the Prussian monarchy on January 18. A colossal statue of Frederick the
Great was made for this occasion by the sculptor Christian Rauch. At the
same time a further humiliation upon Prussia was inflicted by the military
occupation of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria. The Austrian troops, who came
to put a definite stop to hostilities in those provinces, marched into
Schleswig-Holstein over a pontoon bridge laid by the retreating columns of
the Prussians. As a concession to outraged German feeling, representatives
from Schleswig-Holstein were to be readmitted to the Diet of the Germanic
Confederation. This superannuated Diet met again at Frankfort as in the
days of the Holy Alliance. Before this a conference of Ministers had been
held at Dresden, at which Prussia was represented by Baron Lamsikell, while
Prince Felix Schwarzenberg appeared for Austria. With the powerful backing
of Russia, Austria could force the hand of Prussia into reacceptance of the
old order of things. As if to emphasize this, old Prince Metternich made
his reappearance in Vienna as if nothing had happened. On May 30, the
Confederate Diet met again at Frankfort. Baron Bismarck was appointed as a
delegate from Prussia. On the day after the opening of the Diet, the
sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at Olmuetz to renew the
former alliance of these countries. A period of reaction set in. The
Prussian Constitution was modified. The Emperor of Austria began to undo
the reforms granted by the Liberal Constitution of 1849. On August 20, he
arrogated to himself absolute powers in a series of Cabinet letters, in
which he declared that his Ministers were "responsible to no other
political authority than the throne," while the Reichsrath was to be merely
"considered as the council of the throne." Before this the Austrian and
Turkish Governments had come to a settlement respecting Hungarian and
Polish refugees in Turkey. With the exception of Kossuth and seven others
of the foremost leaders of the Hungarian revolution, a so-called amnesty
was extended to all refugees, provided they did not set foot in Hungary.
About this time another popular rising occurred in Bosnia. A Turkish army
was sent to suppress it, and Austrian troops took up their station on the
frontier. Many of the exiled Hungarians betook themselves to America.
Kossuth first went to England. A magnificent reception awaited him there.
[Sidenote: Palmerston rebuked]
[Sidenote: Boers lose Orange Colony]
Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, in the meanwhile had
compromised himself with his colleagues in the Cabinet by his independent
threats of interference in regard to the Hungarian refugees in Turkey.
Queen Victoria sent a letter to Prime Minister Russell containing these
significant words: "The Queen expects to be kept informed by Lord
Palmerston of what passes between him and the foreign Ministers, before
important decisions are taken based upon that intercourse; to receive the
foreign despatches in good time; and to have the drafts for her approval
sent to her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with their
contents before they be sent off." Lord Palmerston replied: "I have taken a
copy of this memorandum of the Queen, and will not fail to attend to the
directions which it contains." Some of the most troublesome foreign
complications, as often before, first came up for settlement in the
Colonial Office. Thus, in March a British force under Sir Harry Smith
defeated a commando of Boers at Boomplaatz. Other Boer forces were
dispersed. The British flag was hoisted beyond the Orange River and the
annexation of that territory to Great Britain was accomplished.
[Sidenote: Second Burmese war]
[Sidenote: Fall of Rangoon]
In India, war was renewed with the King of Burma. As usual, the trouble
started with complaints of the British merchants at Rangoon calling for the
protection of their country. Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert to
Rangoon on the "Fox." Lambert seized one of the ships of the Burmese king
lying in the river, promising to restore it on receipt of ten thousand
rupees as compensation for the injured merchants. In reply the Burmese
opened fire on the "Fox." Now all Burmese ports were declared in a state of
blockade. Lord Dalhousie sent nineteen steamers and 6,000 men to Rangoon
under General Godwin. Rangoon was captured after a heavy cannonade. The
three terraces of the great Pagoda there were carried by storm, and the
British flag hoisted over the golden dome of the sacred Pagoda. The capture
of Rangoon was followed by that of Bassie on the Irawaddy, and Prome. The
whole of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire.
[Sidenote: Gold found in Australia]
In Australia great excitement was created by the discovery of gold in
various places. As early as February, gold was found in New South Wales by
returned gold seekers from California. A great number of immigrants rushed
into that province. In July, a squatter on Meroo Creek found a mass of
virgin gold weighing above a hundred pounds. Thereupon the famous gold
fields of Ballarat were opened in Victoria. In October, gold discoveries
were made near Melbourne surpassing all others. As a result of the great
tide of immigration that swept into Victoria that province separated itself
from New South Wales. Melbourne became the capital of Victoria.
[Sidenote: Crystal Palace show]
In England, throughout the summer, a great international exposition in the
so-called "Crystal Palace" erected on Hyde Park attracted visitors from far
and wide. A special ode by Alfred Tennyson was sang at the opening:
Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet,
In this wide hall with earth's invention stored,
And praise the invisible universal Lord,
Who lets once more in peace the nations meet,
Where Science, Art and Labor have outpoured
Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet.
The Exposition was the most ambitious affair of the kind held so far. The
building, which covered an area of nineteen acres, cost about L180,000. The
total receipts of the Exposition were more than a half million pounds. At
one time it was calculated nearly a hundred thousand visitors were
assembled under its roof. The difficult problem how to place the exhibits
of various countries was settled by awarding the choice places in an
arrangement according to Mercator's projection of the map of the world.
Even then Spain refused to be represented at the Exposition unless she were
provided with an entrance distinct from that of Portugal.
[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]
Portugal was scarcely in a condition to share in any exhibition of
industrial progress. Another outbreak of the persistent conflict between
the Septembrists and Cabralists broke out in April. An insurrection in
Oporto declared for the fugitive Duke of Saldanha. On April 29, he arrived
at Oporto. The movement assumed such threatening proportions that Queen
Maria da Gloria dismissed Count Thomar de Costa Cabral, and made Saldanha
Prime Minister.
[Sidenote: South American convulsions]
In Portugal's former colonial possessions a civil war, no less wearing, was
maintained. On October 2, General Urquiza of the Argentine Republic, having
joined forces with Brazil and Montevideo, compelled General Oribe to
capitulate at Montevideo. This ended the nine years' investment of
Montevideo. Later in the year General Urquiza overthrew General Rosas at
Montevideo and proclaimed himself military dictator. In Chile, about the
same time that a violent earthquake wrecked more than four hundred houses
at Valparaiso, a military insurrection broke out under Colonel Ourriola. In
a sharp engagement between the government troops and the insurgents
Ourriola with three hundred of his followers was killed. The insurrection
was prolonged by General Jose Maria de la Cruz. Between four and five
thousand men were killed in the desultory engagements that followed. At
last the revolt was crushed by the decisive defeat of General Cruz in the
battle of Longamilla.
[Sidenote: Extension of railways]
In China, the threatening Taiping rebellion gathered force. In Siam, the
unusual spectacle was beheld of the simultaneous enthronement of two kings
as rulers of that country. The progress of modern civilization was attested
by the opening of a steam railway in Egypt between the cities of Cairo and
Alexandria. In Russia, too, a straight line of railroad was laid over the
long stretch between St. Petersburg and Moscow, and work was begun on
others no less ambitious.
[Sidenote: American filibusters pardoned]
[Sidenote: American yacht victory]
[Sidenote: Kossuth in America]
[Sidenote: Death of Fenimore Cooper]
[Sidenote: Cooper's novels]
The fears of unpleasant complications between the United States and Spain,
by reason of Cuban filibustering expeditions, were allayed by a general
pardon extended to the American filibusters on the part of the Queen of
Spain. On August 11, Lopez had landed with more filibusters in Cuba. He was
captured shortly after his landing and was shot. The same fate was shared
by his Cuban followers. Only to the American adventurers who accompanied
the expedition did the Spanish Queen's pardon apply. An event of joyful
interest to Americans was the victory of the American schooner-yacht
"America" over all her English competitors in the yacht races at Cowes on
October 22. She carried off the trophy of an international cup, which,
under the name of the America's Cup, was destined to remain beyond the
reach of English racing yachts throughout the rest of the century. Not long
after this the visit of two distinguished Europeans excited general
interest in America. One was Lola Montez, the famous Spanish dancer, whose
relations with King Louis I. of Bavaria had resulted in the loss of his
crown. The other was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, who had been
brought from England on an American vessel. His reception in America
surpassed even that which had been accorded to him in England. During this
same year in America occurred the deaths of Audubon, the great naturalist;
Gallaudet, the benefactor of deaf-mutes, and James Fenimore Cooper, the
novelist. Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, the son of a wealthy
father, who settled on the shores of Lake Otsego in New York. After
attending Yale College for three years, Cooper entered the United States
navy as a common sailor. He was promoted after some time to the rank of
midshipman and eventually to that of lieutenant. On his marriage in 1811 he
left the service, and soon began his career as an author. His first novel,
"Precaution," was not promising. In "The Spy," which appeared in 1821, he
gave the first indications of his peculiar originality. It made Cooper's
reputation as an American author. The knowledge that Cooper had acquired in
his father's estate on the borders of the wilderness and later on the sea
was turned to account in his many tales of Indian life and sea stories,
which took his contemporaries by storm. Most famous among them are:
"Deerslayer," "The Last of the Mohicans," "Pathfinder," "Pioneers,"
"Prairie," and the sea tales "The Pilot" and "Red Rover." His strictures on
American customs in "Homeward Bound" and "Home as Found" brought upon him
much newspaper abuse. About the time of Cooper's death, Francis Parkman
published his "Conspiracy of Pontiac," Longfellow his "Golden Legend,"
while Nathaniel Hawthorne brought out "The House of the Seven Gables."
[Sidenote: Tennyson, poet laureate]
In England, Alfred Tennyson had been selected as the worthiest successor of
William Wordsworth in the office of Poet Laureate. He showed his
appreciation of the honor by his famous dedication to Queen Victoria in
"The Keepsake."
Revered, beloved--O you that hold
A nobler office upon earth
Than arms, or power of brain, or birth
Could give the warrior kings of old,
Victoria--since your Royal grace
To one of less desert allows
This laurel greener from the brows
Of him that utter'd nothing base:
And should your greatness, and the care
That yokes with empire, yield you time
To make demand of modern rhyme
If aught of ancient worth be there;
Then--while a sweeter music wakes,
And thro' wild March the throstle calls,
Where all about your palace walls
The sunlit almond-blossom shakes--
Take, Madam, this poor book of song;
For tho' the faults were thick as dust
In vacant chambers, I could trust
Your kindness. May you rule us long,
And leave us rulers of your blood
As noble till the latest day!
May children of our children say,
"She wrought her people lasting good;
"Her court was pure; her life serene;
God gave her peace; her land reposed;
A thousand claims to reverence closed
In her as Mother, Wife, and Queen;
"And statesmen at her council met
Who knew the seasons when to take
Occasion by the hand, and make
The bounds of freedom wider yet
"By shaping some august decree,
Which kept her throne unshaken still,
Broad-based upon her people's will,
And compass'd by the inviolate sea."
[Sidenote: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, daughter of Godwin and wife of the poet
Shelley, died during this year. She wrote some half dozen novels and
stories, the best of which was "Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus."
The weird story, which was written in 1816 in a spirit of friendly rivalry
with Shelley and Byron, achieved great popularity. This was largely by
reason of the originality of the author's conception of the artificial
creation of a human monster which came to torment its maker. Mrs. Shelley's
last book was an account of rambles in Germany and Italy. She also brought
out a careful edition of her husband's complete works.
[Sidenote: Death of Turner]
[Sidenote: "The Slave Ship"]
Joseph M.W. Turner, the most celebrated English artist of the Nineteenth
Century, died in this same year. Born in 1775, he displayed his artistic
talents at an early age. At the outset of the Nineteenth Century he
achieved a national reputation by his "Battle of the Nile," but did not
reach the apotheosis of his fame until Ruskin sang his praises. One of his
most discussed pictures was that of the "Slave Ship," which has in turn
excited the most scathing ridicule and the most extravagant admiration.
Thus George Inness, the American artist, wrote of him: "Turner's 'Slave
Ship' is the most infernal piece of clap-trap ever painted. There is
nothing in it." Thackeray confessed with delightful frankness: "I don't
know whether it is sublime or ridiculous." Mark Twain, the American
humorist, has voiced both of these views at once, whereas Ruskin has
recorded:
[Sidenote: Ruskin's estimate]
"I believe if I were reduced to rest Turner's immortality upon any single
work, I should choose 'The Slave Ship.' Its daring conception, ideal in the
highest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought out
with the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely perfect,
not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated that
every square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing as
accurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; its
tones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to the
most sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfect
system of all truth, which we have shown to be formed by Turner's
works)--the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitable
sea."
[Sidenote: Some Turner prices]
The picture, having first been acquired by Ruskin, finally went to America.
About this time Turner's canvases began to command fabulous prices. "Van
Goyen Looking for a Subject," sold in 1833 for a few hundred pounds, was
resold in London thirty years later for 2,510 guineas. At a Turner sale in
1878 hitherto unsold canvases and unfinished sketches brought over L73,000,
or about $365,000. Over a hundred of Turner's paintings and as many
sketches and drawings, dating from 1790 to 1850, are now in the National
Gallery of London.
[Sidenote: Death of Sebastiani]
[Sidenote: Corsican diplomacy]
[Sidenote: Death of Soult]
[Sidenote: Soult's early successes]
[Sidenote: First Peer of France]
[Sidenote: Foremost soldier of Empire]
In France, Marshal Horace Francois Sebastiani, one of the favorites of
Napoleon the Great, died on July 21 at Paris. Sebastiani was a Corsican
like Napoleon. He was identified with his great countryman's career from
beginning to end. A soldier of fortune, like his illustrious chief, he
distinguished himself chiefly by his Machiavellian talents for diplomacy.
It was he who stirred up Napoleon's first war with England by his famous
mission to the East to lay bare England's weakness in that quarter. After
this, Sebastiani's name figured in many confidential missions. By his
machinations at Constantinople, at one time he embroiled both England and
Russia with Turkey, when such a diversion came most welcome to Napoleon,
who was then fighting on the frontiers of Poland. On the downfall of
Napoleon, Sebastiani was temporarily intrusted with the management of
affairs at Paris. His conduct at this time as at all others laid him open
to charges of double dealing and treachery. Napoleon showed his
appreciation of Sebastiani's services by remembering him in his will. The
famous old marshal's death gave to Prince Louis Napoleon a welcome
opportunity to recall the lost glories of the First Empire. A still better
chance was presently afforded. For, soon after Sebastiani, Marshal Soult
died at chateau St. Amans, on November 26, in his eighty-second year. The
death of this distinguished Marshal-General of France served to recall some
of the brightest glories of Napoleonic days. Born in 1769 at St.
Amans-la-Bastide, Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult joined the royal army of
France at the age of sixteen. He served as a sous-lieutenant under Marshals
Lukner and Ustine, and so distinguished himself that he soon won his steps
and was attached as adjutant-general to Marshal Lefebvre's staff. As a
brigadier-general he turned the tide of victory at the battle of Fluress.
After this he was intrusted with the command of a division, and took part
in all the campaigns in Germany, and through the Swiss and Italian
campaigns waged by Massena. In a sortie from Genoa he was taken prisoner.
Set at liberty after the battle of Marengo, he returned to France at the
peace of Amiens, and was made one of the four colonels of the guard of the
consuls. Napoleon Bonaparte, though by no means fond of Soult, was quick to
detect his great talents as a soldier. After this a prominent part was
assigned to Soult in all of Napoleon's campaigns. He was one of the first
of the generals selected for the new rank of marshal in 1804, and was the
first of the marshals to be advanced to the dignity of a peer of France. In
1805, Soult led the main column of the Grand Army, which gained the
Austrian rear, and thus brought about the disastrous capitulation of Ulm.
On the field of Austerlitz he was charged with the execution of the
brilliant manoeuvre which decided the fate of that battle. His share in
the battle of Jena was scarcely less distinguished. After this victory,
Soult defeated Kalkreuth, captured Magdeburg, and put to flight Bluecher and
Lestocq. On the bloody field of Eylau, Soult's ardor helped to secure the
semblance of victory for France. In 1808 he was sent to secure the French
conquest of Spain. He defeated the Spaniards at Manuessa and fought the
battle at Coruna where Sir John Moore lost his life. The English army
having fled, Soult overran Galicia and the north of Portugal, where he
stormed Oporto. On the landing of Wellington he retreated before that
commander into Spain, but after the battle of Talavera once more drove the
Spaniards and English before him into Portugal.
[Sidenote: Last stand at Toulouse]
[Sidenote: Minister of war]
[Sidenote: Marshal-General of France]
After the loss of Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo, Soult was recalled to aid
Napoleon in Germany after the catastrophe of Moscow. He was the Emperor's
chief-of-staff in the battles of Luetzen and Bautzen. On Wellington's
invasion of France, Soult was sent against him. Marching through the passes
of the Pyrenees, he succeeded in inflicting great losses on the English.
His attempts to secure Pampeluna and San Sebastian having failed, Soult was
compelled to face Wellington on the soil of France. His dispirited troops
were driven back at Toulouse, where he held his ground tenaciously until
the allies had lost 5,000 men. At the Peace of Paris he signed a separate
suspension of arms, and was rewarded for this by Louis XVIII. with the
cross of St. Louis and the portfolio of the Ministry of War, but during the
Hundred Days he declared for Napoleon, and once more served as his
chief-of-staff at Waterloo. On his return from exile in 1819 his marshal's
baton was restored to him. Charles X. also confirmed him in his rank as
peer. Louis Philippe twice made him Minister of War. At the coronation of
Queen Victoria in 1838, Soult was elected to represent France. When he
retired into private life, nearly ten years later, the King revived for him
the ancient dignity of Marshal-General of France.
[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's aspirations]
[Sidenote: Maupas]
[Sidenote: Emphatic disavowals]
By the time of Marshal Soult's death, the storm that arose over Louis
Napoleon's abrupt removal of Changarnier had been suppressed with a firm
hand. The majority in the Assembly who voted for a revision of the
Constitution was found to be ninety-seven less than the three-fourths
required, and all further opposition of the Assembly against Louis
Napoleon's measures was denounced as factious. Maupas, the obsequious Chief
of Police, discovered dangerous plots against the government and against
the person of the President. Fears of possible Napoleonic aspirations had
been silenced by Louis Napoleon's energetic protests. He himself stated
publicly: "They think that I wish to revive Napoleon. What could I revive
of Napoleon? One sole thing--a crime. I am not a genius--so I cannot copy
Napoleon; but I am an honest man--so I will imitate Washington. My name,
the name of Bonaparte, will be inscribed on two pages in the history of
France. On the first there will be crime and glory; on the second propriety
and honor. And the second, perhaps, will be worth the first. Why? Because,
if Napoleon is the greater, Washington is a better man. Between the guilty
hero and the good citizen I choose the good citizen. Such is my ambition."
[Sidenote: A last denial]
[Sidenote: The Coup d'Etat]
Later, after a caricaturist had been imprisoned and fined for depicting
Louis Bonaparte in the act of shooting at the French Constitution as a
target, Morigny, Minister of the Interior, declared in the Council that "a
guardian of public power should never so violate the law, as otherwise he
would be--" "A dishonest man," interposed President Napoleon. Such was the
situation on the eve of December 2. As Victor Hugo put it, in the opening
chapter of his "History of a Crime": "People had long suspected Louis
Bonaparte; but long continued suspicion blunts the intellect and it wears
itself out by fruitless alarms." On December 1, the session of the Assembly
was devoted to a discussion on municipal law. It terminated with a peaceful
tribunal vote. Prince Louis Napoleon held an informal reception at the
Elysees. During that night, Louis Napoleon, in complicity with the bastard
princes, De Morny, Valevsky, Saint-Arnaud, Persigny, Maupas and others,
having made sure of the commanding officers of the troops on duty, caused
the arrest before daylight of all the leading Republicans. It was alleged
afterward that Colonel Espinasse, who was in charge of the soldiers
stationed at the Legislative Palace, received 100,000 francs and the
promise of a general's rank for his part in the affair.
[Sidenote: "Boxed up"]
At the stroke of five in the morning, columns of soldiery filed out of all
the Paris barracks and occupied the commanding positions where barricades
had been thrown up in former times. At the same time a score of detectives
in closed carriages apprehended the leading members of the Assembly. Among
them were Cavaignac, Changarnier, Thiers, Bedeau, General Lamorciere, the
Acting-Secretary of War, and Charras. The government printing establishment
and all the newspaper offices were occupied by troops. Soldiers were placed
at the side of the printers, who were then ordered to set up a series of
proclamations. Before six in the morning bands of bill stickers, hired for
the occasion, posted them up all over Paris. At breakfast time, when
sixteen deputies and seventy-eight citizens had been arrested and were held
secure, the Duke of Morny reported the success of the undertaking to Louis
Napoleon with the two words: "Boxed up." Louis Napoleon hereupon issued the
following decree in the name of the French People:
[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's manifesto]
"ARTICLE I.--The National Assembly is dissolved.
"II.--Universal suffrage is re-established. The law of May 31 is
abrogated.
"III.--The French People are convoked in their electoral districts
from the 14th December to the 21st December following.
"IV.--The State of Siege is decreed in the district of the first
Military Division.
"V.--The Council of State is dissolved.
"VI.--The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of
this decree.
"Given at the Palace of the Elysee, 2d December, 1851.
"LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.
"DE MORNY, Minister of the Interior."
[Sidenote: A Napoleonic address]
Together with this decree Louis Napoleon issued this appeal to the people: