was signed with Prussia establishing a virtual defensive and offensive
alliance. At the same time Austria joined the German Zollverein for twelve
years. When the Montenegrins rose against their Turkish oppressors, Austria
supported their cause and demanded a redress of their grievances from
Turkey. After protracted negotiations this was granted. The wrongs of the
Montenegrins and other Christian subjects of Turkey were warmly espoused by
Russia. Czar Nicholas, as the pontiff of the Russian-Greek Church, claimed
a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The pending
difficulties concerning the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem became part of the
controversy. On the pretext of legalizing the predominant position of the
Greek Church as one of the guardians of the Holy Sepulchre, the Czar
assumed a threatening attitude toward Turkey. For a while Lord Stratford
Canning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, succeeded in mediating
between Russia and France. A temporary agreement was effected. At this
point the appearance of a French fleet in Turkish waters gave great offence
to Russia, making it appear that the concessions to France had been
extorted by a menace. Already Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British Ambassador
at St. Petersburg, had been sounded by the Czar. It was on that occasion
that Nicholas uttered the historic phrase that "the sick man was dying,"
meaning the Ottoman Empire. It was then, too, that tentative offers were
made to England to let her take Egypt and the island of Candia, provided
Russia could make herself mistress of the Balkans.
[Sidenote: International concern]
The traditional aspirations of Russia toward Constantinople were well
understood in Europe. With the exception of Prussia, the European Powers,
contrary to the Czar's expectations, were resolved to preserve the
integrity of Turkey.
[Sidenote: Austria's timely measures]
[Sidenote: Menzikov's mission]
[Sidenote: French-English naval demonstration]
The Continental Powers diplomatically met the Czar on his own religious
ground. Protestant England, on the other hand, with no pilgrims to defend,
could protest only on the score of preserving the balance of power. A
deeper reason for British opposition lay in the possible opening of the
Black Sea to Russian commerce, and the consequent loss of oriental trade to
English merchants. Louis Napoleon, who could hardly begin his imperial
reign in France more auspiciously than by avenging the disasters of his
immortal uncle and of the Grand Army in Russia, entered the lists as the
champion of the Roman Catholic Christians of the Orient. Austria, though
she took no active part against her recent ally, ingeniously frustrated the
plans of the Russian autocrat by bringing the Sultan to terms in his
attempt to crush the insurgent Montenegrins, who had been incited by Russia
to revolt. Thus was Nicholas robbed of his best pretext for impressing his
will upon Turkey. Chagrined at the triumph of Austria, angered by the
demands made by the French Ambassador, Marquis de Lavalette, in behalf of
Roman Catholic pilgrims, Nicholas sent his Admiral, Prince Menzikov, as
Ambassador Extraordinary to the Porte. With unusual ostentation Menzikov
gathered the Russian fleet and an army of 30,000 men at Sebastopol, and
then went alone to Constantinople. He demanded an audience of the Sultan,
and on March 2 appeared before him in a plain overcoat and with boots
covered with dust. His appearance was in keeping with his mission. In the
name of his master he demanded the protectorate over all Greek Christians.
Failing to attain his end, Menzikov, after a six weeks' stay, delivered a
Russian ultimatum. Late in May he left Constantinople, prophesying his
speedy reappearance in uniform. Three weeks later the French and English
fleets cast anchor in the entrance to the Dardanelles.
[Sidenote: Russians cross Pruth]
[Sidenote: Cossacks in Danube provinces]
It was not to be expected that a ruler like Nicholas would shrink from war.
On July 7, he despatched Prince Michael Gortschakov, together with two army
divisions of 40,000 men each, respectively commanded by Generals Lueders
and Danneberg, across the Pruth, with orders to hold the Danube
principalities until the Sultan had granted the Russian demands. Sultan
Abdul Majid, through his grand vizier, Reschid Pasha, issued a firman
recognizing the rights of his Christian subjects. Upon crossing the Pruth,
the Russian Commander-in-Chief assured the people of Moldavia and Wallachia
that their property and persons would not be molested; but the Russian
soldiers seized the public funds, compelled peasants to give up their
cattle and their grain, and pressed the native militia into the Czar's
service.
[Sidenote: Turkish ultimatum]
[Sidenote: Russia declares war]
[Sidenote: Oltenizza]
Still, European diplomats hoped to preserve peace. The Porte was persuaded
not to regard the invasion of the Danube principalities as a _casus belli_.
The conference which was held by the representatives of the Powers resulted
in the Viennese mediatory note, by the terms of which the Sultan was to
yield to the Czar, with certain restrictions. Russia's claim of a
protectorate was utterly ignored. The Czar accepted the conditions imposed,
but held that the note gave him the desired protectorate by implication. In
England, the press fiercely attacked the faint-hearted politicians of the
Continent. Layard, the discoverer of the royal palaces of Nineveh, appeared
as the champion of Turkey in the House of Commons. Still more threatening
was the attitude of the war party in Constantinople. The Sultan was forced
to reject the note and to prepare for the storm. Hatred of Russia and
religious fanaticism inspired the Turks with something of the old love of
battle and lust of conquest. On October 4, an ultimatum was sent to Russia
in which war was threatened if the invaded territory were not forthwith
evacuated. Russia replied with a declaration of war on November 1. The
Sultan, for complying with the wishes of his people, was rewarded by the
ready payment of heavy war taxes, and by hordes of volunteers flocking to
arms. Even Tunis and Egypt placed troops at the disposal of the mother
country. In a short time a considerable fighting force was gathered under
Omar Pasha on the south bank of the Danube. On the 4th of November the
river was crossed and a defeat inflicted on the Russians at Oltenizza.
[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF INKERMANN
Painted by Gustave Dore
From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co., N.Y.]
Had the Czar sent his troops into the Balkans immediately after he declared
war, he might have struck a decisive blow before the Powers could come to
the assistance of the Turks. But he had pledged himself not to cross the
Danube when he met the Emperor of Austria at Olmuetz, and again when he
visited the King of Prussia in Berlin. Thus he had persuaded them to adopt
a policy of neutrality. England and France now promised to give Turkey
their armed support if the Czar persisted in his demands. Their fleets
sailed for the Bosphorus.
[Sidenote: Turkish naval disaster]
At Sinope, a Turkish squadron composed of two steamers, two corvettes and
seven frigates rode at anchor under the guns of a small battery. On
November 30, the Turks were surprised by a Russian fleet commanded by
Admiral Nachimov, consisting of six ships of the line and three
steamers--all vessels of large size, armed with the smooth-bore shell-gun.
For the first time in naval history the disastrous effect of shell fire on
wooden ships was demonstrated. Only one Turkish steamer escaped to tell the
tale.
This blow, dealt beneath the very guns of the allied fleets, had its
immediate effect. Lord Aberdeen, whose foreign policy was far too mild for
the taste of most Englishmen, was so bitterly attacked that he resigned.
The return of Palmerston to the Ministry was the signal for war. In
December, the Vienna Conference sent to Nicholas a second note, demanding
the evacuation of the Danube principalities.
1854
[Sidenote: Opening of Nebraska]
[Sidenote: American slavery issue revived]
[Sidenote: Rise of Republican Party]
In the American Congress, on January 4, Senator Douglas introduced a bill
for opening the Territory of Nebraska. All land west of Iowa and Missouri
had been closed against immigrants, so that it was impossible for them to
secure a farm. By "Nebraska" was meant all territory north of Texas
westward to the Rocky Mountains. On January 23, Douglas introduced his
second bill, repealing the provisions of the Missouri Compromise for the
proposed two Territories. This reopened the slavery discussion, which
President Pierce six weeks before had declared to be closed forever. At the
East, Mason and Dixon's line between Pennsylvania and Maryland had been
regarded as separating freedom from slavery. At the West, the parallel of
36 deg. 30', agreed on in 1820, was regarded as the border line. To cross this
boundary, and remove all obstacles against slavery, promptly became the
determination of the South. Douglas's bill now declared that the Compromise
of 1850 left the question of slavery to the people within the Territory.
General Cass gave to this doctrine the title of "Squatter Sovereignty." The
bill passed by 113 to 100, and was taken up by the Senate, May 24, and
passed by 35 to 13. President Pierce signed it on May 30. By the
provisions of the bill, the country in question was to be organized into
the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska; the slavery question was to be
settled by the residents; the Supreme Court was to determine the title to
slaves, if appeal was taken from the local courts, and the Fugitive Slave
law was to be enforced. The Whig Party was destroyed and the Republican
Party rose in its place. On July 6, a State Convention of all anti-Nebraska
citizens irrespective of former political affiliations assembled. This
Convention designated the fusion of Whigs, Free Soilers, "Know Nothings,"
and Democrats who opposed the extension of slavery, by the name
"Republicans."
[Sidenote: Opening of Kansas]
[Sidenote: Fraudulent elections]
Within the three months immediately preceding, treaties had been quietly
made with a half score of Indian nations in Kansas, by which the greater
part of the soil for 200 miles west was opened. In June, within a few days
after the act had been passed, hundreds of Missourians crossed into Kansas,
took up quarter-sections and claimed the right of pre-emption upon the
eastern region. In Massachusetts and other Eastern States, societies were
meanwhile formed for the purpose of making Kansas a free State. All the
Northwest was eager to furnish squatters. In the East, Eli Thayer organized
immigration to Kansas. When the country was thrown open to settlement, the
company which he had organized took up claims at Lawrence. A population of
8,000 pressed in from the North. Meetings were held in Missouri in the
slave interest, which pledged that State to send men to Kansas and remove
all the Free State immigrants. A bloody election was held in Kansas. The
pro-slavery Legislature made it a felony to circulate anti-slavery
publications, or to deny the right to hold slaves. Reeder, the newly
appointed first Governor, arrived. An election was ordered to choose a
delegate for Congress. Armed Missourians from across the border took
possession of the polls, and by methods of intimidation elected Whitfield,
a slave-holding delegate, to Congress. At a second election 13 State
Senators and 26 members of a Lower House were declared elected. For this
purpose 6,320 votes were cast--more than twice the number of legal voters.
[Sidenote: Mexican adjustment]
Foreign affairs for a short while served to distract attention from the
all-engrossing subject. Mexican boundary disputes were further ended by a
repeal of the obligation of Guadeloupe Hidalgo which required the Mexican
frontier to be defended against the Indians. For this release the United
States paid to Mexico $10,000,000.
[Sidenote: Reciprocity with Canada]
A reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain which opened to the United
States all the frontiers of British America except Newfoundland, and gave
to the British the right to share the American fisheries to the 36th
parallel. Commerce in breadstuffs, fish, animals and lumber between the
United States and the British provinces was made free. The St. Lawrence and
Canadian Canals were opened to American vessels. All future differences
were to be settled by arbitration.
[Sidenote: Fremont in California]
During this year news arrived of the safe arrival of Fremont's fifth
expedition to California. He had crossed the Rocky Mountains at the
sources of the Arkansas and Colorado Rivers, passed through the Mormon
settlement, and discovered a number of passes. He was chosen the first
United States Senator from California, and served for a short term.
[Sidenote: Cuban filibusters]
[Sidenote: Ostend manifesto]
On February 28, the American steamship "Black Warrior" was seized in Havana
Harbor, and was confiscated by the Spanish Government on the charge of
filibustering. The American House of Representatives prepared to suspend
the neutrality laws between the United States and Spain; but it was finally
decided to demand an indemnity from Spain. This action gave an interest to
filibustering operations in Cuba. Expeditions were fitted out, but were
stopped by a proclamation of the President on June 1. The American
representatives at the courts of England, France and Spain, by direction of
the President, met at Ostend, Belgium, to confer on the best method of
settling the difficulties of Cuba and obtaining possession of the island.
In the Ostend Circular these diplomats recommended to the government of the
United States that Cuba should be purchased if possible, and if that could
not be done that it should be taken by force. "If Spain, actuated by
stubborn pride and a false sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba to
the United States, then by every law, human and divine, we shall be
justified in wresting it from Spain if we possess the power." In this
Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soule were held to have gone beyond the demands
of public opinion.
[Sidenote: Course of Taipings]
In their camp at Isinghai the Taiping rebels, in China, were closely
beleaguered through the early part of the year until spring. Their
provisions then becoming exhausted, they cut their way out and retreated
southward. A relieving army from Nanking rescued them from imminent
capture. They then captured Lintsing, where their headquarters remained for
some months. During the rest of the year their successes were unimportant.
[Sidenote: Orange Free State recognized]
In South Africa, the difficulties of administering the recalcitrant
communities of the Boers in the Orange River territory proved such that
during this year the struggle was abandoned as hopeless by the British
authorities. The Orange River Free State, organized as an independent
republic of Dutch settlers, was recognized as such.
[Sidenote: Espartero in Spain]
On June 28, another military insurrection broke out near Madrid. General
Espartero assumed charge of the movement. It found favor in Madrid and
Barcelona. Within a fortnight the Ministry was overthrown. On July 19,
Baldomero Espartero was welcomed with great enthusiasm on his return to
power. On the last day of the month the Queen had to present herself on the
balcony of her palace in Madrid while 3,000 revolutionists from the
barricades paraded before her. Espartero on his return to power forthwith
convoked the Cortes to frame a new liberal constitution, a task which was
accomplished before the close of the year.
[Sidenote: Death of Sontag]
In Mexico, the celebrated operatic singer Henriette Sontag died of cholera.
Born at Coblenz in 1805, she made an early debut, and appeared with
brilliant success in all the capitals of Europe, where she was recognized
as a worthy rival of Malibran. In 1829 she married Count Rossi, and in the
following year retired from the stage. Twenty years later, in consequence
of the loss of her fortune, she returned to the stage, and it was found
that her voice had lost none of its power and charm.
[Sidenote: The Crimean war]
In the Balkans, the Servians, Bulgarians and the Bosnians, in view of the
meagre success of Russian arms so far, were disinclined to rise against
Turkey. In Greece, on the other hand, Russian partisans succeeded in
inciting the populace to revolt. From all sides volunteers rushed to the
northern frontier. There was even some talk of establishing a new Byzantine
Empire. King Otto, partly from lack of sympathy, but more through fear of
the Western Powers, whose ships suddenly appeared at the Piraeus, opposed
the movement. The Greek volunteers who had gathered at the frontier were
ordered to disperse.
[Sidenote: Kalafat]
[Sidenote: Cetate]
[Sidenote: Russians cross Danube]
[Sidenote: Powers declare war]
The war had so far not fulfilled the expectations of Russia. Not only had
the Czar's troops been repulsed at Kalafat, despite their greater numbers,
but they had also been surprised and beaten at Cetate. The respect which
Russia commanded as a great Power had been engendered largely by her
supposed inexhaustible resources. The Czar was therefore forced to maintain
the old appearance of strength by recruiting troops throughout his empire
and by intrusting the command of all his men to Prince Paskievitch,
regarded, despite his great age, as the best general of Russia. Operations
were shifted further to the east, partly to still the apprehensions of
Austria, partly in the hope that more Slavic Christians would join the
Russian army. In the middle of March, Paskievitch crossed the Danube not
far from the mouth of the Pruth, despite the promises made by the Czar to
Prussia and Austria. The Czar's rejection of a second pacific note from
Vienna, together with the breach of the promise given to his fellow
sovereigns, was followed, on March 28, by a formal declaration of war on
the part of France and England.
Without effective resistance on the part of the Turks, General Lueders
seized the Dobrudsha and joined General Schilder before the walls of
Silistria, while Omar Pasha, in the face of a superior Russian force, was
compelled to retire to the fortress of Shumla. These energetic Russian
movements spurred the Western Powers to greater activity.
[Sidenote: Allied troops landed]
In April, an English army of 20,000 men under Lord Raglan, together with a
French force more than twice as large under the command of Marshal St.
Arnaud, distinguished for his deeds in Africa and for his part in Louis
Napoleon's _coup d'etat_, landed at Gallipolis. The allies bombarded Odessa
on April 22, taking good care, however, not to destroy English property in
the city.
[Sidenote: Austrian-Prussian remonstrances]
[Sidenote: Assault of Silistria]
[Sidenote: Paskievitch withdraws]
[Sidenote: Allies at Varna]
The crossing of the Danube by the Russians led Austria and Prussia to form
an offensive and defensive alliance, both agreeing to wage war on the Czar
if he sent his armies across the Balkans or incorporated the Danube
principalities. But how little Prussia intended to engage in a struggle
with the Czar was indicated by the retirement of Bonin, the Minister of
War, and of Bunsen, the Ambassador to London. Even a tentative offer of
Schleswig and Holstein made by England could not tempt Prussia to forsake
her old confederate. A joint note was sent to St. Petersburg by Austria and
Prussia, demanding the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the invaded
territory of the Danube. Austria concluded a treaty with the Porte, by the
terms of which she was to seize the Danube principalities, on the borders
of which she had mobilized her troops. Paskievitch's efforts to reduce
Silistria proved fruitless. The courageous example of Mussa Pasha and the
skill of Grach, a Prussian officer of artillery, were more than a match for
the strategy of the Russian commanding general. The hostile attitude of the
Austrian troops on the frontier of Wallachia and Moldavia, and the landing
of French and English expeditions at Varna, caused Paskievitch, on June 21,
to withdraw his weakened force across the Danube and the Pruth. In the
attempt to reduce Silistria the lives of many Russian soldiers had been
sacrificed. Paskievitch himself was slightly wounded. Eighteen months after
his defeat he died in Warsaw. Schilder, Mussa and Grach, all mortally
wounded, had been carried off before him. The losses of the allies were
also serious. An ill-considered march of the French from Varna into the
Dobrudsha resulted in the loss of 2,000 men, most of whom succumbed to the
insufferable heat. In the camp at Varna cholera wrought terrible havoc.
[Sidenote: Ineffectual naval operations]
Upon the sea the allies were no more successful. An English and French
fleet, under Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic Sea for the
purpose of persuading Sweden to join France and England, of reducing the
fortress of Kronstadt, the key to the Russian capital, and of attacking St.
Petersburg itself. Sweden, despite the efforts of the Powers, held aloof
like Prussia. The walls of Kronstadt defied the ships. Besides the capture
of Bomarsund on August 16, nothing was accomplished.
[Sidenote: A council of war]
[Sidenote: Before Sebastopol]
[Sidenote: Battle of the Alma]
In Varna, a council of war was held to decide upon the course to be pursued
against the Russians. Among others, General Stein, or Ferhat Pasha, as he
was called after his conversion to Mohammedanism, proposed the landing of
troops in Asia in order to drive the enemy from the Caucasus. But St.
Arnaud, who felt that he had not long to live, and, therefore, wished to
end his career as gloriously as he could, voted for an attack on
Sebastopol, the naval port of the Crimea. He was supported by Lord Raglan,
who desired nothing more fervently than the destruction of the Russian
fleet. So far no less than 15,000 men had perished in the campaign. The
remaining force, composed of 56,000 soldiers, of whom 6,000 were Turks, was
landed, on September 14, at Eupatoria on the west coast of the peninsula.
To the south of Eupatoria the sea forms a bay which receives the waters of
the River Tchernaya, flowing past the ruins of Inkermann. Upon the southern
side is the fortified city of Sebastopol. On the northern side
fortifications had been built to protect the fleet anchored in the bay.
Upon the heights overlooking the river Alma, Prince Menzikov, Governor of
the Crimea, had stationed his army of 39,000 men with 106 guns. Although
the heights overhanging the Alma are more than five miles long, the Russian
troops by which they were defended formed a front of but three miles. This
left the extreme left of the Russians open to an attack by a ford opposite
the village of Almatack. Against Menzikov, Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord
Raglan could oppose 63,000 men and 128 guns. The weakness of the undefended
left flank of the Russian army was discovered from the French ships. St.
Arnaud laid his plans accordingly. On the morning of September 20, the
attack was begun. The warships steamed up the river and opened fire on the
enemy. Bosquet, in command of a French division and a Turkish contingent,
was assigned to attack Menzikov's left. He pushed his way through the
village of Almatack and forded the river. His Zouaves nimbly climbed the
heights and reached the feebly defended plateau. Menzikov, busily engaged
in resisting the advance of the English against his right, at first refused
to believe the unwelcome tidings. He endeavored to shift a part of his
force from right to left. Meantime the English, under Lord Raglan, were
subjected to so fierce a fire from the Russian main position that they
could make no headway. They lay passive upon the ground waiting for the
French under Canrobert and Louis Napoleon to begin the attack in front, and
thus divert the attention of Menzikov. Weary of their long delay, Lord
Raglan took matters into his own hands. The English infantry rose from the
field, advanced upon the Russian main position, and, under a hot fire,
stormed the Russian redoubt with dreadful loss. Attacked on the one side by
the English and on the other by the French, Menzikov was compelled to beat
a retreat.
[Sidenote: War artists and correspondents]