resulted in one of the most serious Indian wars of the century. By the
treaty of Fort Muller, in 1823, the Indians were to be confined to a
reservation on the eastern peninsula, but the Territorial Legislature
petitioned Congress for their removal. Finally, in 1832, the treaty of
Payne's Landing stipulated that seven Seminole chiefs should examine the
country assigned to the Creeks west of the Mississippi, and that if they
could live amiably with the Creeks, the Seminoles were to be removed within
three years, surrendering their lands in Florida, and receiving an annuity
of $15,000 and certain supplies. President Jackson sent a commission to the
West to convince the seven chiefs that the country was eminently
desirable, and a supplementary treaty from these seven was obtained without
consulting the rest of the Seminoles. Many Seminoles were opposed to moving
West through fear of the Creeks. The Sacs and Foxes and Winnebago Indians
of Wisconsin by treaty, in 1830, had ceded their lands to the United
States, but they still refused to leave their territory. Governor Reynolds,
of Illinois, called out troops to compel them to go to the lands set apart
for them, west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk returned, but was again
driven off. In 1832 he came back with a thousand warriors and Indian
warfare broke out. Generals Scott and Atkinson were sent with troops to
Rock Island. It was the first time that a steamboat was used as a military
transport. The force was there divided. General Scott could effect nothing,
but General Atkinson pushed on, and in August defeated the Indians and took
Black Hawk and his two sons prisoners.
[Sidenote: Cholera reaches America]
[Sidenote: Death of Charles Carroll]
In many other ways public attention was engrossed in America. On June 21,
the Asiatic cholera appeared in New York with appalling results. The
epidemic spread to Philadelphia, Albany, Rochester, and westward. A number
of new railroads were opened in New York and Pennsylvania. The first
horse-drawn street cars began running in New York. On July 2, the
Agricultural Society of New York was founded, and the first public trial
was held of Obett Hussy's new reaping machine, which Cyrus MacCormick also
claimed as his invention. The device was destined to give a tremendous
impetus to agriculture in the development of the western prairies. About
the same time the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence,
Charles Carroll of Maryland, died at the age of ninety-six. In American
letters, this year is noted for the appearance of Smith's national anthem,
"My Country, 'tis of Thee." Among the books that attracted attention were
Whittier's "Moll Pitcher," Sparks's "Gouverneur Morris," and Irving's
"Alhambra." James Gordon Bennett began the publication of the "New York
Globe."
1833
[Sidenote: American abolition movement]
At the very outset of this year in America the slavery question burst into
flame. The abolition movement inaugurated by Garrison and Whittier in the
North was in full sway. In the slave-holding States large rewards were
offered for the apprehension of Garrison, Whittier and others connected
with the publication of the Boston "Liberator," Philadelphia "Freeman" and
New York "Emancipator." The legislatures of Northern States were called
upon to suppress anti-slavery societies by penal enactments. Governor
Edward Everett of Massachusetts and Governor Marcy of New York commended
such legislation. Prominent Northern citizens travelling in the South were
arrested, imprisoned and flogged for flimsy reasons. At New York,
Montpelier, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and Alton, meetings
were broken up, houses sacked, newspapers destroyed and public halls
burned. Berry's "Philanthropist" at Cincinnati and Lovejoy's "Observer" at
Alton were destroyed and Pennsylvania Hall at Philadelphia, a costly
building intended for anti-slavery discussion, was burned on the day after
its dedication, at which a poem by Whittier had been read. The firemen
refused to extinguish the flames. In Boston, Garrison was dragged through
the streets with a rope around his neck. Whittier and Thompson tried to
lecture against slavery in Boston, but their meeting could not be held in
the face of the following placard posted in all parts of Boston:
[Sidenote: A typical manifesto]
"That infamous foreign scoundrel, Thompson, will hold forth this afternoon
at 46 Washington Street. The present is a fair opportunity for the friends
of the Union to snake Thompson out. It will be a contest between the
Abolitionists and the friends of the Union. A purse of _one hundred
dollars_ has been raised by a number of patriotic citizens to reward the
individual who shall first lay violent hands on Thompson, so that he may be
brought to the tar-kettle before dark. Friends of the Union, be vigilant!"
[Sidenote: Wendell Phillips]
These events inspired Wendell Phillips, who was present at a meeting in
Faneuil Hall, Boston, called to approve these outrages, to take an open
stand in favor of the rights of the people, which were threatened, and gave
to the cause for thirty years his active brain and eloquent tongue.
[Sidenote: Compromise tariff]
As a counterpart to the popular excesses in behalf of slavery, the
Catholics of New England had to suffer persecution. At Charlestown, in
Massachusetts, a mob burned the Ursuline Convent. Another indignation
meeting was held at Faneuil Hall in Boston to denounce this outrage. As a
concession to the Southern agitators, the American Congress, on February
26, adopted a so-called "Compromise tariff." The new bill cut down all
duties of over twenty per cent by one-tenth of the surplus of each year,
so as to bring about a uniform rate of twenty per cent within a decade. On
the other hand, Congress passed a "force bill," which empowered the
President to execute the revenue laws in South Carolina by force of arms. A
State Convention in South Carolina for its part repealed the ordinance of
nullification, but proceeded to declare the new Federal force bill null and
void.
[Sidenote: Death of Randolph]
On May 24, John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, a descendant of Pocahontas,
died at the age of sixty. He commenced public life in 1799, and served
thirty years in Congress. There he became distinguished for his eccentric
conduct, his sharpness of wit, and his galling sarcasm, which made him
feared by all parties. He had to resign from the Cabinet under odious
charges. In 1830, Jackson appointed him Minister to Russia. Randolph's
speeches are still widely read.
[Sidenote: Texas filibusters]
In the extreme South the American settlers of Texas, aided by Davy
Crockett's filibusters from the United States, began a war for independence
against Mexico.
[Sidenote: English abolition movement]
[Sidenote: Gladstone's first speech in Parliament]
[Sidenote: Misgovernment in Ireland]
[Sidenote: Irish resentment]
The abolition of slavery was likewise the most absorbing topic that came up
during this year in the Parliament of England. Young Gladstone, the newly
elected member from Newark, taunted with his father's slave-holding methods
at Demerara, made his maiden speech in Parliament on this subject. One who
heard the rising orator recorded: "Burke himself could not be more
sympathetic, more earnest, and more strong." Another engrossing topic was
that of Ireland. The state of Ireland at this period, as conceded by a
Tory historian of modern England, was a disgrace to the history of the
Nineteenth Century. So wretched was the government of this unhappy
dependency that during the year 1832 alone nearly 1,500 people were
murdered and robbed in Ireland. Instead of giving to Ireland a better
administration, Parliament passed another coercion bill. Tithes for the
Protestant clergy were collected at the point of the bayonet. The cause of
Ireland, as heretofore, was pleaded most eloquently by Daniel O'Connell. He
denounced the Irish Church bill as "the basest act which a national
assembly could sanction." The people became so enraged that when an
Englishman was killed in a riot the coroner's jury returned a verdict of
justifiable homicide. The Court of King's Bench quashed the verdict and
tried the murderer before a jury. He was acquitted in the face of the
clearest proofs against him and in direct contravention of the instructions
of the judge. The spirit of the English aristocracy was indicated by the
fact that a bill for relieving Jews from their civil disabilities was
thrown out by the House of Lords.
[Sidenote: Death of Wilberforce]
On July 26, William Wilberforce died in his seventy-fourth year. He lived
long enough to hear that the bill for the abolition of slavery in the
British colonies, to which he had devoted the greater part of his life, had
passed its second reading, and that success was assured. Of all English
advocates of human freedom he was the most persevering and faithful. After
a distinguished Parliamentary career of forty-five years, he gave up all
political ambitions to devote himself to the cause of humanity and
religion. He had been the intimate friend and associate of Pitt, Fox, G.
Milner, Brougham and Macaulay. His wish that he be buried simply and
privately was not granted by England. He was buried in Westminster Abbey,
close to the tombs of Pitt, Fox and Canning. Around his open grave stood
the royal dukes of Sussex and Gloucester, the Duke of Wellington, Lord
Chancellor Brougham, the venerable Archbishop Howley, with other
representatives from the House of Lords and Commons.
[Sidenote: Tractarian Movement]
[Sidenote: Newman]
[Sidenote: Dr. Arnold]
It was at this period of the ecclesiastical history of England that the
Tractarian Movement began at Oxford. It is a significant fact that the
"Tracts for the Times" appeared at Oxford within less than a year after the
passage of the Reform Bill. The connection of the two movements has been
revealed in Newman's "Apologia Pro Vita Sua." In January, Dr. Arnold, the
celebrated headmaster at Rugby, published his "Principles of Church
Reform." He aimed at a reunion of all Christians within the pale of a great
national church. In the discussion that followed, the foremost spirits were
Newman, Froude, Dr. Pusey, and Keble, the sweet singer of the Church of
England, whose "Christian Year" will live as long as that Church endures.
[Sidenote: Browning]
[Sidenote: Keane]
[Sidenote: Steel pens]
[Sidenote: Electro-magnetism]
Enlightened Englishmen were further stirred at this time by the publication
of Robert Browning's "Pauline," a narrative in unusually virile verse, and
by Edmund Keane's original creation of the character of "Othello." The new
invention of steel pens first came into general use during this same year,
as did Hansom's "safety cab," and Lord Brougham's favorite style of
carriage. Robert Brown, an English scientist, in the course of his
microscopic studies of orchids happened to make the important discovery of
the nucleus of cells. Joseph Saxton, an American, constructed the first
electro-magnetic machine in England.
[Sidenote: Bismarck]
[Sidenote: Revolt at Frankfort]
[Sidenote: Caspar Hauser]
The invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph was claimed by Gauss and
Weber in Germany. The first telegraph actually constructed and used was set
up at Goettingen. Among those who witnessed it was young Bismarck, who had
already achieved a reputation as a duellist among the students of
Goettingen. An impulse toward his political ambitions of the future may
possibly have been given by the sensational events at Frankfort during this
year. A band of misguided enthusiasts attempted to establish German unity
by a _coup de main_. They overpowered a small detachment of guards and
hoisted the black-red-gold banner of Germany. The expected rising of the
population did not follow. The little band of revolutionists was dispersed
at the first appearance of a strong military force. It is characteristic of
the premature nature of this movement that it excited less serious
attention in Germany than the death of Caspar Hauser, a freak foundling,
whose unexplained origin has remained one of the mysteries of the
Nineteenth Century.
[Sidenote: Teplitz conference]
[Sidenote: Zollverein]
The affair at Frankfort received the usual serious consideration by
Metternich, who arranged for meetings of the allied monarchs at
Muenchengraetz, and of their ministers and authorized representatives at
Teplitz. The most beneficial measure agreed on at these meetings was the
comprehension of all German States in a tariff union known as the
Zollverein.
[Sidenote: Otto's reign in Greece]
Full recognition was given to Prince Otto of Wittelsbach as King of Greece.
The young prince, then in his eighteenth year, had already landed at
Nauplia. He commenced his reign with a regency consisting of Bavaria's
ablest ministers, Count Armandsberg, Von Maurer, and Heideck. King Louis of
Bavaria commemorated the accession of his son to the throne of Greece by
erecting a number of monumental buildings at Munich in imitation of the
architecture of ancient Greece, and by mural paintings in the arcades of
his palace garden depicting all the most famous places and incidents of the
Greek struggle for independence.
[Sidenote: French painters]
[Sidenote: Death of Legendre]
In France, a new impetus was likewise given to art. Jean Baptiste Leloir
began his career as a painter of religious and historical subjects;
Lecquereux, the great historical painter, stood already at the zenith of
his power, and Corot's exquisite landscapes were receiving their full
measure of appreciation. In French letters, this year is noted for the
first appearance of Balzac's "Eugenie Grandet" and Prosper Merimee's
"Double Erreur." Legendre, the great French mathematician, died during this
year.
[Sidenote: Treaty of Keteya]
[Sidenote: Compact of Unkiarskelessi]
[Sidenote: Moltke]
It was the foreign policy of France to supplant Russia as mediator between
Turkey and Egypt. Admiral Roussin had made it plain to the Sultan that if
Syria could not be reconquered from the rebellious Mehemet Ali except by
Russian forces the province was more than lost to Turkey. Accordingly, a
French envoy was sent to Mehemet's victorious son, Ibrahim, with powers to
conclude peace on any terms. The French suggestions were adopted on April
10, in the treaty of Keteya. The Sultan made over to his viceroy all of
Syria and a part of Adana. The Egyptians consented to leave Anatolia. The
Sultan took the spoliation so much to heart that he turned from France.
Once more he entered into negotiations with Russia. Russian warships were
permitted to enter the Dardanelles, and Russian troops camped side by side
with the Turks on the east bank of the Bosphorus. A secret treaty for
defence and offence was concluded between Russia and Turkey at the palace
of Unkiarskelessi: The Porte undertook to close the Dardanelles to the
warships of all other nations whenever Russia should be at war. Thus the
entrance to the Black Sea was made practically a Russian stronghold. As
soon as the purport of this treaty was apprehended it had the effect of
uniting the rest of Europe against Russia--notably, France and England.
Henceforth Russia's ascendency in the East was watched by the chancelleries
of Europe with growing suspicion. Sultan Mahmoud set himself seriously to
reorganize his army after Western models. Following the example of Mehemet
Ali, he summoned foreign officers to his general staff. It was then that
Moltke, the subsequent strategist of Germany, entered Turkish service.
[Sidenote: Portuguese civil war]
[Sidenote: Civil war in Spain]
[Sidenote: Revolt in Cuba]
Lord Napier's namesake, Captain Charles Napier, had won fresh laurels in
the Portuguese war for the succession to the throne. In command of the
fleet fitted out by Dom Pedro of Brazil he attacked and annihilated Dom
Miguel's navy off St. Vincent. Napier's colleague, Villa Flor, landed his
forces and marched on Lisbon. The resistance of Dom Miguel's forces was
overcome. On July 28, Dom Pedro was able to enter Lisbon as a victor. Still
the struggle went on. Among those who linked themselves with Dom Miguel was
Don Carlos, the rebellious pretender to the throne of Spain. Upon the death
of King Ferdinand VII., in September, and the coronation of the Infanta
Isabella as Queen of Spain under a regency, Don Carlos was proclaimed king
by his followers. The Basque provinces declared in his favor. Civil war
began. Had Don Carlos crossed the border at once he might have captured his
crown. Unfortunately for his cause, he lingered in Portugal until the end
of the year. The regency of Spain, in the face of this embarrassment at
home, was called upon to proceed energetically against a revolutionary
rising in Cuba under the leadership of Manuel Quesada. Henceforth the Pearl
of the Antilles was no longer the "ever faithful Isle."
1834
[Sidenote: Death of Pedro IV.]
[Sidenote: Quadruple alliance]
[Sidenote: Foreign intervention in Portugal]
[Sidenote: Pretenders withdraw]
The death of Pedro IV., the Emperor of Brazil and claimant king of
Portugal, made matters worse in Portugal. Diego Antonio Fergio set himself
up as Regent. Monasteries were suppressed and the Society of Jesus was
expelled from the kingdom. Dom Miguel continued his fight for the throne.
Don Carlos, the Spanish pretender, remained with him. The situation grew so
threatening for the established governments in Portugal and Spain that
they, too, combined for mutual defence. Queen-Regent Christina of Spain
found that she would have to rely for support upon the Spanish Liberals.
Martinez de la Rosa was made Prime Minister. His first measure was to give
his country a constitution, which was ratified, on April 10, by royal
statute. He then entered into negotiations with Portugal as well as with
England and France to crush the two rebellious pretenders by a combined
effort. On April 22, a fourfold treaty was signed at London by the terms of
which the Spanish and Portuguese Governments undertook to proceed
conjointly against Miguel and Carlos. England promised to co-operate with
her fleet. France agreed to send an army into the Peninsula if called upon.
Before the treaty had been ratified even by the English Parliament and
French Chambers, General Rodil marched a Spanish division into Portugal.
Dom Miguel's forces were driven before him. The threatening demonstrations
of British cruisers and the simultaneous publication of the terms of the
quadruple alliance in Lisbon and Madrid cowed the revolutionists. On May
22, Dom Miguel yielded. On the promise of a handsome pension, he renounced
his rights to the crown of Braganza and agreed to leave Portugal forever.
Don Carlos, while declining thus to sell his rights, took refuge with the
British admiral on his flagship and was taken to London.
[Sidenote: Return of Don Carlos]
[Sidenote: Zumalacarregui]
For a while it seemed as if order had been restored in the Peninsula. The
problem of Portugal was settled. Don Carlos' shrewd move, however, left
matters open in Spain. The pretender had not been made a prisoner of war,
nor was he placed under any constraint or obligations. After a short
residence in England he crossed the Channel, and, travelling through France
in disguise, reappeared on July 10 in Navarre, where Zumalacarregui, a
brigand chief of considerable military ability, was conducting brilliant
operations against the Spanish government forces. Of the detachments sent
against him one after another was defeated in the mountains of Navarre.
[Sidenote: Spanish reverses]
All manner of help from the peasants was obtained by a system of ruthless
intimidation. The personal presence of Don Carlos strengthened the cause.
It was in vain that old General Mina, who had won renown in these parts ten
years ago, was sent against the Carlists. Unable to cope with them, the
old soldier resigned from his command. The Spanish Minister, Valdes,
thereupon took the field himself. His attempt to operate in Navarre with a
large army resulted in the worst defeat that had yet befallen the
government forces. He had to retreat before the victorious Carlists.
Zumalacarregui prepared to cross the Ebro to march upon Madrid.
[Sidenote: Delacey's expedition to Spain]
[Sidenote: French intervention refused]
[Sidenote: Fall of La Rosa's Ministry]
The Spanish Ministry in alarm turned to its allies for aid. The English
Government would render no further aid beyond that already given by the
British squadron in Spanish waters. Permission, however, was granted to
enroll volunteers for the Spanish cause in England and in Ireland. Colonel
Delacey Ebbons raised a corps of needy adventurers, and, having been
supplied with arms and funds, crossed over to Spain. The first appeal for
French intervention resulted in like failure. France had cause to hesitate
before embarking in another Peninsular War. Lord Palmerston's refusal on
behalf of the British Government to co-operate with France in any such
undertaking gave Louis Philippe reason to reflect. A large party in France,
moreover, was in sympathy with Don Carlos. The Spanish Government was
informed that French military assistance, under the circumstances, was
impossible. The first result of this refusal was the downfall of La Rosa's
Ministry in Spain. The civil war continued.
[Sidenote: Revolts in France]
[Sidenote: Fall of Broglie's Ministry]
[Sidenote: Thiers, Prime Minister]
[Sidenote: Death of Lafayette]
In France, domestic troubles rather than international questions were the
problems of the day. On April 5, a violent outbreak had been precipitated
by Mazzini among the workingmen of Lyons, which arose from a labor strike
involving thousands. Soon the whole city was in uproar. Barricades were
thrown up. Blood was shed in hand-to-hand fights with the troops. Similar
outbreaks had been prepared at St. Etienne, Vienne, Grenoble, Chalons,
Auxerre, Arbois, Marseilles, and Luneville. The insurrection spread to
Paris. On April 13, a conflict of some workmen with the troops was followed
by the building of barricades all over the city. The revolt was ruthlessly
suppressed by General Bugeaud, the commandant of Paris, who was henceforth
denounced as a butcher. After it was all over the Ministry of Duc de
Broglie fell in consequence of an adverse vote of the Chambers on the
subject of the indemnities due to America. The succeeding Ministry lasted
just three days. Then came the recall of Thiers, Guizot, Duchatel, Humann,
and Rigny. Marshal Mortier became President of the Council. The Chamber of
Deputies was dissolved. The aged Prince Talleyrand quitted the embassy at
London. A proposal to form a Ministry headed by Marquis de la Fayette for
the last time brought the name of that venerable hero into the public
affairs of France. Shortly afterward he died in peace at La Grange,
surrounded by his children and calling for his dead wife. His burial in the
graveyard of Picpus, consecrated to the memory of the victims of the
Terror, was left undisturbed by political demonstrations.
[Sidenote: Lafayette's career]