18, in his ninety-second year. The son of a banker, he travelled
extensively while a young man, and applied himself to the study of art and
letters. His first published essays and poetry were an "Ode to
Superstition" and "The Pleasures of Memory." The death of his father in
1793 left him in the possession of an ample fortune, and he lost no time in
retiring from active business. In 1798 he published "The Epistle to a
Friend" and other poems. During the early part of the Nineteenth Century,
Rogers figured in the foremost rank of the literary and artistic society in
London, where he went by the name of "The Banker Bard of St. James's
Place." In 1812 he brought out an epic on "The Voyage of Columbus," which
met with indifferent success. This was followed by "Jacqueline" and "Human
Life." His last and largest publication was his descriptive poem "Italy,"
brought out in 1822. Rogers devoted the rest of his literary life to the
publication of exquisitely illustrated editions of his "Italy" and his
"Poems." Shortly after Rogers' death a collection of his witty sayings was
published under the title of "Table Talk."
[Sidenote: Horace Vernet]
[Sidenote: His early works]
[Sidenote: Vernet's earnings]
[Sidenote: Highest artistic honors]
At the Parisian Art Exposition of this year, Horace Vernet, the celebrated
French battle painter, had a Salon devoted entirely to his works. The walls
were covered by his immense canvases. At this time Vernet was the most
successful of French artists. Born at the Louvre at the outbreak of the
French Revolution, Vernet in his early career was identified with the
events of that epoch. For the Duke of Orleans he painted his celebrated
series of the four revolutionary battles, "Jemmapes, Hanau, Montmirail, and
Valmy." In 1812 he received his first important commission from King Jerome
of Westphalia, and in 1813 another from Empress Marie Louise. In 1814,
Horace Vernet, with his father and Gericault, fought on the Barriere de
Clichy, and for his gallant conduct there received the decoration of the
Legion of Honor from the hands of Napoleon. After the Restoration, Vernet
achieved a great success by his "Battle of Torlosa," which was purchased
for 6,000 francs for the Maison du Roi. At the Salon of 1819 Vernet
contested the field with Gericault and Ingres, whose "Medusa" and
"Odalisque" were the success of the season. By his popular lithographs of
Napoleonic scenes, Vernet so jeopardized his interests at Court that it was
thought best for him to transfer his studio from Paris to Rome. On his
return from there in 1822 he painted his masterpiece, "The Defence of the
Barrier of Clichy," for which Odiot paid 4,000 francs. It was presented to
the Chamber of Peers, from which it was transferred subsequently to the
Gallery of the Louvre. Thenceforward Vernet's pictures, the first of which
had sold for a few hundred francs, commanded ever higher prices. For
Avignon, his ancestral home, Horace Vernet painted "Mazeppa Pursued by
Wolves," a picture which was injured by a sabre stroke in the artist's
studio. After his election to the Institute, Vernet changed the style of
his subjects, charging staggering prices. For a ceiling fresco in the
Museum of Charles X. he received 17,910 francs; for "Phillip Augustus
Before Bovines," now at Versailles, 24,775 francs; for "The Battle of
Fontenoy," 30,000 francs. Still these pictures were scarcely up to the
standard of the "Barrier of Clichy," and on Vernet's second removal to Rome
his art seemed to decline. After many years spent in Rome and with French
armies in Algiers and in the Orient, Vernet went to Russia, where he was
received with great favor at the Court of the Czar. The highest financial
point in his career was marked by a 50,000-franc commission for a portrait
of the Russian Empress. He returned to France in good time to receive, in
1855, the greatest honors yet showered upon a French painter.
[Sidenote: "Leaves of Grass"]
[Sidenote: American "Know Nothings"]
In America, Longfellow brought out his "Hiawatha" and Walt Whitman
published "Leaves of Grass." At this period the "Know Nothing" Party had
come to be a power in politics. The party had started from a New York
society formed to check the influence of the Pope, for purifying the ballot
and maintaining the Bible in the public schools. It was called the American
Party. Wherever the difference of opinion on the Missouri Compromise in
1854 dissolved party ties in the North, multitudes flocked to the new
party. Before 1855 it had a million and a half of voters. In 1854 it all
but wrecked the old organizations. In Virginia, Henry A. Wise, an old Whig,
led the Democratic Party, and overthrew the new organization. At the
National Convention of the new party, Southern resolutions were adopted by
a vote of 80 to 59. The Northern delegates met and repudiated the
anti-slavery alliance. In 1855 the party carried New York, California and
Massachusetts, and the Democrats carried New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana
and Illinois.
[Sidenote: Stirring party contest]
[Sidenote: Buchanan elected]
The American Convention met in Philadelphia, February 22, and nominated
Fillmore and Donelson. On the same day a convention met at Pittsburg to
effect a national organization of the Republican Party, which appointed a
National Convention for the 17th of June, the anniversary of Bunker Hill.
The Democratic Convention met at Cincinnati. Pierce, Douglas and Buchanan
were candidates. On the seventeenth ballot Buchanan was chosen by unanimous
vote with Breckenridge for Vice-President. The Republican Convention met,
and in it were King, Clay, Wilson and Wilmot. Fremont was made a candidate
by 359 votes against 196 for McLean. For Vice-President, Abraham Lincoln
had 110 votes, but Dayton received the majority. The nominees of the
American Convention were afterward withdrawn. The various nominees each
represented real issues. Buchanan stood for the South, Fremont for
non-extension, and Fillmore for the Union. The election resulted in the
choice of Buchanan, who received 1,838,169 votes, to Fremont's 1,341,000,
and Fillmore's 875,000. Of the electoral votes, Buchanan received 174,
Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8.
[Sidenote: Struggle in Kansas]
[Sidenote: "Bleeding Kansas"]
At another election in Kansas to choose members of the Territorial
Legislature, armed bodies from Missouri took possession of the polls and
elected a pro-slavery Legislature. Of 6,218 votes cast but 1,310 were
legal. Governor Reeder set the election aside and ordered another. May 22,
supplementary elections were held and the Free State men won. June 11,
Governor Reeder was charged with fraud in the purchase of the Indian lands,
and, on July 26, was removed. Dawson was appointed in his place, with
Woodson as acting-governor. On July 2, the pro-slavery Legislature met at
Pawnee, organized, expelled nine Free State members, and adjourned to the
Shawnee Mission, near the Missouri State line. Thereupon the Free State men
met at Lawrence, repudiated the Shawnee Mission Legislature as spurious,
and summoned a new convention at Topeka. The Convention adopted a Free
State Constitution, and nominated Reeder for Congress. On October 1, the
pro-slavery party elected Whitfield for Congress by more votes than the
census list contained. The Free Staters declared the pro-slavery
Legislature to have been elected by fraud. A rival government was
organized. Discord, violence, and crime prevailed for a year. "Bleeding
Kansas" became an issue in American national politics.
[Sidenote: Congress takes action]
The House resolved by 101 to 93 votes to send a special committee to Kansas
to inquire into the anarchy prevailing there. The committee consisted of
Howard, Sherman, and Oliver. After several weeks' investigation they
returned and reported that every election in Kansas had been carried by
Missourians, and the people had been prevented from exercising their
rights; that the Legislature was illegal and its acts null and void; that
Whitfield held his seat under no valid law, and Reeder had received more
votes than he; that a well-devised election law was necessary, and
impartial judges should be guarded by United States troops, and that the
Topeka Free Soil Convention embodied the will of the majority. A bill
admitting Kansas under her free constitution was defeated by 107 to 106,
but was subsequently passed by 99 to 97. In the Senate the bill was
defeated. Meanwhile turmoil and disorder continued in Kansas. Finally
negotiations between Shannon, and the Free State leaders suspended the feud
for a time.
[Sidenote: Mexican filibusters]
[Sidenote: Count Bouldon shot]
[Sidenote: Alvarez revolution]
[Sidenote: Santa Anna withdraws]
[Sidenote: Anarchy in Mexico]
[Sidenote: General Comonfort]
The latest attempts to overthrow the government in Mexico, while they
brought General Santa Anna once more to the head of affairs seriously
imperilled his position. After the release of the United States Government
from guarding the frontiers of Mexico, the Indians once more became
troublesome. Predatory bands of Apaches and Comanches so ravaged the
province of Cohauila that the government had to distribute arms among the
inhabitants. A filibustering expedition under Major Walker of Kentucky
established itself in Lower California. They proclaimed the independence of
that province, so as to bring about annexation by the United States. A
strong display of Mexican forces had the effect of driving them into Texas.
Another filibustering expedition led by a French adventurer who called
himself Count Raousset de Bouldon terrorized the north. From Guyamas this
expedition marched inland, but was defeated in the first encounter with a
strong Mexican force. Raousset de Bouldon was taken captive and was shot.
More serious was a military revolution in the south led by General Alvarez.
In his proclamation of Ayutla, Alvarez called for a new Constitution and a
new Congress, and promised such reforms as the abolition of personal
taxation, of military conscription, and of the feudal system of passports.
Other popular leaders like Bravo and Moreno joined the movement. In vain
did Santa Anna put forth all the powers of a military dictator. The
revolutionists took Monterey, and the insurrection spread throughout the
country until it reached the capital. Santa Anna gathered fourteen hundred
of his best troops and left the City of Mexico to march upon his enemies.
Soon the hopelessness of his enterprise became apparent. On the way to Vera
Cruz he suddenly abdicated, and embarked on August 19 for Havana. Scarcely
had Santa Anna left Mexico when the country was plunged into new
disorders. General Carrera, on August 15, declared for the plan of Ayutla
and proclaimed himself Vice-President. Funds were raised by a forced loan
from the clerical orders. Several provinces of Mexico refused to recognize
Carrera. Within a month he had to abdicate. He was succeeded at first by
General Diaz de la Vavaga, and then by Juan Alvarez, the leader of the
Puros. While he tried to establish his rule, General Vidini in the north
strove to wrest the States of Cohauila, Tamaulipas and Nuego Leon from
Mexico, to form an independent republic under the name of Sierra Madre.
Before the close of the year Alvarez likewise found his position untenable
and resigned. General Comonfort seized the reins of power as substitute
president--the thirty-sixth President within forty years, the fifth within
four months. He fell heir to the serious international complication with
Spain resulting from the unpaid dividends of Mexico's original debt of
indemnity to that country.
[Sidenote: Growth of Taiping movement]
In China, the Taiping rebels still holding Lintsing were beset by the
imperial troops. They were expelled from the province of Shantung during
the spring, but on the other hand carried their arms up the Yangtse-Kiang
as far as Ichang, and eastward from Nanking to the sea. The establishment
of the Taiping power at Nanking attracted the attention of Europeans. At
length a ruthless system of capital executions, by which nearly one hundred
thousand victims are believed to have perished, terrorized China.
1856
In America, the increasing virulence of the long controversy over slavery
was brought home to the people by a cowardly assault committed by one
Albert Rust upon Horace Greeley, the editor of the New York "Tribune," and
one of the leaders of the agitation against slavery.
[Sidenote: Buford in Kansas]
[Sidenote: The "Kansas War"]
At a Territorial election in Kansas on January 15 a Legislature was chosen,
and Robinson was elected Governor under the Free State Constitution.
January 26, President Pierce recognized the pro-slavery Legislature in
Kansas, and, on February 11, by proclamation ordered the dispersion of
armed invaders of Kansas. The Legislature met at Topeka, March 4, and
inaugurated Robinson. Congress appointed a committee to investigate the
Kansas troubles. On May 5, the Grand Jury of Douglas County found
indictments against Reeder, Robinson and Lane, the Free State leaders. In
the spring of 1856, Colonel Buford of Alabama, with a thousand young men
from South Carolina and Georgia, came to Kansas in military array. In May,
Lawrence was surrounded by these men bearing Federal arms taken from the
United States armory. Nearly all the pro-slavery leaders were with them.
They demanded the surrender of the people's arms. The inhabitants were
unprepared to resist. The armed pro-slavery force marched through the town,
destroying the hotels and printing-offices and the residence of Governor
Robinson, doing a damage of $150,000. Such was the beginning of the "Kansas
War" which continued throughout the year.
[Sidenote: "Osawatomie Brown"]
Acting-Governor Woodson proclaimed the Territory to be in a state of
rebellion. A large pro-slavery force was gathering at Lecompton and another
at Santa Fe. Osawatomie was captured, seven men were killed and thirty
buildings burned. Among the killed was a son of John Brown. Atchison's
pro-slavery force withdrew into Missouri. On September 1, in a municipal
election at Leavenworth, an armed band of Missourians killed and wounded a
number of Free State men, burned their houses, and compelled one hundred
and fifty of them to embark for St. Louis.
[Sidenote: Fight at Lawrence]
The attack on Lawrence was renewed under the direct authority of the
government. Many lives were lost. The United States troops at Leavenworth
were used by Shannon. The Free State Legislature was dispersed by the
United States forces. Other Missouri forces invaded the Territory and
destroyed Brown's village of Osawatomie, but the Free State men compelled
them to retreat across the Missouri. In September, President Pierce
appointed Gray Governor of Kansas. Arriving at Lecompton, he released
Robinson and other Free State prisoners on bail, and ordered all hostile
forces to disband. On September 15, three regiments of Missourians with
cannon attacked Lawrence. Governor Gray with United States troops
compelled them to retire. December 15, Lecompton, a partisan judge, was
removed on demand of the Governor, and Harrison of Kentucky was appointed.
The Free State preponderance among settlers constantly increased. Nearly
all the clearing, plowing, and planting was done by Free State men. All
manner of irregularities constantly thinned the ranks of volunteers from
the South. Kansas, according to Greeley's expressive phrase, "was steadily
hardening into the bone and sinew of a Free State."
[Sidenote: Senator Sumner assaulted]
The National Convention of the American Party virtually approved the
Fugitive Slave law and the Kansas-Nebraska act. In Congress, Sumner
delivered a philippic on "The Crime against Kansas," in which he commented
severely on Senator Butler of South Carolina. Thereupon Preston Brooks
brutally assaulted Sumner in his seat in the Senate. As a result of his
injuries Sumner was an invalid for four years.
[Sidenote: Puebla revolts]
In Mexico, President Comonfort had barely reached a temporary adjustment of
difficulties with Spain when his government was embarrassed by a serious
insurrection in Puebla. Government troops in overwhelming numbers put a
bloody end to the revolt. Orihuela, the rebel chief, was shot.
[Sidenote: Friction with Spain]
[Sidenote: Civil war in Mexico]
A new liberal Constitution in Mexico, proclaimed by President Comonfort,
did not mend matters much in that distracted republic. New troubles with
Spain arose over unpunished robberies and murders of Spanish subjects. In
March, diplomatic intercourse between the two countries was severed.
Spanish warships were ordered to the Gulf of Mexico. At the last moment,
diplomatic mediation on the part of England and France succeeded in
averting war. General Comonfort, finding himself unable to make much
headway by constitutional means, invoked the help of General Zuloaga, and
established himself once more as military dictator. When it came to
dividing the spoils, Comonfort and Zuloaga fell out, and a seven days'
conflict resulted. Comonfort's followers were routed. The defeated
President had to flee the country.
[Sidenote: Death of Heine]
[Sidenote: Heine's Muse]
Heinrich Heine, the foremost German lyric poet, died at Paris, February 18.
The last ten years of his life were clouded by ill health. Heine derived
his first poetic inspiration from A.W. Schlegel, while a student at the
University of Bonn. In the literary and artistic circle of Rachel Varnhagel
in Berlin he found further encouragement in his early literary labors. He
was a Jew, but, for the purpose of taking up the study of law, he had
himself baptized a Christian, and became a doctor of law at the University
of Goettingen. After a journey to England, he gave up law to devote himself
exclusively to the pursuit of letters. In 1827, he brought out his "Buch
der Lieder," and followed this up with the first part of his famous
"Reisebilder." Heine's lyrics, by their unwonted grace and sprightliness,
captivated German readers. Some of his songs, like that of the "Lorelei" or
"Thou Art Like a Flower," soon became German folksongs. More
characteristic, perhaps, of Heine's light muse are lines like these:
A youth once loved a maiden,
But for another she sighed;
This other loved still another
And took her for his bride.
The maid for spite then married
The first that came along;
Alas for the youth who loved her,
He suffered grievous wrong!
It is an old, old story,
But yet it is ever new,
And the one to whom it happens
His heart is broken in two.
[Sidenote: The poet in Paris]
[Sidenote: "La Mouche"]
Shortly after the July Revolution, Heine went to Paris, where he became a
contributor to several of the foremost literary journals of the day as a
writer of French feuilletons. His French prose style was almost equal to
his brilliant command of German. Not until 1844 did Heine bring out any new
German poems. Then he published the epic satires "Germany, a Winter's
Tale," and "Atta Troll, a Summer Night's Dream," two works which aroused
intense indignation in Germany. Much was made of the fact that Heine
accepted an annual pension of 4,800 francs from the government of Louis
Philippe. On the other hand, Heine made the terse observation that whenever
he was treated with rude discourtesy he could be sure that he had met a
German. In Paris, the poet was captivated by the charm of young Matilde
Mirat, his "lotos flower," as he called her, or also "la mouche." The
uneducated yet infinitely charming and loyal grisette was the good angel of
Heine's later years. On the eve of the famous duel with his rival poet
Boerne, in 1841, Heine married Matilde at the Church of St. Sulpice.
[Sidenote: Deathbed wit]
To his sorrow the poet lived many more years suffering great agony from a
spinal complaint which confined him to his bed, or "mattress grave" as he
called it. His powers of wit and raillery never failed him, even to the
last. On the night before he died an anxious friend called to bid farewell.
He asked if the dying man had made his "peace with God." Heine replied with
a wan smile: "Do not trouble yourself. God will pardon me. That's his
trade." These were the last recorded words spoken by Heine. Another story
has it that when the physician put a handglass to the lips of the dying man
and said, "Can you hiss (siffler)?" Heine murmured, "No, not even a play of
Scribe."
[Sidenote: German romantic poets]
Among German writers of this period, Friedrich Rueckert, the lyric poet,
and Fritz Reuter, who wrote in Low German dialect, were at the height of
their activity. Emanuel Geibel presented himself as heir presumptive to the
mantle of Heine. Unlike Heine, this poet devoted his muse to the
glorification of German patriotism. He achieved such a success that he was
soon called to Munich, where he brought out the first "Golden Book of
Poets." Other German poets, such as Gottfried Kinkel, the revolutionist,
Hoffmann von Fallersleben, and Ferdinand Freiligrath, famous outside of
Germany for his happy translations of English and American verse, had to
write their poems in exile.
[Sidenote: Biela's comet]
On February 18, Wilhelm von Biela, the great German astronomer, died at
Venice. Born in 1782 at Rossla in the Hartz Mountains, he entered the
Austrian military service in 1805, and was made colonel in 1826, and
commandant of Rovigo in 1832. On February 27, 1826, he discovered the
famous comet named after him. According to Biela's prediction, the comet
returned every six years and thirty-eight weeks until 1852. Thereafter it
was not seen as a comet during the century. Biela also discovered two other
comets.
[Sidenote: Crimean peace conference]
[Sidenote: Black Sea and Danube opened]
[Sidenote: Status Quo in Balkans]
After the fall of Sebastopol, Austria made another attempt to secure peace.
Two of the Powers, France and Russia, were heartily weary of the war. Louis
Napoleon had entered the struggle merely to gain military glory and
political prestige. He had succeeded in attaining his ends. Alexander II.,
who had continued the war largely as a matter of filial piety, was ready to
seize the first opportunity to conclude peace with honor. A Congress was
therefore assembled in Paris to draw up terms satisfactory to all
concerned. On March 30, a treaty was signed which gave Kars back to the
Sultan and restored Sebastopol to the Czar. The Porte was admitted to the
Concert of Powers. Most important was the regulation of the navigation of
the Black Sea. It was decreed in the treaty that "the Black Sea is
neutralized; its waters and its ports, thrown open to the mercantile marine
of every nation, are formally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag of
war of the Powers possessing its coasts or of any other Power." Patrolling
of the sea by small armed vessels was permitted. The Danube was thrown open
to the commerce of the world. In order more fully to secure free navigation
of the river, the Czar's frontier in Bessarabia was somewhat changed by
the cession of certain territory to Moldavia under the suzerainty of the
Porte. Both Wallachia and Moldavia continued under the protection of
Turkey, and were permitted to enjoy their former privileges. The _status
quo_ of Servia was assured. It was further stipulated that, following the
ancient rule of the Sultans, no foreign war vessels were to pass through
the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus while Turkey was at peace. To insure the
integrity of the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Austria signed a
treaty, on April 15, guaranteeing the independence of the Sultan's
dominions and declaring that any violation of this would call for war.
[Sidenote: The Paris convention]