order
given to Anda in regard to the regular curas, which had resulted in
many of them being removed from the Indian villages and replaced by
native priests; but no change was made in regard to the diocesan
visitation. The bishop of Nueva Segovia, Fray Miguel Garcia, [18]
claimed this right, and convened a diocesan council in 1773; the
only result was, to arouse a hot controversy between Garcia and the
Dominicans, to which order he belonged. That order also had a dispute
with the archbishop over his attempt to visit the beaterio of Santa
Catalina; but in 1779 the king decided that this institution should
continue to enjoy its exemption from visitation.
"By royal decree of November 9, 1774, it was ordered that the curacies
held by the regulars should be secularized as fast as they became
vacant. Anda suspended the execution of this command, and wrote to the
court, specifying the evils which would ensue from the secularization
of the curacies which the archbishop desired; and in consequence
of this and of the urgent appeals of the Franciscans, Augustinians,
and Recollects, the king ordered by a decree of December 11, 1776,
that what had been decided on this point in the decree of November 9,
1774, should not be put into execution, and that affairs should be
restored to their former status and condition, and their curacies to
the religious; that the regulations for his royal patronage and the
ecclesiastical visitation should be observed, but that the latter
might be made by the bishops in person, or by religious of the same
order as those who should serve in the curacies, and without collecting
visitation fees. The king also directed in the said decree that efforts
should be made, by all possible means and methods, to form a large body
of competent clerics, in order that, conformably to the royal decree
of June 23, 1757, these might be installed in the vacant curacies,
thus gradually establishing the secularization that had been decreed."
Anda took what precautions were available to restrain the Moro pirates,
but great difficulties arose in his way. Ali-Mudin, whom the English
had restored to his sway in Joló, and his son Israel (in whose favor
the father had abdicated) were friendly to the Spaniards, with many of
their dattos; but another faction, led by Zalicaya, the commander of
the Joloan armadas, favored the English, who had established themselves
(1762) on the islet of Balambangan [19] in the Joló archipelago,
which they had induced Bantilan to grant them; and the English were
accused of endeavoring to incite the Joloans against the Spaniards
by intrigue and bribery. Anda decided to send an expedition to make
protest to the English against their occupation of this island, as
being part of the Spanish territory, and entrusted this mission to an
Italian officer named Giovanni Cencelly, who was then in command of
one of the infantry regiments stationed at Manila; the latter sailed
from Zamboanga December 30, 1773, bearing careful instructions as to
his mode of procedure, and to avoid any hostilities with the English
and maintain friendship with the Joloans. But Cencelly seems to have
been quite destitute of tact or judgment, and even of loyalty to his
governor; for he disobeyed his instructions, angered the Joloans,
[20] who could hardly be restrained by Ali-Mudin from massacring the
Spaniards, and at the end of three weeks was obliged to return to
Zamboanga. He was on bad terms with the commandant there (Raimundo
Español), and refused to render him any account of his proceedings
at Joló; and he even tried to stir up a sedition among the Spanish
troops against Español. The English gladly availed themselves of this
unfortunate affair to strengthen their own position in Joló, stirring
up the islanders against Spain and erecting new forts. Later, however,
the English at Balambangan showed so much harshness and contempt for
the Moro dattos (even putting one in the pillory) that the latter
plotted to surprise and kill the intruders; and on March 5, 1775, this
was accomplished, the English being all slain except the commandant and
five others, who managed to escape to their ship in the harbor. The
fort was seized by the Moros, who thus acquired great quantities of
military supplies, arms, money, and food, with several vessels. [21]
Among this spoil were forty-five cannons and $24,000 in silver. Elated
by this success, Tenteng, the chief mover of the enterprise, tried to
secure Zamboanga by similar means; but the new commandant there, Juan
Bayot, was on his guard, and the Moros were baffled. Tenteng then went
to Cebú, where he committed horrible ravages; and other raids of this
sort were committed, the Spaniards being unable to check them for a
long time. A letter written to the king by Anda in 1773 had asked for
money to construct light armed vessels, and a royal order of January
27, 1776, commanded that 50,000 pesos be sent to Filipinas for this
purpose. This money was employed by Anda's temporary successor, Pedro
Sarrio, in the construction of a squadron of vintas, "vessels which,
on account of their swiftness and exceedingly light draft, were more
suitable for the pursuit of the pirates than the very heavy galleys;
they were, besides, to carry pilots of the royal fleet to reconnoiter
the coasts, draw plans of the ports, indicate the shoals and reefs,
take soundings in the sea, etc."
Notwithstanding the great services which Anda had rendered to his
king and country, his enemies succeeded in procuring from the Spanish
government the revocation of the sentences which had been pronounced
in the suits brought by Anda (at the instance of that very government,
and as its representative) against Raon and other corrupt officials;
and Anda was condemned (by decrees in 1775-76) to pay the costs
in these suits, and the further sums of four thousand pesos to the
heirs of Raon and two thousand to the former fiscal, Juan Antonio
Cosío. These unexpected and heavy blows, added to the strain of his
official responsibilities and the annoyances caused by the attacks
of his personal enemies, broke down Anda's health; and he died at
the hospital of San Felipe, Cavite, on October 30, 1776, at the,
age of sixty-six years. [22]
Sultan Israel of Joló was poisoned by the followers of his cousin
Ali-Mudin, son of Bantilan, who therefore assumed the government
(early in 1778); immediately the Moros renewed their raids on the
Spanish provinces nearest them, and the expeditions sent against them
by Sarrio could do little to punish them.
In July, 1778, the new proprietary governor arrived at Manila; this
was José de Basco y Vargas, an officer in the Spanish royal navy. The
officials of the Audiencia forthwith sent a remonstrance to the court,
against their being subordinated to a man whose rank "gave him only
the right to be addressed as 'you' while each one of the magistrates
[of the Audiencia] enjoyed the title of 'Lordship,'" and they asked
for the revocation of Basco's appointment: but of course this was
refused, and they were rebuked for their officiousness. As a result,
the auditors opposed all that Basco attempted, and even conspired to
seize his person and put Sarrio in his place. That officer, however,
refused to join them, and informed the governor of the scheme;
in consequence, Basco arrested the recalcitrant auditors and other
persons connected with their plans (including Cencelly), and sent
them all to Spain. [23] Now free from hindrances, he devoted himself
to the administration of the government, the welfare of the country,
and the development of its resources.
"In a document entitled 'A general economic plan,' he extolled the
advantages which are inherent in the promotion and development
of agriculture, commerce, and industries. He offered therein to
bestow rewards and distinctions on the persons who should excel in
agriculture, in making plantations of cotton, of mulberry trees,
and of the choicer spices, as cloves, cinnamon, pepper, and nutmeg;
to those who should establish manufactures of silk, porcelain, and
fabrics of hemp, flax, [24] and cotton like those that were received
from the Coromandel Coast, Malabar, and China; to those who would
undertake to work the mines of gold, iron, copper, and tin; to those
who should make discoveries useful to the State; and to those who
should excel in sciences, the liberal arts, and mechanics. He also
circulated instructions in regard to the method of cultivating and
preparing for use cotton, silk, sugar, etc. He also, in Camarines,
compelled the planting of more than four millions of mulberry
trees, which for several years yielded an excellent product; but
these important plantations were abandoned after his term of office
[expired]. [25] He improved the schools, and aided the diffusion of
knowledge by promoting the knowledge of the Castilian language. In
order to repress the boldness of the murderous highwaymen who infested
the roads in the provinces nearest to Manila, he appointed judges with
power of condemnation [jueces de acordada [26]]; these, accompanied
by a counsellor and an executioner, by summary process tried the
malefactors whom they arrested in their respective districts, and
applied the penalty--a measure so efficacious that in a short time
there was complete security everywhere. The Audiencia appealed
against this measure, and the king issued a decree notifying
the governor to abstain from meddling in the jurisdiction of that
court. In acknowledging the receipt of this sovereign command, Basco
remarked that 'unfortunately it had arrived too late.' As war had
been again declared between España and Inglaterra, Basco caused the
fortifications of Manila and Cavite, and the forts in the provinces,
to be repaired, changing a great part of the artillery therein for
new pieces. He also reorganized the army. In 1778 the order for the
expulsion of the Chinese was revoked, and a considerable number of
them returned to Manila.
A royal decree of November 15, 1777, recommended the establishment of
an institution in which vagrants and dissolute persons might be shut
up. Accordingly, Manuel del Castillo y Negrete, minister of justice
for the Philippines, drew up and printed (Sampaloc, 1779) a manual of
ordinances for the management of a general refuge for poor persons,
beggars, women of lewd life, abandoned children, and orphans. For this
project he had obtained the opinions of learned persons, all of whom
extolled it; and he sent this document to the king. Besides promoting
all interests of morality, and the development of agriculture,
industry, and commerce, Basco founded the noted "Economic Society of
Friends of the Country." [27] A royal decree dated August 27, 1780,
had ordered him to convene all the learned or competent persons in
the colony, "in order to form an association of selected persons,
capable of producing useful ideas;" but when this decree arrived,
Basco had already founded the above society. On February 7, 1781,
the active members of the general tribunal [junta] of commerce had
assembled, and agreed upon the constitution of the society, a number
of them signing their names as its members--among them the Marqués
de Villamediana, the prior of the consulate of commerce. "The body
of merchants endowed the society with a permanent fund of 960 pesos
a year, the value of two toneladas which were assigned to it in the
lading of the Acapulco galleon." The society was formally inaugurated
on May 6, 1781, under the presidency of Basco, who made an eloquent
address. Its first president was the quartermaster-general of the
islands, Ciríaco González Carvajal; according to its first regulations,
it contained the following sections: natural history, agriculture
and rural economy, factories and manufactures, internal and foreign
commerce, industries, and popular education. "Stimulated by Basco,
the society undertook with great ardor to promote the cultivation of
indigo, cotton, cinnamon, and pepper, and the silk industry, according
to the orders published by the superior authority. The parish priest
of Tambóbong, Fray Matías Octavio, taught his parishioners to prepare
the indigo, presenting to the society the first specimens, which were
adjudged to be of superior quality. In 1784, the first shipment of this
article to Europa was made in the royal fragata 'Asunción.' The society
also recommended that effort be made to attain perfection in weaving
and dyeing. (The society declined greatly after the departure of its
founder; and Aguilar roughly opposed it. In 1809 it was extinguished;
two years later, orders were received for its reëstablishment, but
this was not accomplished until 1819. In the following year, its
constitution was remodeled; and in 1821 it founded at its own cost a
professorship of agriculture and an academy of design, and established
special instruction in dyeing. In 1824 it resolved to bestow rewards
on the most successful farmers; and it introduced from China martins,
to fight the locusts that were desolating the fields. In 1828 its
constitution experienced another revision; but during more than half
a century it gave hardly any sign of its existence. It had a flash
of vitality in 1882, but soon fell again into a decline. To-day
[about 1893] there is hardly any indication that Manila remembers
a society of this sort; and, as it is not in the Guía de forasteros
["Guide for strangers"], it may be said that it has ceased to exist.)
"Filipinas had been, until the arrival of the illustrious Basco
y Vargas in the country, a heavy burden on the capital, since
every year the situado was sent in cash from México to meet the
obligations of the islands. In order to free España from this sort
of load, and to raise the country from its depressed condition, he
conceived the vast project of stimulating the cultivation of tobacco,
by establishing a government monopoly of it. [28] He communicated his
plan to the Spanish government; and by a royal order of February 9,
1780, the monopoly of tobacco, similar to that which was in force
in the other dominions of the nation, was decreed. He immediately
published two proclamations, on December 13 and 25 respectively,
in 1781, prohibiting the sale, traffic, and manufacture of tobacco;
and on February 16, 1782, he issued (signed and sealed by himself),
'Instructions which are given to all the commanders or heads of the
patrols, the provincial administrators, the market inspectors, and
other persons who are under obligation to prevent loss to the revenue
from tobacco.' These were directed to the prevention of smuggling,
showing the way in which investigations should be conducted--including
the houses of parish priests, the convents, colleges, and beaterios,
the quarters of the soldiers, etc. He created a board of direction
for this revenue, a general office of administration or agency,
and subordinate offices to this in the provinces. Basco's idea was
strongly opposed by various interests; but the governor's energy was
able to conquer this unjust opposition, and the monopoly was organized
on March 1, 1782; it constituted the basis of the prosperity of the
exchequer in that country, and its most important source of revenue.
"The zealous governor visited the provinces in person, in order to
inform himself of their needs and to remedy these, compelling their
governors and other functionaries to fulfil their trusts as they
should. He also organized various military expeditions to occupy the
Igorrot country."
From the first, Basco did what he could to restrain the incursions
of the Moro pirates; but he had many difficulties to encounter. He
repaired the forts in Mindanao and the Visayan Islands; he built small
vessels, and stationed them in Cebú, Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Calamianes,
from which points they could more promptly set out to punish the Moros;
and he sent an expedition to Mamburao, in Mindoro, which drove out
the pirates who, as we have already seen, had established themselves
there. These raids being thus checked for the time, trade began to
improve; "and from Sámar alone, whose traffic with Manila had been
paralyzed for more than ten years, forty-three caracoas went to the
capital in 1779." The sultan of Joló humbly asked Basco for peace,
and returned to the Spaniards a small vessel captured near Antique
by one of his dattos, "an unusual proceeding among the pirates." The
natives of Bulacan voluntarily offered (December, 1781) to pay for
the cost of two vessels to sail against the pirates, and imposed on
themselves for this purpose a tax of one-half a real a year on each
tribute; this proving insufficient, they increased it, in the summer
of 1784, with a ganta of unhulled rice per tribute. This example
was immediately followed by the natives of Pampanga. In 1782, the
Visayas were invaded by a Mindanao host; but on several occasions the
Spaniards succeeded in defeating the pirates and sinking many of their
boats. Basco conquered the Batanes Islands, north of Luzon, [29] and
this enterprise for a time diverted his military forces from the Moros,
who consequently increased their depredations on the Visayan natives
and carried away many captives from Calamianes, Panay, and Negros.
By royal orders of July 17 and 26, 1784, the post of
quartermaster-general of the islands was created, in accordance with
a request by Basco; and that of deputy-intendant of the exchequer
was united with it, independent of the superior government of
the islands. It was placed in charge of one of the auditors,
Ciriaco González Carvajal, also at Basco's recommendation; and
from this time the royal officials were styled "ministers of the
royal exchequer." Carvajal aided Basco greatly in establishing the
monopoly of tobacco, and it was he who drew up the instructions to
officials on this subject. In 1785, a dispute arose between them
over the establishment of the tobacco monopoly in Camarines and
Albay, each regarding this undertaking as the prerogative of his
own office. Carvajal proposed that provincial intendancies should be
created in Ilocos, Camarines, Cebú, and Iloilo; this was done, and
approved by royal orders of November 24, 1786; but a year later the
Spanish government suppressed Carvajal's office, and these provincial
intendancies as well.
In 1785, there was a revolt of the heathen Indians in Ituy and Paniqui,
headed by a Calinga chief named Lagutao, who assembled over 1,200 men;
but it was put down by a force of 300 musketeers sent from Cagayán,
and Lagutao was killed in battle. A royal decree of February 25,
1785, ordered the immediate expulsion of all Chinese from Manila, [30]
allowing the governor to fix a place outside the walls where a small
number of them might reside, under supervision; and another decree
(April 1, 1785) approved the foundation of a colony of 200 Chinese
on Lake Candaba, in Pampanga. At Carvajal's instance, a monopoly
was decreed (November 4, 1786) on gunpowder in Filipinas. In the
following year, instructions for the execution of this measure were
issued (December 11); and about the same time the monopoly of wines
was placed in control of the exchequer.
The constant opposition to Basco's reforms and efforts which he
encountered finally wore out his patience, and he offered his
resignation; at first it was not accepted, but he insisted, and
the king allowed him to hand over the government of the islands to
Pedro Sarrio. Basco embarked for Spain at the end of November, 1787,
and for his eminent services was promoted in the navy, ennobled,
and made governor of Cartagena. Montero y Vidal praises in high terms
the character and achievements of this distinguished governor, who had
secured for Filipinas greater benefits than had any other, establishing
its revenues on a firm basis, introducing most important reforms,
and advancing its material and moral progress; but he was assailed by
"the envy, rivalry, spite, insane hatred, and lack of patriotism of
the auditors, merchants, and other classes, who were governed by base
motives and despicable passions, or by ignorance and covetousness."
The natives in northern Ilocos were displeased at the monopolies
[31] on tobacco and wines, and revolted; but the alcalde-mayor of
the province went to meet them, with Fray Agustín Pedro Blaquier,
[32] cura of Batao, and persuaded the insurgents to disperse without
bloodshed. Sarrio held the office of governor but six months. After
the death of Archbishop Santa Justa (December 15, 1787), he found
it necessary to allow the regular priests to resume the charge of
the parishes, as is shown in the following extract from his letter
to the king, dated a week after that event, explaining his reasons
for this course: "First, because in temporal matters as well as in
spiritual is seen a manifest and notorious difference between the
villages administered by the regulars and those which are in charge
of the seculars of Indian and mestizo (Sangley and Chinese) birth;
these are almost the only ones dedicated to the cure of souls, for
in all the islands hardly six curas can be named who are Spaniards
or Spanish mestizos. It can be said, in general, that the villages
which are under the direction of the regulars have adequate spiritual
nourishment, which cannot be asserted of those which are in charge of
the Indians and mestizos. These, when they receive the name of priest,
are not thereby deprived of that innate negligence and indolence with
which nature has endowed all these islanders; and hence it results
that, given up to idleness, gambling, and other [like] pursuits,
they abandon study, and begin to lose whatever fitness [for the
office] they may have possessed at the time of being ordained or
receiving the curacy. The consequence of this is, that they grow
remiss in their preaching and the instruction of their parishioners;
these functions they are unable to discharge competently, not only
because they are little used to books, but because not many of them
are thoroughly instructed in the Latin and Spanish languages, in which
those authors have written of whom the curas must avail themselves in
order to distribute to their flocks the proper food of doctrine. Once
possessed [thus] by ignorance, it is not astonishing that no greater
impression is made on their minds by the rigid law of residence,
[33] or that of the other obligations that are inseparable from the
parochial ministry. On the other hand, accustomed from childhood to
live in houses of bamboo or wood, they regard stone dwellings with
indifference; and to this may be attributed the fact that some of
them abandon the parish houses which formerly were the homes of the
regulars, and make separate dwellings for themselves. Others, even
though they live in the parish houses, take little pains to repair and
keep them in good condition. This would be to some extent endurable
if their neglect did not also extend to the church building and the
ornaments which are used in the divine worship; for it is noticed
that there is seldom a church in their charge which is sufficiently
clean and well kept, since they do not make repairs in time, or apply
to this purpose any of their perquisites. These they spend for their
own use and on their own families, who inevitably remove from their
own natal village to that of the curacy, and thus become even more
slothful than they are by nature. They are quite unlike the regulars,
who, being reared in different principles and trained in the purest
teachings of our Catholic religion, generally have no other aim than
that of the proper care of their churches."
On July 1, 1788, the proprietary governor Félix Berenguer de
Marquina assumed the reins of office, and all matters connected
with the exchequer returned to their former condition. In a decree
of March 29, 1789, he ordered that the appointment of the heads of
barangay should be made by the provincial governors, after being
proposed by the notables [principalia] of the respective villages. An
expedition was sent out from Spain by the government in July, 1789,
to make scientific observations and draw plans and maps of the coasts
of Spanish America and the Marianas and Filipinas islands, with new
sailing routes. One of its members was Antonio Pineda, a native of
Guatemala and a Spanish officer, bearing official commission to study
the flora of Filipinas and the condition of agriculture. Unfortunately
he died while there (July, 1792), while making scientific observations
in Ilocos; he was but thirty-nine years old. A monument was erected to
him at Malate, but has been practically destroyed by the ravages of
time. The archbishopric of Manila was administered, from October 16,
1789, by Juan Orbigo y Gallego, [34] a Franciscan, previously bishop of
Nueva Cáceres. Marquina drew up, in January, 1790, a "Plan of reforms
for the government of Filipinas," which he considered necessary for
the prosperity and advancement of the islands, and in order that
the yearly remittance from the Mexican treasury might be stopped. He
proposed the fortification of Manila and Cavite, an increase in the
military force, and an increased capitation tax on the Chinese in
order to meet this greater expense for the army; also the opening of
the port of Manila to all foreign commerce, and various changes in the
Acapulco trade. He advised that Filipinas should be made a viceroyalty,
and the viceroy be rendered independent of the Audiencia and of the
religious orders. Other reforms proposed were: "The formation of a
company of marines for manning the vessels sent out to cruise [against
the Moros], and another of marine artillery for the same purpose; the
reform of the chief accountancy by limiting its exorbitant powers;
the establishment of an acordado, [35] or a sort of police, in the
provinces, directed rather to intimidating and restraining [criminals]
by means of vigilance than to punishing them with harshness and
violence; allowance of fixed and decent salaries to the alcaldes-mayor,
and putting a stop to their trading (which absorbed all their time,
with great risks to impartial conduct and justice); the desirability
of abolishing the odious monopolies on playing-cards and gunpowder;
the transfer of the natives from the Batanes Islands to Cagayán, on
account of the wretched condition of the former; and the advantage of
occupying, in preference to the Batanes, the island of Mindoro--which
was richer, and nearer to Manila, and [at the time] reduced to
the utmost indigence by having been abandoned [by its inhabitants]
and by the incursions of the Moros. [36] The colonization of various
islands with Catalans, Valencians, and Galicians, in order that they
might be preëminently devoted to agriculture; taking advantage of the
gold placers, so abundant in the country, from which was obtained no
less than 200,000 pesos' worth of gold a year; the establishment of
a mint, with which the exportation of gold from the country would
be avoided. The increase of the cruising vessels, and distribution
of these into three divisions, placing in each one a panco, in order
to fight the pirates better; the necessity of conferring ample powers
upon the governor (who had to establish all these improvements) without
his having to be subject to the board of the royal exchequer, 'since I
know by experience that the opposition which I am accustomed to meet
there is not actuated by zeal for the benefit of the royal service,
but for personal ends;' and the creation of another secretaryship,
in order to attend to the crowd of matters which were a burden on
the governor and captain-general." He also proposed to place in one
fund the revenues from tobacco, wine, and customs duties. On March 2,
1790, were published the regulations for the sale of wine under the
monopoly arrangement; the dealers were declared exempt from polos
and personal services, [37] must sell only pure wines, without any
mixture of water, and must always keep a supply on hand.
A royal decree of May 14, 1790, ordained that the Chinese should pay a
capitation tax of six pesos a year. In the same year the regiments of
Pampanga and Zambales and Bataán were formed, in order to increase
the disciplined militia of the provinces. In July the governor
received a letter from the king of Cochinchina, asking that two of
his ships, then at Canton, might be aided on their arrival at Manila,
with money to make needed repairs and buy a quantity of sulphur,
[38] on the king's account; this was done, and afterward approved by
the Spanish government. In October, the curacies of Ilocos--which,
formerly held by the Dominicans, had remained vacant since Santa
Justa's effort to enforce the diocesan visitation--were placed in
the hands of the Augustinians, with the provision that the royal
right of patronage should be observed in the appointments to these
new ministries. The death of Carlos III occurred on December 14,
1788, but the official notification (despatched a fortnight later)
did not reach Manila until July, 1790. In the following November the
solemn proclamation of the accession of Carlos IV, and the oaths of
allegiance to him, were celebrated at Manila with fiestas which lasted
from the third to the twenty-first of that month. A description of
these festivities was published (1791) by the Dominican Fray Manuel
Barrios, a lecturer in Santo Thomás university, from which Montero
y Vidal quotes liberally (pp. 329-338). They included, besides
the splendid and solemn character of the ceremonies themselves,
"a general illumination of the city during three consecutive nights,
pontifical mass and Te Deum in the cathedral, levees at the palace,
dances in the cabildo buildings, masquerades, banquets, fireworks,
comedies, and even a bullfight." The Filipino natives and the
Chinese [39] also contributed to the festivities, with devices or
entertainments peculiar to their customs. Thus says Barrios: "It
ought to be understood that the taste of the Chinese, in the matter
of spectacles and public diversions, is based on ideas that are very
different from, or rather quite contrary to, our own. As proof of this,
is sufficient the spectacle which they presented on this night, the
first sight of which might astonish any European who might not have
seen beforehand some diversion of this people. A lion spitting fire,
more terrible than those which grow up in the deserts of Zaara [i.e.,
Sahara], was followed by an enormous serpent, more than fifty cubits
long, which made extraordinary movements and contortions on account of
swallowing a globe of fire which floated before it through the air;
and behind the serpent came another lion, no less fierce than the
first. This spectacle was made even more terrible by the confused
din of the gongs, which the Chinese beat without ceasing. The lions
fought each other, with the greatest ardor and pertinacity; and the
serpent performed many pleasing movements and evolutions, causing
admiration of the skill with which so huge a mass moved about so
swiftly. Finally, the two lions began to swell, and brought forth
an abundance of fireworks; and it would be unjust to the Chinese if
I did not state here that this display, although of short duration,
was very handsomely designed. One of the lions being now set on fire,
it began to run around through the plaza, with an incredible velocity,
which spectacle gave much pleasure to those present. On the following
day the Chinese presented a comedy in Royal Street, Binondo, which,
begun at three in the afternoon, lasted until four the next morning;
and even then they say that it was a short one compared with what
they are accustomed to. During the following nights they went out
through the suburbs, and there was no street through which the
huge serpent did not move, to the intense delight of the people who
followed it." On this occasion the royal consulate (of commerce) of
Manila distributed 3,000 pesos in alms to poor widows and orphans,
and doweries to penniless girls. One Pedro Galarraga displayed
both ingenuity and profuseness; "he diverted the crowds of people,
and carried to the stars the name of his august sovereign, by means
of a large aerostatic globe, which crossed the bay and was lost to
sight among the clouds. The festivity was crowned by the liberality
of the said Don Pedro, who flung to the people a quantity of coin
bearing the stamp of the new monarch; and on the following day he
also distributed these to all persons of distinction." Finally, the
rector of Santo Thomas and the Dominican provincial had a celebration
of their own, with fireworks, a dance at the palace performed by the
students of that university, and the recitation of a poem before the
governor and all the distinguished personages of Manila, eulogizing
the loyalty of that city and its people.
Marquina took much pains to have the obras pías honestly
administered. He ordered that the nipa houses which still existed
within the walls of Manila should be torn down, as being both a
disfigurement and a danger to the city. During his term of office,
a severe epidemic of smallpox was experienced in Filipinas; and he
gave large sums to the parish priests to relieve the poverty caused
by the pestilence. The islands were ravaged by the Moros year after
year, the naval force of the Spaniards doing little more than to
remain on the defensive; and in 1789 Marquina wrote to the king
saying that the continual warfare of the Moros was "an evil without
remedy." Mahomet Sarpudin, the successor of Ali-Mudin II, was very
crafty and deceitful, and, while professing to be a friend of the
Spaniards, he sent out Illano pirates against the merchant vessels,
some of which were captured by Mahomet's own followers. Marquina met
with much trouble in his government, from "class interests" and from
the ingratitude of those whom he had helped; he resigned his office,
"and returned to España poor and disheartened." [40] The king made
him Viceroy of Mexico.
Marquina's successor was a military officer, Rafael María de Aguilar
y Ponce de León; he began his duties as governor on September 1,
1793. From the first, he was desirous of checking the Moro raids;
but reports came that the English were going to attack Filipinas
again, and his first efforts were directed to the defense of Manila
and Cavite. He raised a force of 10,000 armed men, forming companies
of Spaniards and of mestizos, and stationed detachments in outpost
batteries in the environs of the city. He strengthened the walls,
and tore down houses which menaced them; and increased the naval
forces, also establishing a naval station and lookout on Corregidor
Island. The English learned of Aguilar's preparations to receive them,
and concluded not to go near Manila; "but they allied themselves
with the Joloans, inciting them to invade the Visayas." Marquina's
"plan for reforms" was sent back to the islands, the king asking
that it be considered by the royal officials there, who should send
him a report and their decision as to its advisability; "but as it
attacked objects so powerful in the islands as the regular orders,
the Audiencia, and the comptroller and officials of the exchequer,
it is useless to show what report would be that sent out [by them] in
regard to the plan of Marquina, which was in many respects extremely
clear-sighted." In 1794 a shipyard, independent of that at Cavite, was
erected in Binondo, its principal purpose being to construct vessels
with which to follow up the Moro pirates; it was called La Barraca
("the barracks"), [41] and was "famous for the enormous expenses
which were suspected in the construction work carried on there." It
was placed in charge of Juan Nepomuceno Acuña, and its directors
were, ex officio, the royal officials. On Christmas Day in 1796,
a Spanish squadron of five vessels arrived at Cavite, commanded by
an officer of high rank, Ignacio María de Álava; [42] it was sent
for the defense of the islands in case of another war with Great
Britain--which indeed was declared soon after the fleet's departure,
the news of it reaching Manila in March, 1797. Álava set out with his
squadron on April 19, to attack the English fleet which was on its
way from China to London, little dreaming that a powerful squadron
of their enemy was so near. But an unexpected hurricane arose just
before the fleets met, and nearly wrecked the ships of Álava, which
after a hard struggle made their way back to Manila with broken masts
and torn rigging. A royal decree of September 24, 1796, ordered the
transfer of the shipyard at San Blas [43] in California to the port
of Cavite, in order (to quote from the decree) "that a shipyard may
be formed there of sufficient capacity to protect the settlements
in that colony from European forces and from the piratical raids
of the Mahometans who occupy the neighboring islands, and to assist
with doubled power and resources our squadrons in South America and
Asia." At its head was placed Juan Villar, a competent and experienced
constructor from the shipyard at Havana, furnished with competent
foremen to work under him, and with "plans and specifications suitable
for every class of vessels;" and provision was made for the immediate
construction of lanchas carrying guns and mortars. "This measure was
the origin of the arsenal of Cavite." [44] The royal officials were
angry that the management of La Barraca, with its opportunities for
profit to themselves, should be taken from them; and they refused to
allot to Villar the salary to which he was entitled--that which he
had received at Havana, and one-half more for going to Manila in the
royal service. This brought on heated controversies between Aguilar
and Álava, which lasted a year and a half before they were settled,
Villar and his subordinates meanwhile residing in Manila; finally,
Álava carried his point, and Villar was placed in his post at Cavite,
with the salary which he ought to receive. In 1796 the grenadier
regiments of Luzón and Batangas were created, as a part of the
provincial disciplined militia; also five battalions of militia, the
Malabar company at Cavite being abolished. [45] In the same year there
was felt in Manila and in many other provinces of Luzón one of the
greatest earthquakes which has ever occurred in the archipelago; and in
October, 1797, another calamity was the loss (on the coast of Albay)
of the galleon San Andrés, laden with a rich cargo for Acapulco--"due
to its commander's complete ignorance of nautical affairs;" he was
a merchant of Manila, instead of an experienced navigator. In 1799
Aguilar published (January 30) a decree prescribing the method for
making the registration of the natives for the punctual collection of
the tributes; and another (October 30), prohibiting the exportation
of small silver coins. The home government recommended (August 5,
1799) to the governor of Filipinas that he encourage the cultivation
of the mulberry, cinnamon, pepper, cacao, and cotton. In that year,
the fragata "Pilar" arrived from America with $1,200,000 for the aid
of the islands. "In 1800 Aguilar ordained that no public work should
be commenced without the previous knowledge of the government of the
islands, in order to avoid their being constructed with injurious
consequences to the natives, as was found to be the case in many
places. Also, by edict of July 19 in the same year he prohibited
the construction of vessels having more than fifteen cubits of keel,
without the permission of the authorities, obliging the owners, under
penalty of 200 pesos fine, to comply with the plans which would be
furnished to them for a moderate sum by the [government] shipbuilder
Don José Blanchic." Álava and his squadron were unable to do much
toward checking the Moro raids, being continually detained at Manila
on account of the threatened attack on that city by the English;
but that officer vigorously organized and regulated the naval station
at Cavite, made excursions into the provinces in order to become
better acquainted with the resources and topography of the island,
and protected the commerce of Filipinas with China and Nueva España. A
royal decree of September 27, 1800, ordered him to establish a naval
bureau at Manila, "with the full powers of command and jurisdiction
prescribed in the Ordinances of the navy and subsequent royal orders,"
which he should place in working order before his return to Spain;
its objects were, "the defense of the Filipinas Islands, improvement
in the construction of the vessels, knowledge of the hydrography
and navigation of those seas, and the management of the arsenal
at Cavite;" and for its first chief was appointed Captain Ventura
Barcáiztegui. When Álava undertook to execute this commission, Aguilar
refused to surrender La Barraca to him, as also the men and vessels
of the privateer force which had been organized earlier to punish
the Moros--alleging that this fleet had its own rules and was not
affected by the naval Ordinances; and that the internal defense of
the islands belonged to him, as being captain-general therein. Álava
had to yield, and established the naval bureau as best he could with
the scanty means at his disposal; he also drew up regulations for
its administration. He left Manila, to return to Spain, on January 6,
1803. In 1806 Aguilar, being seriously ill, surrendered his office of
governor to the king's lieutenant on August 7, and died the next day,
after thirteen years' rule; (this is the longest term of a governor's
office during the entire history of the islands). [46]