be inevitable. On January 25, a joint resolution for the annexation of
Texas passed through the American House of Representatives by a vote of 120
to 98, and through the Senate by 27 over 25 votes. On March 1, President
Tyler signed the bill. The tactics by which Texas was annexed were similar
to those by which the Missouri Compromise had been forced through Congress
in 1820, and the nullification compromise in 1833. It meant a distinct
gain for the pro-slavery party in the United States, and was denounced as
such by the abolitionists of the North. Both in Mexico and in the United
States active preparations were now made for war. American ships were still
welcomed in the ports of Mexico, the more so since many of them brought
needed munitions of war. In the United States strenuous efforts were made
to settle all pending differences with other countries. In February, Great
Britain had already accepted the forty-ninth parallel as a boundary line
agreeable to the governments of both countries, and soon the Oregon
boundary dispute was likewise settled by treaty. Caleb Cushing's treaty
with China was ratified by the Senate. Florida was admitted into the Union
on March 3, the day before Tyler ceased to be President. James K. Polk
succeeded him as the eleventh President. He had represented Tennessee in
the House for fourteen years, serving twice as Speaker. Having declined the
re-election to Congress, he was chosen Governor of his State. His
nomination to the Presidency had been brought about by accident.
Immediately after his inauguration, Polk appointed James Buchanan as his
Secretary of State. Polk in his inaugural address suggested a settlement of
the Oregon boundary dispute with England on the line of 54 deg. 40'. The
Democratic platform of 1844 had declared: "Fifty-four-forty, or fight." In
other words, both Great Britain and the United States claimed the country
on the Columbia River. When Calhoun proposed a line of boundary along the
forty-ninth degree of latitude, the British Ministry made a counter
proposition, accepting the line to the summit and thence along the Columbia
River to the Pacific. Despite much talk of war, Calhoun's successor in the
end accepted the British proposition of a boundary along the line of forty
degrees, continuing to the ocean.
[Sidenote: Death of Andrew Jackson]
By the aid of the Whig Senators a treaty on this basis was approved by the
Senate. With this question out of the way, the brunt of preparing for war
now fell upon the new administration. Troops were massed within striking
distance, and General Taylor was put in command of the American army. He
proceeded to St. Joseph's Island, and from there crossed over to Corpus
Christi on the mainland, near the mouth of the Neuces. At this point more
troops were concentrated to remain in winter quarters until the opening of
hostilities. On June 8, Andrew Jackson died at "The Hermitage" in
Tennessee. He had lived there quietly ever since his retirement from the
Presidency. One of his last acts was to write a public letter to President
Polk, wherein he urged him to prompt action in the Oregon boundary matter
so as to be ready for decisive measures in Texas.
[Sidenote: Slave trade under ban]
[Sidenote: General Zurbano shot]
The frustration of the British attempt to keep slavery out of Texas was
offset in other directions. A convention was concluded between Ecuador and
Great Britain to suppress slave trading in that region. In Cuba, likewise,
General Concha took measures for the total suppression of the slave trade.
A law was passed making the trade a criminal offence in the Spanish West
Indies. The government of Spain after much reluctance recognized the
independence of Venezuela. Affairs in Spain had taken a new turn. On
January 21, General Zurbano was betrayed into the hands of his enemies and
was shot. The Cortes adopted a reactionary constitution.
[Sidenote: Atrocities in Algiers]
In France, a Liberal majority in the Chambers, after a prolonged struggle,
brought about the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the midst of this movement,
Cavaignac, the great opposition journalist, expired. The French war in
Algeria by this time had degenerated into mere guerilla fighting. The chief
event of the year brought execration upon the arms of France. A tribe of
Kabyles had taken refuge in the caves of Dahra. Unable to dislodge them
from there, General Pelissier gave orders to smoke them out. Some five
hundred of the tribesmen, among them women, children and aged people, were
suffocated.
[Sidenote: Colonial expansion]
[Sidenote: Sikhs belligerent]
Colonial extension in other parts of the world was carried on in like
aggressive manner. Thus a joint expedition of France and Great Britain made
an attack on Tamatave in Madagascar, but failed of success. Another joint
expedition of the two powers forced the Republic of Argentine to concede
free navigation of the La Plata River. From China concessions were wrested
by which Christian missionaries were to be admitted to all of the five
treaty ports. As a consequence of these concessions a virulent hatred of
the foreigners sprang up among the common people of China. In South
Africa, Governor-General Maitland of Cape Colony earned the everlasting
hatred of the Boers by sending out an armed expedition to assist the black
warriors of Griqualand against the Boers. In India, affairs at Lahore had
reached a crisis. There the boy Maharajah, with his regent mother and her
favorite sirdar, Lal Singh, were at the mercy of their Sikh soldiery. To
save themselves they determined to launch their army upon the British.
[Sidenote: John Franklin's Arctic quest]
[Sidenote: Conflagration of Quebec]
[Sidenote: Irish famine]
[Sidenote: Peel's Cabinet resigns]
British enterprise found a vent in other ways beyond colonial conquests. In
the spring of this year Sir John Franklin sailed out once more with the
"Erebus" and "Terror," in quest of the Northwest Passage. The last message
from him was received in July. News also reached England that he had
entered Lancaster Sound, but it was long after that before anything was
heard concerning him. Since then more than thirty Arctic expeditions have
searched in vain for the body of Franklin. About the same time that
Franklin sailed on this expedition, a great fire in Quebec destroyed 1,650
houses, rendering 12,000 people homeless. Just one month later, on June 29,
a second fire destroyed 1,365 houses. Two-thirds of the city was laid in
ashes. Another serious calamity was the Irish famine of this year, caused
by the failure of the potato crop. The distress thus occasioned increased
the agitation against the corn laws. As during the preceding year, great
mass meetings were held in Birmingham and Manchester. Sir Robert Peel,
early in the year, had showed his new leanings toward free trade, by the
introduction of a bill for the abolition of import duties on no less than
four hundred and thirty articles. The government's discrimination in favor
of the duties on sugar provoked a long debate in Parliament. Gladstone
continued to support his old colleagues in the government, while Cobden and
Bright led the opposition on the floor of the House. By the time Parliament
was prorogued in August, the Ministry had won a complete victory. The
spread of the famine during the summer, when almost all harvests failed,
reacted powerfully upon the government. A strong public letter from the pen
of Lord Russell brought the precarious position of the government home to
the Cabinet. Sir Robert Peel admitted the necessity of an absolute repeal
of the corn laws. Rather than confess such a complete change of position,
Peel's Cabinet resigned. Lord Russell was summoned to form a new Cabinet.
[Sidenote: Death of Hood]
[Sidenote: Thomas Hood's Works]
During this interim the practice of duelling in England, but recently
countenanced in the army by the Duke of Wellington, fell under lasting
disfavor by the fatal outcome of an army duel, in which Lieutenant Hawkes
killed Lieutenant Seaton. About the same time occurred the death of Thomas
Hood, the poet and humorist. Born in 1798, as a son of a bookseller, he
soon became a writer. As one of the editors of the "London Magazine," he
moved among all the principal wits of the day. His first book, "Odes and
Addresses to Great People," was written in conjunction with J.H. Reynolds,
his brother-in-law. This was followed by "Whims and Oddities," in prose
and verse; "National Tales," and "The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies," a
book full of imaginative verse. Hood's rich sense of humor found scope in
his "Comic Annual," appearing through ten successive years, and his
collection of "Whimsicalities." Among his minor poems, "The Bridge of
Sighs" and "The Song of the Shirt" deserve special mention.
[Illustration: LORD TENNYSON
Painted by Frederic Sandys]
[Sidenote: Death of Sydney Smith]
[Sidenote: Pungent satire]
Sir Sydney Smith, the essayist, died shortly before this. Born in 1771, he
studied for orders and became a clergyman. At the opening of the Nineteenth
Century he entered the field of authorship with the publication of "Six
Sermons Preached at Charlotte Chapel." Then came the famous "Letters on the
Catholics, from Peter Plymley to his Brother Abraham." This book
established Sydney Smith's reputation as a satirist. For nearly twenty
years he published no more books, though a constant contributor to the
"Edinburgh Review." Some idea of Sydney Smith's pungent style may be
derived from his famous remarks on England's taxation during the wars with
Napoleon: "The schoolboy," he said, "whips his taxed top; the beardless
youth manages his taxed horse with a taxed bridle on a taxed road; and the
dying Englishman, pouring his medicine which has paid seven per cent, into
a spoon which has paid fifteen per cent, flings himself back upon his
chintz bed which has paid twenty-two per cent, and expires in the arms of
an apothecary, who has paid a license of one hundred pounds for the
privilege of putting him to death. His whole property is then immediately
taxed from two to ten per cent. Large fees are demanded for burying him
in the chancel; his virtues are handed down to posterity on taxed marble,
and then he is gathered to his forefathers to be taxed no more."
[Sidenote: Meagre literary remains]
It was Sydney Smith, too, who asked the famous question: "Who ever reads an
American book?" In 1824 Sydney Smith broke his long silence as an author,
with the fervent pamphlet "The Judge that Smites Contrary to the Law." This
was followed by a long series of open letters on clerical and political
questions of the day. Shortly before his death he brought out a collection
of sermons. A posthumous work was his collection, "Elementary Sketches of
Moral Philosophy." Sydney Smith's case has been held up, together with that
of Swift, as an example of political ingratitude. Despite all his labors
for the Whig cause, but slender recognition was given to him by his
political friends in office. The excuse for not making him a bishop was
that his writings were generally regarded as inconsistent with clerical
decorum. Like Jeffrey, Wilson and other distinguished contributors to
English periodical literature at this time, he left no truly great work to
posterity.
[Sidenote: Elizabeth Fry's work]
Elizabeth Fry, the great English prison reformer, died on October 15. She
it was that improved the condition of women prisoners at Newgate. Later her
influence was apparent in most of the reforms introduced into the jails,
houses of correction, lunatic asylums and infirmaries of England, the
abuses of which were so eloquently voiced by Dickens.
[Sidenote: Peel recalled]
[Sidenote: A premature announcement]
Lord John Russell's attempts to form a new Ministry proved unsuccessful,
largely because Lord Howick--who by the death of his father had become Earl
Grey--refused to join the new Ministry on account of his objections to the
foreign policy of Lord Palmerston. Sir Robert Peel was presently recalled.
All of his colleagues retained their posts, except Lord Stanley, superseded
by Gladstone. Soon after Peel's re-entry into office, the London "Times"
announced that the Cabinet had decided on proposing a measure for the
repeal of the corn laws. This premature announcement was one of the most
startling journalistic achievements of the time. Notwithstanding all the
published denials it was generally believed, and was followed by a great
fall in the price of corn.
[Sidenote: War with Sikhs]
[Sidenote: Moodkee]
[Sidenote: Ferozeshahar]
In the mind of the Ministry, as well as of the country at large, the
threatening state of foreign affairs claimed precedence. In Autumn the Sikh
army of the Khalsa had crossed the Sutlej, to the number of 60,000
warriors, 40,000 armed followers and 150 guns. Sir John Little marched out
of Ferozepore with 10,000 troops and 31 guns to offer battle, but the Sikhs
preferred to surround them. Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Gough and Sir Henry
Hardinge, the new Governor-General, hurried toward the frontier with a
large relieving force. On September 18, they met the army of Lal Singh at
Moodkee and won a slender success. But for the flight of Lal Singh, the
Sikhs might have claimed the victory. The British troops now advanced on
the Sikh intrenchments, Ferozeshahar, where they effected a junction with
Little. On December 21, the British advanced in force, but encountered such
stubborn resistance that the day ended in a drawn battle. Not until after
sunset did Gough's battalions succeed in storming the most formidable of
the Sikh batteries. After a night of horrors the battle was resumed. The
Sikh soldiers, who had risen in mutiny against their own leaders, fell back
and yielded their strong position. The second army of the Sikhs under Tej
Singh came up too late. After a brief artillery engagement, all the Sikh
forces fell back across the Sutlej River.
1846
[Sidenote: Battle of Sobraon]
[Sidenote: End of first Sikh war]
In January, the hostile forces on both sides of the Sutlej River in India
were reinforced. The Sikhs recrossed the river, entered British territory,
and hostilities were renewed. On January 27, Sir Harry Smith defeated a
part of the Sikh forces at Aliwal. The Sikhs threw up intrenchments at
Sobraon. On February 10, the British army advanced to the attack under
Gough and Hardinge. The battle proved one of the hardest fought in the
history of British India. Advancing in line, the British had two battalions
mowed down by the Khalsa guns. Tej Singh broke down the bridge over the
river. After fighting all day, the British at last succeeded in driving the
Sikhs into the Sutlej at the point of the bayonet. The victory was dearly
won. The British losses were 2,000 men, while the Sikhs were said to have
lost 8,000. This practically ended the first Sikh war. The British army
crossed the Sutlej River by means of their pontoons, and, pushing on to
Lahore, there dictated terms of peace. An indemnity of a million and a half
pounds was exacted. It was paid by Gholab Singh, the Viceroy of Cashmere
and Jamu, upon British recognition of his independence of the Sikh
Government at Lahore. The British frontier was extended from the banks of
the Sutlej to those of the Ravi.
[Sidenote: English internal affairs]
[Sidenote: Death of Clarkson]
[Sidenote: Disraeli]
[Sidenote: Repeal of corn laws]
[Sidenote: Fall of Peel's Ministry]
[Sidenote: Richard Cobden's reward]
[Sidenote: Modern progress]
[Sidenote: Astronomical discoveries]
[Sidenote: Sue's "Wandering Jew"]
In England, Sir Henry Hardinge's services in the Sikh war were rewarded by
his elevation to the peerage. The distress of the previous year continued,
owing partly to a commercial panic brought on by overspeculation in
railways, and partly to a repeated failure of the crops. To relieve the
potato famine in Ireland, Parliament voted L10,000,000 for that country. In
the midst of this general distress the twopenny omnibuses made their first
appearance in London, and the first issue of the "Daily News" appeared in
the metropolis. Leigh Hunt brought out his stories from the Italian poets.
Sir Aubrey De Vere, the Irish poet, died in his thirty-ninth year. A few
years before his death he had published his "Song of Faith" and other
poems. A posthumous publication was the poetic drama "Mary Tudor." Thomas
Clarkson, the great anti-slavery advocate of England, died soon afterward,
in his eighty-sixth year. Early during the first Parliamentary session Sir
Robert Peel avowed his complete change of face in regard to the corn laws.
The rage of the protectionists was voiced by Benjamin Disraeli, then known
chiefly as a writer of novels remarkable for the wild exuberance of their
fancy. He denounced Peel as a political trimmer and no more of a statesman
"than a boy who steals a ride behind a carriage is a great whip." Peel, in
speaking for the principle of free trade, declared that England had
received no guarantees from any foreign government that her example would
be followed. Notwithstanding their hostile tariffs, however, he showed that
the value of British exports had increased above L10,000,000 since the
first reductions in the tariffs were made. On June 26, a bill for the total
repeal of the corn laws was at last accepted. It passed through the Commons
by a majority of 98 votes, while in the House of Peers, largely through the
efforts of the Duke of Wellington, a majority of 47 was attained. The wrath
of the defeated protectionists found vent on the same day when another
Irish oppression bill was brought before the House. Lord Bentinck, as the
mouthpiece of the protectionist party, launched forth in vehement invective
against Sir Robert Peel, "his forty paid janizaries, and the seventy other
members who, in supporting him, blazoned forth their own shame." In
conclusion, Lord Bentinck called upon Parliament to "kick the bill and the
Ministry out together," exclaiming, "It is time that atonement should be
made to the betrayed honor of Parliament and of England." After this speech
the Ministry called for a vote of confidence. It was denied by a majority
of 73 votes against the government. On June 29, Sir Robert Peel announced
his resignation. In a final speech he gave all credit for the repeal of the
corn laws to Richard Cobden. A few weeks later a testimonial of L80,000 was
placed at the disposal of Richard Cobden for his eminent services in
promoting the repeal of the corn laws. On July 16, Lord Russell succeeded
Peel as Prime Minister. His Cabinet included the Marquis of Lansdowne,
Viscount Palmerston, Earl Grey, Earl Granville, Lord Auckland and
Gladstone. The Duke of Wellington was retained in supreme command of the
army. Unlike other heroes, he lived to see several monuments raised to his
fame. Thus the grand Wellington Monument in London, made chiefly from
captured cannon, was erected at the corner of Hyde Park. Otherwise it was a
year of bridge building in England. At Newcastle a high level bridge was
erected, while at Conway and at the Menai Strait work was begun on two of
the greatest tubular bridges of England. In Germany, Schoenbein invented
gun-cotton. About the time of the death of Friedrich Bessel, the great
German astronomer, one of the greatest triumphs of abstract astronomical
reasoning was achieved. In France, Leverrier had worked out the position of
the planet Neptune, finally determining it on September 23. He communicated
this to Johann Galle at Berlin, who discovered the planet on the same
night. Adams, in England, a few months previous, had made calculations to
the same effect, and communicated with Challis, but owing to delays Challis
did not discover the planet until after Galle. The Royal Astronomical
Society at London awarded its gold medal to each as equally deserving.
Within a few days after this discovery, on October 10, a satellite of
Neptune was discovered by Laselle. Eugene Sue, moved by the popular
agitation against the Jesuits, wrote his novel of the "Wandering Jew,"
first published in serials.
[Sidenote: Attempts to kill French king]
[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham]
Another attempt to kill King Louis Philippe by one Lecompte in April had
been frustrated by the Guards. On July 29, Joseph Henry risked his life in
the seventh attempt at the assassination of the King. Louis Bonaparte, the
quondam king of Holland, who resigned his throne rather than submit to his
brother Napoleon's demands, died in his sixty-eighth year. His namesake,
Prince Louis Napoleon, imprisoned in the fortress of Ham, succeeded in
making a sensational escape disguised in the garb of a stone mason. Once
more he returned to his exile in England.
[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein question]
On July 8, King Christian VIII. of Denmark published an open letter in
which he reasserted the union of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein with
Denmark regardless of the differing systems of succession prevailing in
these provinces. The question of succession was so intricate that the
Chancelleries of Europe despaired of satisfactory solution. Inasmuch as
Schleswig and Holstein had been recognized as German principalities
entitled to representation in the Germanic Confederation, the German people
as such objected to their absolute incorporation with Denmark. The storm
raised over King Christian's letter was such as to forebode no other
settlement than by arms.
[Sidenote: Gioberti]
[Sidenote: Pius IX.]
[Sidenote: Early Papal measures]
Pope Gregory XVI. died at Rome in his eighty-first year. At the time of his
death the Papal prisons were filled with conspirators and reformers, among
whom were some of his best subjects. His death gave new hope to the
followers of Gioberti, whose political dreams depicted a new Italy,
regenerated by the moral force of a reforming Papacy. Austria's candidate
for the Papacy having failed to secure the requisite number of votes in the
College of Cardinals, Mastai Ferretti, Bishop of Imola, was elected, and on
June 17 assumed the title Pius IX. The choice of this popular prelate was
taken to be a tribute to Italian feeling. The first acts of Pio Nono
confirmed this impression. Universal amnesty was extended to political
prisoners. Hundreds of Italian patriots who had been sentenced to
imprisonment for life were set free. When, in addition to this, permission
was given to the citizens of Rome to enroll themselves in the new civic
guard, all Rome gave itself up to popular rejoicings. The climax of
national enthusiasm was reached when the new Pope took occasion to voice a
formal protest against the designs of Austria upon Ferrara.
[Sidenote: Revolt of Cracow]
[Sidenote: Anarchy in Austrian-Poland]
[Sidenote: Cracow incorporated in Austria]
[Sidenote: Tennyson on Poland]