in Burma where the British Resident was expelled from Ava. An expedition
had to be sent against Burma. The death of Runjit Singh led to a series of
revolutions which shook the Sikh dominion to its foundations. The
successive deaths of Runjit Singh's son and grandson, who had succeeded him
as Maharajas, led to a general belief that they had been murdered by the
Prime Minister, Dhian Singh. All the chief Sirdars rose against Dhian. The
Sikh army of Khalsak, numbering 7,000 soldiers, became a menace for
Hindustan. In July, the British garrison of Kelat in Beluchistan was
overpowered by the natives. Lord Auckland had to prepare another expedition
to restore English prestige in that quarter. Kelat was retaken by the
British in November. New complications arose at Herat. This had long been
the bone of contention between Great Britain and Russia in Central Asia.
British ascendency over Herat had been gained by large financial subsidies,
which had been spent in frustrating the designs of the Persians and
Russians in that quarter. Major d'Arcy Todd, the English envoy at Herat,
incensed by King Kamram's continued dealings with Russia, withheld the
further payment of the British subsidies, unless British troops were
admitted to Herat. The situation became so acute that Major Todd on his own
authority threw up his post and left Herat. It was a severe setback for
British influence in Central Asia. Lord Auckland in exasperation dismissed
his erstwhile ambassador from political employ. Todd found a soldier's
death on the field of Ferozeshahar. The continued rebellion of the
Sarawacks in Borneo gave the British an opportunity for interference there.
Sir James Brooke, at the head of a British expedition, helped the Sultan of
Borneo in quelling the rising.
[Sidenote: Turkish-Egyptian War]
[Sidenote: Mehemet Ali brought to terms]
The operations of the international coalition against Mehemet Ali of Egypt
had now begun. Though the Viceroy's soldiers lay on Turkish soil without a
foe before them, and France stood at his back, Mehemet Ali found himself
checkmated. While Russia undertook to keep Ibrahim's army out of
Constantinople, all French support was neutralized by Germany's
mobilization on the Rhine. A naval squadron, composed of British and
Austrian warships, was free to land the Turkish forces in Syria. On October
10, Commodore Napier bombarded Beyrout. The Syrians were armed against
their Egyptian oppressors. On November 3, the British and Austrian fleets
captured Acre. Ibrahim, with the remains of his army, fell back toward the
Egyptian frontier. When the British fleet arrived before Alexandria,
Mehemet Ali made haste to come to terms. In contravention of the ultimatum
of the Powers, he was allowed to retain his hereditary dominion over Egypt
upon relinquishment of Syria, and of the Turkish fleet, which had been
betrayed into his hands. Sir Charles Napier in later years, while speaking
of his part in this expedition in Parliament, said: "I was ashamed for my
country and for myself."
[Sidenote: Fall of Thiers' Ministry]
[Sidenote: Oriental affairs readjusted]
The humiliating position forced upon France caused the downfall of the
Ministry of Thiers. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of affairs. Guizot
was recalled from his embassy at London to take the portfolio of Foreign
Affairs. He succeeded in restoring France to her former place in the
concert of Europe. The French Government joined with the other powers in
the restoration of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire by which all
foreign warships were excluded from the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.
Russia thereby virtually conceded the abrogation of her treaty of Unkiar
Skelessi. On the other hand, Sebastopol and the Russian arsenals of the
Euxine were thus safeguarded against any maritime attack except by Turkey.
[Sidenote: Napoleon's body returned]
The revival of the Napoleonic legend by such writers as Beranger,
Lamartine, and Victor Hugo, together with other influences which served to
keep bright the glories of the Empire, bore their fruit in the return of
Napoleon's remains to France. On October 15, his body had been removed from
the simple tomb at St. Helena. On November 30, the ship bearing Napoleon's
remains arrived at Cherbourg. A million francs were voted by the Chambers
for the new sepulchre under the dome of the chapel of the Hotel des
Invalides. On this occasion great publicity was given to Lord Palmerston's
letter to Ambassador Granville: "The government of her British Majesty hope
that the promptness of their response to this French request will be
considered in France as a proof of their desire to efface all traces of
those national animosities which, during the life of the Emperor armed
against each other the French and English nations. The government of her
Majesty are confident that if such sentiments still exist anywhere, they
will be buried in the tomb in which the remains of Napoleon are to be
laid." Napoleon's reburial was witnessed by a million of persons including
a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers drawn up in line to do him honor. The
ceremonies were attended by the royal family and all the dignitaries of
France, excepting only the immediate relatives of the great Napoleon. As it
happened, those of the Napoleonides that were not dead were either in exile
or in prison.
[Sidenote: Floods in France]
[Sidenote: Earthquake of Zante]
Shortly before this, great havoc had been wrought in France by disastrous
inundations of the Saone and Rhone. The water, which covered 60,000 acres,
and flooded Lyons, rose higher than it had within 250 years. In Greece, a
tremendous earthquake laid the city of Zante in ruins. These catastrophes
were made the object of special study in Germany and Switzerland, where
Agassiz was in the midst of his epoch-making discourses on the glacial
period.
[Sidenote: Isabella abdicates]
[Sidenote: Rule of Espartero]
Toward the end of the year wretched Spain suffered another political
upheaval. After the last abandonment of the cause of Don Carlos by General
Cabrera, in July, the Queen-Regent found herself confronted by a strong
democratic party both in the Cortes and the country. The scandals of her
private life undermined her political authority. By an insurrection at
Barcelona she was forced to call in General Espartero, the chief of the
Progressist party, as her Prime Minister. Rather than submit to his demands
she abdicated the Regency in October and left Spain. Espartero, toward the
close of the year, was acknowledged by the Cortes as Regent of Spain. His
first measures turned a large part of the people against him. On December
29, as a result of the growing discussions between the government and the
clergy, the Papal Nuncio was expelled from Madrid. Thereafter Espartero and
the clerical party of Spain were at daggers' points.
[Sidenote: Overbeck]
This year Friedrich Overbeck finished his masterpiece, the "Triumph of
Religion and the Arts." This German artist, at the time when the classicism
of David was at its height, had become his most strenuous opponent, and had
brought about the regeneration of the German religious school of painting.
He and several of his followers formed the Nazarites, whose fundamental
principle was that art existed only for the service of religion. Overbeck's
frescoes of the "History of Joseph" and "Jerusalem Delivered" are best
known. Among his paintings of this period, "The Entrance of Christ into
Jerusalem" at Luebeck, "Christ on the Mount of Olives" at Hamburg, and "The
Coronation of Mary" in the Cathedral of Cologne, are the most celebrated.
1841
[Sidenote: British capture Bogue forts]
[Sidenote: Hong Kong ceded to Britain]
The dilatory tactics of Viceroy Keshen in China had prolonged the
negotiations there for several weeks. In the meanwhile a large Chinese army
was gathering in the interior. Early in the year, after the arrival of the
British plenipotentiaries, orders were issued for an attack on the Bogue
forts. On January 7, 1,500 British troops were landed on the flank and rear
of the forts at Chuenpee. After a sharp cannonade by the fleets, the forts
were carried by a storming party under Captain Herbert. Simultaneously the
forts at Taikok were destroyed by the fleet, and their Chinese garrison was
routed by landing parties. Several Chinese junks were sunk during the
engagement. In all the Chinese lost some 1,500 men in casualties; the
British losses were small. After the capture of the Bogue forts, Viceroy
Keshen came to terms. He agreed to pay a large money indemnity and to cede
Hong Kong absolutely. On January 29, Hong Kong was declared a British
possession, and was heavily garrisoned with the troops transferred from
Chusan. The importance of the new acquisition was scarcely realized by
Englishmen at the time.
[Sidenote: Chinese convention repudiated]
[Sidenote: British threaten Canton]
[Sidenote: English opium factory destroyed]
[Sidenote: Canton bombarded]
[Sidenote: Heavy ransom exacted]
[Sidenote: British camp attacked]
[Sidenote: More ransom saves Canton]
The suspension of hostilities proved but temporary. Keshen was degraded and
banished. Emperor Taouk-Wang issued an edict that he was resolved "to
destroy and wash the foreigners away, without remorse." Keshen's successor,
Elang, repudiated the convention signed by his predecessor. On February 25,
the British proceeded to attack the inner line of forts guarding the
approaches to Canton. The formidable lines of Anunghoy, with batteries of
two hundred guns, were carried in the first rush. In quick succession the
other positions of the Chinese were taken, until, on March 1, the English
squadron drew up in Whampoa Reach, under the very walls of Canton. On the
arrival of Sir Hugh Gough, to take command of the British forces, a brief
armistice was granted. After a few days, hostilities were renewed by the
capture of the outer line of defences. Under the threat of immediate
military occupation, the Viceroy of Canton came to terms. On March 18, the
British reoccupied their opium factories in Canton. Emperor Taouk-Wang's
anti-foreign policy remained unshaken. He appointed a new commission of
three mandarins to govern Canton, and collected an army of 50,000 men in
that province. In May, Captain Elliot was insulted in the streets of
Canton. He sent for reinforcements from Sir Hugh Gough at Hong Kong. A
notice was issued advising all Englishmen to leave Canton that day. On the
following night the Chinese sacked the opium warehouses and fired upon the
British ships lying at anchor. Fire rafts were let loose against the
squadron, but drifted astray. The British promptly took the offensive. They
sunk forty war junks, and dismantled the Chinese batteries. On May 24, Sir
Hugh Gough arrived at Canton with all his forces. The fleet advanced up the
Macao passage, and troops were landed under unusually difficult
circumstances. The Chinese failed to take advantage of this, preferring to
await the British attack in a strong line of intrenchments north of the
city. On May 25, two British columns of 2,000 men each, with sixteen pieces
of artillery and fifty-two rockets, advanced to the attack across the
sacred burial grounds. Three of the hill forts were carried with slight
loss. At the fourth fort desperate resistance was encountered. After this
fort had succumbed to a bayonet attack the Chinese rallied in an open camp
one mile to the rear. Intrenchments were thrown up with remarkable
rapidity. The British troops, led by the Royal Irish Fusiliers, streamed
over the open ground and scattered the remaining forces of the Chinese. The
brilliancy of this exploit was dimmed by the slaughter of Chinamen while
asking quarter. The British losses were 70 killed and wounded. A general
attack on the city was ordered for the next day. A fierce hurricane and
deluge of rain frustrated this plan. During the day the Canton mandarins
came to terms. They agreed to pay an indemnity of $6,000,000, and to
withdraw their troops sixty miles from the city. A few days after this,
when $5,000,000 of the indemnity had already been paid, the Chinese broke
the armistice by an attempt to surprise the British camp. Instead of
driving the attack home, the Chinese soldiers, some 10,000 in number,
contented themselves with waving their banners and uttering yells of
defiance. The British artillery opened on them, and a running fight ensued.
In the midst of it a violent thunderstorm burst over Canton. A detachment
of Madras Sepoys lost its way, and was all but overwhelmed by the Chinese.
They had to be extricated by a rescue party of marines, armed with the new
percussion gun, which was proof against wet weather. Under threat of
immediate bombardment, the payment of more ransom was exacted from Canton.
In the end the city was spared, to remain, according to the English
formula, "a record of British magnanimity and forbearance."
[Sidenote: Reduction of Amoy]
[Sidenote: Chinese reverses]
[Sidenote: An Indian diversion]
After this the opium trade reverted to its former footing. To bring the
Chinese Emperor, himself, to terms, Sir Henry Pottinger, the new British
plenipotentiary, sailed northward, and appeared before the seaport of Amoy,
nominally at peace with England. The Viceroy of Amoy sent a flag of truce
to demand what was wanted. He was called upon to surrender the town. This
he refused to do. The British ships at once engaged the land batteries, and
landing parties were sent around the rear. The Chinese gunners were driven
from their pieces, but several of their officers committed suicide. The
commandant of the chief fort drowned himself in the face of both armies.
The capture of Amoy remained barren of useful results. The British fleet
proceeded northward until scattered by a hurricane in the Channel of
Formosa. Coming together off Ningpo, the fleet attacked Chusan for the
second time. Spirited resistance was offered by the Chinese. In the
defence of the capital city Tinghai, Keo, the Chinese general-in-chief, was
killed. All his officers fell with him. Leaving a garrison at Chusan, the
British attacked Chinhai on the mainland. Here the Chinese suffered their
heaviest losses. After this victory the city of Ningpo was occupied without
opposition. The inhabitants shut themselves up and wrote on their doors:
"Submissive people." Nevertheless, Ningpo was put to ransom, under threats
of immediate pillage. More British troops and warships were arriving to
carry the war to the bitter end, when news arrived of disastrous events in
Afghanistan. Troops had to be diverted in that direction, and a more
definite settlement of the Chinese question was accordingly postponed.
[Sidenote: Corn Law agitation]
[Sidenote: Richard Cobden]
[Sidenote: Defeat of Melbourne's Ministry]
[Sidenote: Parliamentary precedents defied]
[Sidenote: Adverse elections]
[Sidenote: Peel, Prime Minister]
The attention of Englishmen at home was all but engrossed by domestic
topics. In Parliament, the opposition found its strongest issue in the long
demanded reform of the Corn Laws. Various circumstances, such as increase
of population and bad harvests, contributed to bring this issue to the
front. The retaliatory tariffs adopted by America, Russia, France, Sweden
and the German Zollverein had their serious effect on British trade. The
resulting financial depression engendered discontent. It was at this time
that Richard Cobden came into prominence with his free trade views. Then
began the great struggle over the Corn Laws which, until its settlement,
remained the most important question of the day in England. Lord
Melbourne's Ministry by its attempt to adjust the sugar bounties, and
incidentally the Corn Laws, dealt the first formidable blow against the
great system of monopoly called protection. The government's proposals on
that subject were denounced as an encouragement of the produce of the
sugars of Cuba and other slave states at the expense of the British West
Indies, where slavery had been abolished. As a result the anti-slavery
Whigs joined with the Tories, under the leadership of Peel. The government
was defeated by a majority of thirty-six votes. In contravention of
Parliamentary customs, Lord Melbourne's Ministry did not hand in their
resignations, neither did they see fit to dissolve Parliament. When
Parliament met again Sir Robert Peel, amid tumultuous cheering from his
followers, moved a direct vote of want of confidence in the government. By
a majority of one the motion was carried. The dissolution of Parliament was
announced on the morrow. The appeal to the country resulted in a strong
gain of Conservatives. The moribund Ministry made another attempt to carry
their measures before retiring from office. Sir Robert Peel, in his
proposals for a sliding scale in the duties on corn, already showed some
bias toward that free-trade policy to which he afterward became committed.
On the first division on this question the government was outvoted by a
majority of sixty-four. Melbourne's resignation was of course followed by
the elevation of Peel to the Prime Ministry. Lord Palmerston was replaced
by the Earl of Aberdeen in the Foreign Office. Lord Lyndhurst was retained
in the Chancellorship. The leadership of the Upper House was left to the
Duke of Wellington, who joined the Cabinet without taking any office.
[Sidenote: Growth of mission work]
Throughout the year industrial distress prevailed in England and Ireland,
with the usual consequence of an increase in crime. The vigorous support of
British trade in the Far East was followed by an extension of Christian
missions. Thus missionary work was resumed in China, while Livingstone
preached the Gospel to the Hottentots of South Africa. The growth in
colonial bishoprics caused Sidney Smith to say that soon there would not be
a rock in the ocean without an English bishop and archdeacon. During this
year adhesive postage stamps were first used in England. Wheatstone
patented his alphabetic printing telegraph, and telegraph wires were strung
as far as Glasgow. Almost simultaneously with the death of Hook, the
British humorist, the new publication of "Punch, or the London Charivari,"
made its appearance. One of its earliest contributors was George
Cruikshank, the caricaturist.
[Sidenote: William H. Harrison inaugurated]
[Sidenote: Death of Harrison]
[Sidenote: Tyler, tenth President]
[Sidenote: Canadian boundary treaty]
[Sidenote: American financial policy]
In British North America, the first Parliament of Canada was opened with
great ceremony in June. After the changes in the Ministry, Sir Charles
Bagett became Governor-General of Canada. In the United States, General
Harrison was inaugurated as President. It rained on his inauguration day,
and the aged General suffered so from exposure that he contracted
pneumonia. One month later he died. The clamor of office-seekers during his
brief tenure contributed largely to his death. Harrison had been active in
public life since he was Secretary of the Northwest Territory in 1797. He
acquired a national reputation by his victory over the Indians at
Tippecanoe. He served as Senator from Indiana from 1825 to 1828, when he
became Minister to the Republic of Colombia in South America. Congress,
after some debate, passed a bill to appropriate one year's Presidential
salary to General Harrison's widow. Vice-President Tyler became President.
A Virginian by birth, he was committed to the Southern theory of State
rights. In his first message he recognized the veto of the United States
Bank measure as approved by the nation. This caused a decisive break with
the holdover Cabinet. All the members resigned except Daniel Webster, who
was retained to complete the Canadian boundary treaty with England. The
line at length agreed upon gave to the United States 7,000 square miles,
and to Great Britain 5,000, with the navigation of the St. John's River.
Lord Ashburton in a speech at New York declared that never again could war
be possible between the two countries. Tyler's new Secretary of State was
Upham. The first measure of the Whigs was the repeal of the independent
Treasury act of the previous Congress, and the next was the establishment
of a general system of bankruptcy, and for distribution of the public land
revenue. The former was more than a bankrupt law; it was practically an
insolvent law for the abolition of debts at the will of the debtor. The
bill passed both Houses. The land-revenue distribution was made imperative
by the fact that various American States and municipalities owed
$200,000,000 to European creditors. These became uneasy, and wished the
Federal Government to assume their debts. The system was first favored in
1838, and again in 1839, and in 1840 became a national issue. Although
Calhoun and Benton both opposed the measure as a squandering of the public
patrimony, it passed by a party vote.
[Sidenote: Tyler's vetoes]
[Sidenote: Loss of Whig support]
A compromise tariff measure, advocated by Clay, provided for an upward
scale of duties, to reach their maximum during the following year. The bill
was vetoed by the President. Another important measure was that for the
rechartering of the National Bank. It passed both Houses by a close vote,
but Tyler vetoed it, to the consternation of the Whigs. On the second vote
the necessary two-thirds majority was not obtained. Thus the second attempt
to resuscitate the old United States Bank resulted in failure. After this
the Whigs withdrew their support from the Administration they had put into
office.
During this year, in America, the grain drill was patented. Wilkes explored
the coast of California. Graham's Magazine was published--one of the first
American literary magazines of high pretensions. Among its earliest
contributors was Edgar Allan Poe. At the same time Longfellow published his
ballads, Cooper his "Deerslayer," and Ralph Waldo Emerson brought out his
philosophical lectures in essay form.
[Sidenote: Close of Seminole War]
War with the Seminoles continued unabated. In the spring, General William
J. Worth had been appointed to succeed Armisted. During the summer, Worth
dispersed his troops into small parties, which ascended the rivers and
penetrated the swamps to the islands to which the Indians had retired.
Worth brought Chief Coacoochee to Tampa in irons. To secure peace, Worth
bade him name five of his fellow chieftains, who were to return to the
Indians and inform them that unless they should appear at Tampa within a
given time and give themselves up, Coacoochee and his fellow prisoners
would forthwith be hanged. The Indians came within the appointed time. As
one band after another surrendered they were sent West to Mississippi. The
cost of the war from first to last had been $40,000,000, which was twice
the sum paid for the Territories of Louisiana and Florida together. It was
estimated that for each black slave brought back from Florida to his
owners, three white men had lost their lives, and $80,000 had been
expended.
[Sidenote: Latin-American upheavals]
In Mexico, the Presidency of Bustamente was superseded by that of General
Santa Anna. The northern States of Mexico maintained their independent
attitude. The State of Costa Rica attempted to withdraw from the ascendant
influence of Guatemala. About the same time the city of Cartago was
destroyed by an earthquake. In Colombia, Marquez maintained himself as
President against his opponents. The States of Panama and Veragua seceded
from the Colombian Union, but the President prevailed upon them to return
to the confederation. In South America, an expedition from Peru invaded
Bolivia and laid siege to La Paz, only to be driven back. Peru was now
invaded by an army from Bolivia, but General Bolnes, the newly elected
President of Chile, interfered on behalf of Peru.
[Sidenote: Revolts in Spain]