[Illustration: MESHED PRAYER RUG
Size 4' × 3'
FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE AUTHOR
Prayer rugs of this class are exceedingly rare. This is the only one
the author has ever seen. It is extremely fine in texture, having
twenty-eight Senna knots to the inch vertically and sixteen
horizontally, making four hundred and forty-eight knots to the square
inch, tied so closely that it is quite difficult to separate the pile
sufficiently to see the wool or warp threads. The central field
consists of the tree of life in dark blue with red, blue and pink
flowers upon a background of rich red.
The main border stripe carries the Herati design in dark blue and
dark red upon a pale blue ground on each side of which are narrow
strips of pink carrying alternate dots of red and blue.
(See page 209)]
COST AND TARIFF
The value of an Oriental rug cannot be gauged by measurement any more
than can that of a fine painting; it depends upon the number of knots to
the square inch, the fineness of the material, the richness and
stability of its colors, the amount of detail in design, its durability
and, last but not least, its age. None of these qualifications being at
sight apparent to the novice, he is unable to make a fair comparison of
prices, as frequently rugs which appear to him to be quite alike and
equally valuable may be far apart in actual worth.
When we consider that from the time a rug leaves the weavers' hands
until it reaches the final buyer there are at least from five to seven
profits to pay besides the government tariffs thereon, it is no wonder
that the prices at times seem exorbitant. The transportation charges
amount to about ten cents per square foot. The Turkish government
levies one per cent. export duty and the heavily protected United States
levies forty per cent. ad valorem and ten cents per square foot besides,
all of which alone adds over fifty per cent. to the original cost in
America, and yet should we estimate the work upon Oriental rugs by the
American standard of wages they would cost from ten to fifty times their
present prices.
To furnish a home with Oriental rugs is not as expensive as it would at
first seem. They can be bought piece by piece at intervals, as
circumstances warrant, and when a room is once provided for it is for
all time, whereas the carpet account is one that is never closed.
In the United States good, durable Eastern rugs may be bought for from
sixty cents to ten dollars per square foot, and in England for much
less. Extremely choice pieces may run up to the thousands. At the
Marquand sale in New York City in 1902, a fifteenth century Persian
rug (10-10 x 6-1) was sold for $36,000, nearly $550 a square foot. The
holy carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil, woven at Kashan in 1536 and now
owned by the South Kensington Museum, of London, is valued at $30,000.
The famous hunting rug, which was presented some years ago by the late
Ex-Governor Ames of Massachusetts to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, is
said to have cost $35,000. The late Mr. Yerkes of New York City paid
$60,000 for his "Holy Carpet," the highest price ever paid for a rug.
Mr. J. P. Morgan recently paid $17,000 for one 20 x 15. Two years ago
H. C. Frick paid $160,000 for eight small Persians, $20,000 apiece.
Senator Clark's collection cost $3,000,000, H. O. Havemeyer's $250,000,
and O. H. Payne's $200,000.
[Illustration: THE METROPOLITAN ANIMAL RUG
BY COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS
NEW YORK CITY
(See page 337)]
Everything considered, the difference in cost per square foot between
the average Oriental and the home product amounts to little in
comparison to the difference in endurance. If one uses the proper
judgment in selecting, his money is much better spent when invested in
the former than when invested in the latter. While the nap of the
domestic is worn down to the warp the Oriental has been improving in
color and sheen as well as in value. This is due to the fact that the
Eastern product is made of the softest of wool and treated with dyes
which have stood the test of centuries and which preserve the wool
instead of destroying it as do the aniline dyes.
In comparing the cost of furnishing a home with Oriental rugs or with
carpets one should further take into consideration the fact that with
carpets much unnecessary floor space must be covered which represents
so much waste money. Also the question of health involved in the use of
carpets is a very serious one. They retain dust and germs of all kinds
and are taken up and cleaned, as a rule, but once a year. With rugs the
room is much more easily kept clean and the furniture does not have to
be moved whenever sweeping time comes around.
DEALERS AND AUCTIONS
Few Europeans or Americans penetrate to the interior markets of the
East where home-made rugs find their first sale. Agents of some of
the large importers have been sent over to collect rugs from families
or small factories and the tales of Oriental shrewdness and trickery
which they bring back are many and varied. We have in this country
many honest, reliable foreign dealers, but occasionally one meets with
one of the class above referred to. In dealing with such people it is
safe never to bid more than half and never to give over two-thirds
of the price they ask you. Also never show special preference for
any particular piece, otherwise you will be charged more for it. No
dealer or authority may lay claim to infallibility, but few of these
people have any adequate knowledge of their stock and are, as a rule,
uncertain authorities, excepting in those fabrics which come from the
vicinity of the province in which they lived. They buy their stock
in large quantities, usually by the bale at so much a square foot,
and then mark each according to their judgment so as to make the
bale average up well and pay a good profit. So it is that an expert
may occasionally select a choice piece at a bargain while the novice
usually pays more than the actual worth. Every rug has three values,
first the art value depending upon its colors and designs, second the
collector's value depending upon its rarity, and third the utility
value depending upon its durability. No dealer can buy rugs on utility
value alone and he who sells Oriental rugs very cheap usually sells
very cheap rugs.
It might be well right here to state that when rugs are sold by the
bale the wholesaler usually places a few good ones in the bale for the
purpose of disposing of the poor ones. Dealers can always find an eager
market for good rugs, but poor ones often go begging, and in order to
dispose of them the auction is resorted to. They are put up under a
bright reflected light which shows them off to the best advantage; the
bidder is allowed no opportunity for a thorough examination and almost
invariably there are present several fake bidders. This you can prove
to your own satisfaction by attending some auction several days in
succession and you will see the same beautiful Tabriz bid off each time
at a ridiculously low price, while those that you actually see placed
into the hands of the deliveryman will average in price about the same
as similar rugs at a retail store.
[Illustration: KHORASAN CARPET
Size 14' × 10'
LOANED BY A. U. DILLEY & CO.
OWNER'S DESCRIPTION
An East Persian rug of especially heavy weave in robin egg blue, soft
red and cream.
Design: Serrated centre medallion, confined by broad blue corner
bands and seven border strips. A rug of elaborate conventionalized
floral decoration, with a modern rendition of Shah Abbas design in
border.
(See page 207)]
ANTIQUES
The passion for antiques in this country has in the past been so strong
that rugs showing signs of hard wear, with ragged edges and plenty of
holes, were quite as salable as those which were perfect in every
respect and the amateur collector of so-called "antiques" was usually an
easy victim. Of late, however, the antique craze seems to be dying out
and the average buyer of to-day will select a perfect modern fabric in
preference to an imperfect antique one.
There is no question that age is an important factor in the beauty of a
rug and that an antique in a state of good preservation is much more
valuable than a modern fabric, especially to the collector, to whom the
latter has little value. In order to be classed as an antique a rug
should be at least fifty years old, having been made before the
introduction of aniline dyes. An expert can determine the age by the
method of weaving, the material used, the color combination, and the
design, with more certainty than can the art connoisseur tell the age of
certain European pictures, to which he assigns dates by their
peculiarities in style. Every time a design is copied it undergoes some
slight change until, perhaps, the original design is lost. This
modification of designs also affords great assistance in determining
their age. In the Tiffany studios in New York City can be seen a series
of Feraghan rugs showing the change in design for several generations.
As a rule more knowledge concerning the age of a rug can be obtained
from the colors and the materials employed than from the designs. An
antique appears light and glossy when the nap runs from you, whereas it
will appear dark and rich but without lustre when viewed from the other
end. Such rugs are usually more or less shiny on the back and their
edges are either somewhat ragged or have been overcast anew.
With the exception of a few rare old pieces which may be found in the
palaces of rulers and certain noblemen, the Orient has been pretty well
stripped of its antiques. Mr. Charles Quill Jones, who has made three
trips through the Orient in search of old rugs, reports that region
nearly bare of gems. During his last sojourn in those parts he has
succeeded in collecting a considerable number of valuable pieces, but
his success may be attributed to the poverty and disruption of
households occasioned by the losses of the recent revolution in Persia.
As especially rare he writes of having secured five pieces which were
made during the reign of Shah Abbas in the 16th century. In England,
France, Germany, Russia, Austria, Poland, and especially Bavaria, there
are many fine old pieces, those of London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and
Budapest being particularly noteworthy. The Rothschild collection in
Paris contains many matchless pieces and the Ardebil Mosque carpet,
which is in the South Kensington Museum, London, is without doubt the
most famous piece of weaving in the world. According to the inscription
upon it, it was woven by Maksoud, the slave of the Holy Place of Kashan,
in 1536. It measures thirty-four feet by seventeen feet six inches and
contains 32,000,000 knots. No doubt there are more good genuine antiques
in Europe and America than in the entire Orient. They are to be found,
as a rule, in museums and in private collections. A number of really old
and very valuable pieces may be seen at the Metropolitan Museum of Fine
Arts in New York City. The Yerkes collection of Oriental rugs, which has
recently been disposed of at public sale by the American Art Galleries,
contained nothing but Polish fabrics and Persian carpets of royal
origin, made at some early date prior to the seventeenth century. Some
of the most prominent collectors of the United States are Mr. J.
Pierpont Morgan of New York City, who has one of the most valuable
collections in the world; Mr. H. C. Frick of Pittsburg, Pa., Miss A. L.
Pease of Hartford, Conn., Mr. C. F. Williams of Morristown, Pa., the
Hon. W. A. Clark and Mr. Benjamin Altman of New York City, Mr. Theodore
M. Davis of Newport, R. I., Mr. Frank Loftus, Mr. F. A. Turner and Mr.
L. A. Shortell of Boston; Mr. J. F. Ballard of St. Louis and Mr. P. A.
B. Widener of Elkins Park, Pa. The late Ex-Governor Ames of
Massachusetts was an enthusiastic collector and possessed many fine
pieces.
The late A. T. Sinclair of Allston, Mass., possessed over one hundred
and fifty antiques, which he himself collected over twenty years ago
from the various districts of Persia, Asia Minor, the Caucasus,
Turkestan, and Beluchistan. Many of these pieces are from one hundred
and fifty to two hundred and fifty years old and every one is a gem.
[Illustration: A PERSIAN RUG MERCHANT]
[Illustration: EXPERT WEAVER AND INSPECTOR]
With the exception of an occasional old Ghiordes, Kulah, Bergama or
Mosul, for which are asked fabulous prices, few antiques can now be
found for sale. It is on account of the enormous prices which antiques
bring that faked antiques have found their way into the market. Rugs may
be artificially aged but never without detriment to them. The aging
process is mostly done by cunning adepts in Persia or Constantinople
before they are exported, although in recent years the doctoring process
has been practised to quite an extent in the United States, and a large
portion of the undoctored rugs which reach these shores are soon
afterwards put through this process. The majority of dealers will tell
you that there is comparatively little sale for the undoctored pieces.
The chemically subdued tones and artificial sheen appeal to most people
who know little about Oriental rugs.
For toning down the bright colors they use chloride of lime, oxalic acid
or lemon juice; for giving them an old appearance they use coffee
grounds, and for the creation of an artificial sheen or lustre the rugs
are usually run between hot rollers after the application of glycerine
or paraffin wax; they are sometimes buried in the ground for a time, and
water color paints are frequently used to restore the color in spots
where the acid has acted too vigorously. Such rugs usually show a slight
tinge of pink in the white.
There is a class of modern rugs of good quality, good material, and
vegetable dyed, but with colors too bright for Occidental taste. Such
rugs are sometimes treated with water, acid, and alkali. The effect of
the acid is here neutralized by the alkali in such a way that the colors
are rendered more subdued and mellow in tone without resulting injury to
the material.
What the trade speaks of as a "washed" rug is not necessarily a
"doctored" one. There is a legitimate form of washing which is really
a finishing process and which does not injure the fabric. It merely
washes out the surplus color and sets the rest. The belief that only
aniline dyes will rub off when wet and that vegetable ones will not do
so is erroneous. If a rug is new and never has been washed the case is
quite the opposite. For the reader's own satisfaction, let him moisten
and rub a piece of domestic carpet. He will find that the aniline of
the latter fabric is comparatively fast, whereas, in a newly made
vegetable dyed Oriental, certain colors, especially the blues, reds and
greens, will wipe off to a certain extent. After this first washing
out, however, nothing other than a chemical will disturb the vegetable
color.
[Illustration: SARUK RUG
Size 14' × 10'
LOANED BY A. U. DILLEY & CO.
OWNER'S DESCRIPTION
The field: Three fawn and blue flower colored medallions and four
arabesques in a line arrangement on a rose-colored background, strewn
with garlands.
The border: One broad stripe, carrying elaborate floral sprays and
arabesques, separated by four elongated corner designs in blue.
An elegant combination of brilliant color and ornate floral design.
Cotton foundation and wool pile.
(See page 200)]
ADVICE TO BUYERS
No set of rules can be furnished which will fully protect purchasers
against deception. It is well, however, for one, before purchasing, to
acquire some knowledge of the characteristics of the most common
varieties as well as of the different means employed in examining them.
In the first place, avoid dealers who fail to mark their goods in plain
figures. Be on the safe side and go to a reliable house with an
established reputation. They will not ask you fancy prices. If it is in
a department store be sure you deal with some one who is regularly
connected with the Oriental rug department. You would never dream of
buying a piano of one who knows nothing of music. So many domestic rugs
copy Oriental patterns that many uninformed people cannot tell the
difference. The following are some of the characteristics of the Eastern
fabrics which are not possessed by the Western ones. First, they show
their whole pattern and color in detail on the back side; second, the
pile is composed of rows of distinctly tied knots, which are made
plainly visible by separating it; third, the sides are either overcast
with colored wool or have a narrow selvage; and fourth, the ends have
either a selvage or fringe or both.
In buying, first select what pleases you in size, color, and design,
then take time and go over it as thoroughly as a horseman would over a
horse which he contemplates buying. Lift it to test the weight. Oriental
rugs are much heavier in proportion to their size than are the
domestics. See if it lies straight and flat on the floor and has no
folds. Crookedness detracts much from its value. Take hold of the centre
and pull it up into a sort of cone shape. If compactly woven it will
stand alone just as a piece of good silk will. Examine the pile and see
whether it is long, short or worn in places down to the warp threads;
whether it lies down as in loosely woven rugs or stands up nearly
straight as in closely woven rugs; also note the number of knots to the
square inch and whether or not they are firmly tied. The wearing
qualities depend upon the length of the pile and the compactness of
weaving. Separate the pile, noting whether the wool is of the same color
but of a deeper shade near the knot than it is on the surface or if it
is of an entirely different color. Vegetable dyes usually fade to
lighter shades of the original color, while anilines fade to different
colors, one or another of the dyes used in combination entirely
disappearing at times and others remaining. This will also be
noticeable, to a certain extent, when one end of the fabric is turned
over and the two sides are compared. Two rugs may be almost exactly
alike in every respect excepting the dye, the one being worth ten to
fifteen times as much as the other.
A good way to test the material is to slightly burn its surface with a
match, thus producing a black spot. If the wool is good the singed part
can be brushed off without leaving the slightest trace of the burn. The
smell of the burnt wool will also easily be recognized. Ascertain the
relative strength of the material, making sure that the warp is the
heaviest and strongest, the pile next and the woof the lightest. If the
warp is lighter than the pile it will break easily or if the warp is
light and the weaving loose it will pucker. Rugs whose foundation
threads are dry and rotten from age are worthless. In such pieces the
woof threads, which are the lightest, will break in seams along the line
of the warp when slightly twisted.
Examine the selvage. It will often indicate the method of its
manufacture, showing whether it is closely or loosely woven, for the
selvage is a continuation of the groundwork of the rug itself. Also
notice the material, whether of hair, wool or cotton. Separate the pile
and examine the woof, noting the number of threads between each row of
knots. If possible pull one of them out. In the cheaper grade of rugs
you will often find two strands of cotton and one of wool twisted
together. Such rugs are very likely some time to bunch up, especially if
washed. See if the selvage or warp threads on the sides are broken in
places. If so it would be an unwise choice. Now turn the rug over and
view it from the back, noting whether repairs have been made and, if so,
to what extent. View it from the back with the light shining into the
pile to see if there are any moths. Pat it and knock out the dust. In
some instances you will be surprised how thoroughly impregnated it will
be with the dust of many lands and how much more attractive the colors
are after such a patting. Rub your hand over the surface with the nap.
If the wool is of a fine quality a feeling of electric smoothness will
result, such as is experienced when stroking the back of a cat in cold
weather.
Finally, before coming to a decision regarding its purchase, have it
sent to your home for a few days. There you can study it more leisurely
and may get an idea as to whether or not you would soon tire of the
designs or colors. While you have it there do not forget to take soap,
water and a stiff brush and scrub well some portion of it, selecting a
part where some bright color such as green, blue or red joins a white.
After the rug has thoroughly dried notice whether or not the white has
taken any of the other colors. If so, they are aniline.
[Illustration: BERGAMA PRAYER RUG
Size 3'8" × 2'7"
PROPERTY OF MR. GEORGE BAUSCH
(See page 237)]
A rather vulgar but very good way of telling whether a rug is doctored
or not is to wet it with saliva and rub it in well. If chemically
treated it will have a peculiar, disagreeable, pungent odor.
A fairly accurate way of determining the claim of the fabric to great
age is to draw out a woof thread and notice how difficult it is to
straighten it, even after days of soaking in water. Unless one is an
expert, he should refrain from relying upon his own judgment in buying a
rug for an antique.
It may be interesting to know the meaning of the tags and seals so
frequently found on rugs. The little square or nearly square cloth tag
that is so frequently attached at one corner to the under surface by two
wire clasps has on it the number given to that particular piece for the
convenience of the washer, the exporter, the importer and the custom
officials. The rug is recorded by its number instead of by its name to
avoid confusion and to save labor. The round lead seal which is
frequently attached to one corner of the rug by a flexible wire or a
string, especially among the larger pieces, is the importer's seal, on
one side of which will be found his initials. These also are of great
assistance to the custom officials.
Before closing this chapter a few words in regard to the selection of
rugs for certain rooms might be acceptable, though this is, to a large
extent, a matter of individual taste; yet in making a selection one
should have some consideration for the decorations and furniture of the
room in which the rugs are to be laid and they should harmonize with the
side walls, whether the harmony be one of analogy or of contrast. The
floor of a room is the base upon which the scheme of decoration is to be
built. Its covering should carry the strongest tones. If a single tint
is to be used the walls must take the next gradation and the ceiling the
last. These gradations must be far enough removed from each other in
depth of tone to be quite apparent but not to lose their relation.
Contrasting colors do not always harmonize. A safe rule to follow would
be to select a color with any of its complementary colors. For instance,
the primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. The complementary color of
red would be the color formed by the combination of the other two, which
in this case would be green composed of yellow and blue; therefore red
and green would form a harmony of contrast. Likewise red and blue make
violet, which would harmonize with yellow; red and yellow make orange,
which would harmonize with blue, etc.
[Illustration: SYMBOLIC PERSIAN SILK (TABRIZ) RUG
(See page 316)]
Light rooms of Louis XVI style would hardly look as well with bright,
rich colored rugs as they would with delicately tinted Kirmans, Saruks,
and Sennas. Nor would the latter styles look as well in a Dutch dining
room, finished in black oak, as would the rich, dark Bokharas and
Feraghans. Mission rooms also require the dark colored rugs. If the room
is pleasing in its proportion and one rug is used it should conform as
nearly in proportion as possible. If the room is too long for its width
select a rug which will more nearly cover the floor in width than it
will in length. A rug used in the centre of a room with considerable
floor area around it decreases the apparent size of the room. Long rugs
placed lengthwise of a room increase its apparent length, while short
rugs placed across a room decrease its apparent length, and rugs with
large patterns, like wall paper with large patterns, will dwarf the
whole apartment. The following ideas are merely offered as suggestions
without any pretension whatever to superiority of judgment.
For a VESTIBULE a long-naped mat, which corresponds in shape to the
vestibule and covers fully one-half of its surface, such for instance as
a Beluchistan or a Mosul. Appropriate shorter naped pieces may be found
among the Anatolians, Meles, Ladiks or Yuruks. As a rule the dark
colored ones are preferable.
HALL.--If the hall is a long, narrow one, use long runners which cover
fully two-thirds of its surface. Such may be found among the Mosuls,
Sarabands, Hamadans, Ispahans, Shirvans, and Genghis.
For a reception hall a Khiva Bokhara, a Yomud, a dark colored Mahal, or
several Kazaks or Karabaghs would look well if the woodwork is dark. If
the woodwork is light several light colored Caucasian or Persian pieces
such as the Daghestans, Kabistans, Sarabands, Hamadans, or Shiraz would
be appropriate.
RECEPTION ROOM.--A light colored Kermanshah, Tabriz, Saruk, Senna, or
Khorasan. Usually one large piece which covers from two-thirds to
three-fourths of the floor surface is the most desirable.
LIVING ROOM.--For this room, which is the most used of any in the home,
we should have the most durable rugs and as a rule a number of small or
medium sized pieces, which can be easily shifted from one position to
another, are preferable. Here, too, respect must be had for harmony with
the side walls, woodwork and furniture, as it is here that the family
spend most of their time and decorative discord would hardly add to
one's personal enjoyment. Many appropriate selections may be made from
the Feraghans, Ispahans, Sarabands, Shiraz, Mosuls, Daghestans,
Kabistans, and Beluchistans.
DINING ROOM.--Ordinarily nothing would be more appropriate than one of
the Herez or Sultanabad productions unless the room be one of the
Mission style, in which case a Khiva Bokhara would be most desirable.
Small pieces would not be suitable.
LIBRARY OR DEN.--One large or several small pieces, usually the dark
rich shades are preferable, such for instance as are found in the
Khivas, Yomuds, Kurdistans, Feraghans, Shiraz, Kazaks, Beluchistans or
Tekke Bokharas, the predominating color selected according to the
decorations of the room.
BATH ROOM.--One heavy long-piled, soft piece such as are some of the
Bijars or Mosuls in light colors.
BEDROOMS.--For chambers where colors rather than period styles are
dominant and where large rugs are never appropriate, prayer rugs like
those of the Kulah, Ghiordes, Ladik, Anatolian, or Daghestan varieties
are to be desired. Those with yellow as the predominating color blend
especially well with mahogany furniture if the walls are in buff or
yellow tones. The Nomad products are especially desirable for bedrooms
on account of the comfort which they afford. Being thick and soft the
sensation to the tread is luxurious. An occasional Anatolian, Ladik,
Bergama, Meles, or Bokhara mat placed before a dresser or a wash-stand;
a Shiraz pillow on the sofa; a Senna Ghileem thrown over a divan; a
Shiraz, Mosul, or Beluchistan saddle-bag on a Mission standard as a
receptacle for magazines; a silk rug as a table spread, etc., will all
add greatly to the Oriental effect.
[Illustration: SHIRAZ RUG
BY COURTESY OF NAHIGIAN BROS., CHICAGO, ILL.
This piece is typical of its class with the small tassels of wool on
the side edging; with the ornamental web and the braided warp threads
at each end, also the pole medallion and the numerous bird forms
throughout the field.
(See page 204)]
THE HYGIENE OF THE RUG
In all the literature on Oriental Rugs no mention has been made of
their sanitary condition when laid on the floors of our homes. In
response to a letter of inquiry, one of our American missionaries,
a young lady stationed at Sivas, Turkey in Asia, who very modestly
objects to the use of her name, so well explained the condition of
affairs that portions of her letter given verbatim will prove most
interesting. She says:
"In Sivas there are a number of rug factories in which are employed
many thousand little girls, ages ranging from four years upward. They
work from twelve to fourteen hours a day and I believe the largest
amount received by them is five piasters (less than twenty cents) and
the small girls receive ten to twenty paras (a cent or two). These
factories are hotbeds of tuberculosis and we have many of these cases
in our Mission Hospital. Of course this amount of money scarcely keeps
them in bread and in this underfed condition, working so long in ill
ventilated rooms, they quickly succumb to this disease. These girls
are all Armenians in that region. The Turks do not allow their women
and children to work in public places. The Armenians are going to
reap a sad harvest in the future in thus allowing the future wives
and mothers of their race to undermine their health working in these
factories. These rugs are all exported to Europe and America.
"No matter what part of the city you pass through this time of the year
you will see looms up in the different homes and most of the family,
especially the women and children, working on these rugs, and it is
very interesting to watch them and to see how skilful even the small
children grow in weaving these intricate patterns. Making rugs in the
homes is quite different from making them in the factories, for in the
summer at least they have plenty of fresh air.
"No doubt many rugs made in these homes are filled with germs of
contagious diseases, for they use no precautions here when they have
such diseases in the family, and usually the poor people only have
one room, and if a member of the family is stricken with smallpox or
scarlet fever the rest of the family continue to work on the rug often
in the same room."
Another correspondent from Marash, Turkey in Asia, says, "If you are
interested in humanity as well as in rugs, please put in a strong plea
against some of these factories which are employing children who can
scarcely speak. These little babies sit from morning till evening tying
and cutting knots in damp and poorly ventilated places. Is it a wonder
that diseases, especially tuberculosis, are developing rapidly among
them?"
A third correspondent says, "Often rugs upon which patients have died
from contagious diseases are sold without cleaning. In fact, they are
rarely cleaned."
Upon receipt of the above a letter of inquiry was at once sent to
the Treasury Department at Washington regarding the disinfection of
textiles from the Orient immediately upon their arrival into this
country, to which we were informed that "The Surgeon-General of the
Public Health and Marine Hospital Service stated that such rugs, if
originating in parts or places infected with quarantinable diseases,
would be required to be disinfected under the quarantine laws." This
sounds sensible, but when the rugs are sent from all parts of the
Orient to Constantinople, from whence they are shipped in bales to
the United States, pray how can the Surgeon-General discriminate? The
only safe way is for the government to have strict laws regarding
their immediate and thorough disinfection. We already have a law which
requires the disinfection of hides before they are shipped to this
country. It reads: "Officers of the customs are directed to treat hides
of neat cattle shipped to the United States without proper disinfection
as prohibited importations, and to refuse entry of such hides." Also,
"the disinfection of such hides in this country or storage of the same
in general order warehouses will not be permitted, for the reason that
the passage of diseased hides through the country or their storage with
other goods will tend to the dissemination of cattle disease in the
United States." (See Section 12 of the Tariff Act of August 5, 1909.)
Ex-President Taft once recommended a new department of public health
whose duty it would be to consider all matters relating to the health
of the nation. If his suggestions are carried out no doubt the question
of disinfecting Oriental imports will be satisfactorily disposed of.
Until then we should see to it that all Oriental rugs are at least
clean and free from dust before allowing them to be delivered in our
homes. The great majority of these rugs, when leaving the Orient, are
impregnated with dust from their adobe floors and, if free of this
dust, they have in all probability been pretty thoroughly cleaned by
some reliable importer or dealer, the majority of whom are beginning to
realize the importance of this procedure.
[Illustration: ANTIQUE ANATOLIAN MAT
Size 3'5" × 1'10"
FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE AUTHOR
Knot. Nine to the inch vertically and eight horizontally, making
seventy-two to the square inch.
This is a most unusual piece. It has a long nap, is tied with the
Turkish knot and in many respects resembles the Bergama while on the
back it has a distinctly Khorasan appearance. It is an old piece
with a most lustrous sheen and the colors are of the best, every one
being of exactly the same tint on the surface as it is down next to
the warp threads.
The prevailing color is a rich terra cotta with figures of lilies
in olive-green, old rose, blue and white. There are also a number of
six-petaled flowers in red, white and blue. In the centre there is a
diamond-shaped medallion with triangular corner pieces to match, all
of which are outlined in natural black wool. The nap is so cut as to
give the surface the characteristic hammered-brass appearance so
common in many of the antique Bergamas and the lustre is such as is
only found in the very old pieces.
(See page 234)]
THE CARE OF RUGS
There is a popular idea that an Oriental rug will never wear out and
that the harder it is used the more silky it will grow. This is an
erroneous idea and many rugs that would be almost priceless now are
beyond repair, having fallen into the hands of people who did not
appreciate them and give them the proper care. Oriental rugs cannot be
handled and beaten like the domestics without serious injury. In the
Orient they receive much better treatment than they do at our hands.
There they are never exposed to the glare of a strong light and are
never subjected to the contact of anything rougher than the bare feet.
The peculiar silkiness of the nap so much admired in old pieces is due
to the fact that the Oriental never treads on them with his shoes.
Large rugs, having a longer pile, resist more the wear and tear from
the shoes, but they must be handled with greater care than the small
ones, as, being heavier, the warp or woof threads are more liable to
break.
As a rule rugs should be cleaned every week or two. Never shake them
or hang them on a line, as the foundation threads may break, letting
the knots slip and spread apart. There are more rugs worn out in this
way than by actual service. Lay them face downward on the grass or on
a clean floor and gently beat them with something pliable like a piece
of rubber hose cut in strips. With a clean broom sweep the back, then
turning them over, sweep across the nap each way, then with the nap.
Brushing against the nap is most harmful, as it may loosen the knots
and force the dust and dirt into the texture. Finally dampen the broom
or, better still, dampen a clean white cloth in water to which a little
alcohol has been added, and wipe over the entire rug in the direction
in which the nap lies. The sweeping process keeps the end of the pile
clean and bright and gives it a silky, lustrous appearance. Sometimes
clean, dampened sawdust can be used and, in the winter time, nothing is
better than snow, which will clean and brighten them wonderfully.
Many rugs are improved by an occasional washing. It is usually
advisable to have some reliable man, who understands this work, to do
it for you, as it is quite a task and few homes have a suitable place
for it. A good concrete floor will answer nicely. With a stiff brush,
a cake of castile or wool soap and some warm water give the pile a
thorough scrubbing in every direction excepting against the nap. Rinse
with warm water, then with cold, turning the hose upon it for fifteen
or twenty minutes. Soft water is preferable if it can be obtained.
Finally, with a smooth stick or a wooden roller, squeeze the water
out by stroking it in the direction of the nap. This stroking process
should be continued for some time, after which the rug is spread out on
a roof face upward for several clear days.
Unless rugs are frequently moved or cleaned moths are sure to get into
them. Sweeping alone is not always sufficient to keep them out. For
this purpose the compressed air method is _par excellence_.
If you expect to close your home for several weeks or months do not
leave your rugs on the floor. After having all necessary repairs made,
have them thoroughly cleaned by the compressed air process, then place
them in canvas or strong paper bags, sealing them tightly. A large
rug may be wrapped with clean white paper, then with tar paper. It is
better to roll than to fold them, but if folded always see that the
pile is on the inside, else bad creases may be made in them which may
never come out. They should be stored in a dry, airy room, as they
readily absorb moisture.
When a rug shows a tendency to curl on the corners only, a very good
idea is to weight it down with tea lead which is folded in such a way
as to make a piece about four inches long, one inch wide and one-eighth
of an inch thick. This is inclosed in a cloth pocket which is sewed to
the under side of the rug at the corners so that its length lies in the
direction of the warp.
Many rugs that are crooked may easily be straightened by tacking them
face downward in the proper shape and wetting them. They should be kept
in that position until thoroughly dried and shrunken to the proper
shape. Obstinate and conspicuous stains may be removed by clipping the
discolored pile down flat to the warp, carefully pulling out the knots
from the back of the rug and having new ones inserted. This, however,
with all other extensive repairs, should be done by one especially
skilled in that line.
Considering the rapid increase in the price of good Oriental rugs
within the past few years we should appreciate and care for all the
fine examples which we already have in our possession.
[Illustration: GHIORDES PRAYER RUG
PROPERTY OF LIBERTY & CO., LONDON, ENGLAND.
The prayer niche, the cross panels and the main border stripe are all
characteristic of its class.
(See page 238)]
THE MATERIAL OF RUGS
The materials from which rugs are made, named in order of the ratio in
which they are used, are wool, goats' hair, camels' hair, cotton, silk,
and hemp.
WOOL.--The wool produced in the colder provinces is softer and better
than that produced in the warmer provinces. Likewise that produced at a
high altitude is superior to that from a lower altitude. The quality of
the pasturage plays a most important part in the quality of the wool.
For this reason no better wool is to be found anywhere in the world than
from the provinces of Khorasan and Kurdistan. Very often the sheep are
covered over with a sheet to protect and keep the wool in a clean,
lustrous condition. The quality of the wool also depends to no small
extent upon the age of the sheep from which it is taken, that from the
young lambs being softer and more pliable than that from the older
animals. The softest and most lustrous wool is that which is obtained by
combing the sheep in winter and is known as kurk. From this some of the
choicest prayer rugs are made.
GOATS' HAIR.--From the goats of some localities, especially in Asia
Minor and Turkestan, is obtained a soft down which is used to a large
extent in the manufacture of rugs. The straight hair of the goat is also
used. It is of a light brown color and, as it will not dye well, is
sometimes used without dyeing to produce brown grounds, as in some of
the Kurdistan products. It is quite commonly used as a selvage and
fringe in the Turkoman products. When wet it curls so tightly that it is
difficult to spin it, therefore it is not always washed. This accounts
for the strong odor which is especially noticeable in warm weather.
Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat of Asia Minor, while cashmere
consists of the soft under-wool of the Cashmere goat of Tibet.
CAMELS' HAIR.--In Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan are
camels which produce a long woolly hair suitable for rug weaving which
is never dyed, is silky and soft, has phenomenal durability and is
used quite freely in the Hamadan, Mosul, and Beluchistan products. It
is more expensive than sheep's wool but has one great drawback in that
on the muggy days of summer it has a disagreeable odor. Most of the
alleged camels' hair of commerce is a goats' hair pure and simple.
COTTON.--The majority of the finer Persian rugs have cotton warp and
woof. It makes a much lighter, better and more compact foundation on
which to tie the pile, and a rug with such a foundation will hold its
shape much better. Seldom is cotton used for the pile excepting once in
a great while a Bokhara may be found with small portions of the white
worked in cotton.
SILK.--In the regions bordering on the Caspian Sea and in some parts
of China where silk is plentiful it is used to quite an extent in the
making of rugs, not only for the nap but frequently for the warp and
woof as well. It makes a beautiful fabric, but of course will not wear
like wool.
HEMP.--Hemp is seldom used in rug making for the reason that it rots
quickly after being wet and the entire fabric is soon gone.
PREPARATION OF THE WOOL.--After being sorted, the wool is taken to a
brook and washed thoroughly at intervals in the cold running water for
several times until all foreign matters are removed, leaving the animal
fat which gives it the soft, silky appearance. The results of washing
depend to a certain extent upon the quality of the water used in the
process, soft water giving much better results than does the hard.
After a thorough bleaching in the sun's rays it is placed in a stone
vessel, covered with a mixture of flour and starch, then pounded with
wooden mallets, after which it is again washed in running water for
several hours and again dried in the sun. Under this process it shrinks
in weight from forty to fifty per cent., and after being spun the yarn
is sold everywhere for the same price as twice the amount of the raw
material.
It is spun in three different ways. That which is intended for the warp
is spun tightly and of medium thickness, that for the woof rather fine,
and that for the pile heavy and loose.
There are so many different natural shades of wool that much of it
can be utilized in its natural color. The dyeing is always done in the
yarn, never in the loose fibres, and will be explained in the chapter
under Dyes.
[Illustration: SPINNING THE WOOL
COURTESY OF PUSHMAN BROS., CHICAGO]
[Illustration: LADIK PRAYER RUG
Size 7'2" × 4'
BY COURTESY OF NAHIGIAN BROS., CHICAGO, ILL.
OWNERS' DESCRIPTION.--These rare rugs, so renowned for their splendid
coloring, are well represented by this specimen. The very unusual
shade of green, the sacred color, the deep ivory, and the rich reds
and blues are blended into each other in an artistic manner.
In and above the "Mihrab" or niche will be noted the "Ubrech" or
pitcher, a most interesting design. It is from this "Ubrech" that
water is poured upon the hands of the Mohammedan as he makes his
ablutions. Wash basins are unknown in the Orient and no follower of
Mohammed will consent to wash in anything except running water.
So the "Ubrech" is almost as important as the prayer rug itself, and
the four reproductions on this rug emphasize to the devout
Mohammedan owner that cleanliness is next important to Godliness.
Rhodian lilies, with long stems and inverted in the frieze below the
"Mihrab" or niche, are an often noted feature of the Ladik prayer
rugs.
(See page 228)]
DYES AND DYERS
The secrets of the Eastern dye-pot are responsible for the unrivalled
beauty and durability of the Oriental rug. These secrets of extracting
coloring matter from roots, leaves, flowers, barks, and various other
vegetable and animal products by a process of boiling, fermenting,
etc., were guarded religiously and descended from father to son, many
of them having been lost as the family became extinct. Each dyer or
family of dyers has some peculiar and secret method of producing
certain shades.
Our great knowledge of chemistry has aided us little in our effort
to duplicate and produce certain colors which the Orientals produced
with the simplest ingredients and without any knowledge of chemistry
whatever. Every kind of plant from which dyestuff is obtained is a
product of geographic environment, the quality of which depends upon
certain conditions of climate and soil. For this reason those of one
locality may be superior to those of another. On the other hand it must
not be forgotten that there are many classes of vegetable dyes which
are not scientifically or honestly made.
After the wool has gone through the washing process and dried it is
dipped into one or more pots, according to the shade desired, for a
certain length of time, when, without being wrung out, it is hung up
over the dye-pot to drip and after being washed once more in cold
water it finally is spread out in the sun. Even when the same process
is followed each time it is seldom that two bunches of material dyed
have exactly the same shade, as the density of the dye and its shade
differs somewhat with each dip of wool from a previous pot. This
probably accounts in part for the innumerable shadings seen in the
rugs of certain localities. Formerly the dyers employed as mordants,
valonia, pomegranate rind, sumac, and the barks of certain trees, but
in some districts of late they use alum. This, with the lime solution
in which the wool is washed before dyeing to increase the brilliancy
of the dyes, makes the yarn brittle and lessens its wearing quality.
Most vegetable dyes fade, but they fade into softer and more pleasing
shades. The best colors for service are, as a rule, the blues, yellows,
and reds, all of which improve greatly with age. The browns are apt to
lose their lustre, while the blacks, which are really mineral, being
made by the action of vinegar on iron shavings, seem most corrosive
and gradually eat the wool. Many of the antiques you will find in a
splendid state of preservation with the exception of the black, which
has eaten the pile down to the warp threads. Natural colored black and
brown wools and brown camels' hair are frequently used and they are, of
course, durable.
There is no doubt that the increasing demand in this country for the
Eastern rug, together with the Russian influence in the Orient, tends
towards more hasty commercial methods of manufacture and is, to a great
extent, responsible for the introduction there of aniline dyes. The
coal tar products have been readily accepted by the Eastern dyers,
as they are cheaper, more easily used, and offer a greater number of
brilliant shades, all of which appeal very much to the Oriental taste.
The aniline dyes are more commonly used through Asia Minor and, to some
extent, in the Caucasus and even in Persia. In 1903 a law was enacted
by the Persian government forbidding the importation of chemical dyes
and seizing and destroying all fabrics in which they were used. It
was also decreed that a dyer found guilty of using them would have
his right hand cut off. The government has never been very strict
in enforcing this law, else there would be at the present time many
one-handed men in Persia.
As there is no such law in Asia Minor, fully seventy-five per cent.
of the rugs now imported from that country are aniline dyed. The
Kurdistan, Khorasan, and Kirman products, as well as those made by the
Nomads in the Fars district of Persia, have been particularly free from
outside influences and as a rule are honestly dyed.
The nomadic life of the Kurds in former times enabled them to gather
plants more easily and so they were able to obtain good vegetable dyes.
Now that they do not roam as much the result is, less vegetable and
more aniline dyes. Formerly also, the best wool only was used by the
Kurds for the making of rugs and the women chose only that which they
knew would take the colors well. Now the men sell the best part of the
wool and the women use what is left and press aniline dyes into service
to hide any possible defect.
Some of the coal tar products will resist light, water, and air even
better than many of the vegetable pigments, but the former have a
tendency to make the wool fibres more brittle so that they break
easily, while the latter preserve the wool and lengthen the life of the
fabric.
Each nation uses to a large extent its favorite color, thus the Persian
is partial to the dark greens and yellows, the Turk to the reds, and
the Armenian to the blues. Asia Minor and Persia being countries of
intense sunshine, in which the colors of the sky and land are most
pronounced, the neutral tints and hues make little impression on such
surroundings and are therefore little used. All the rug making people
use more or less yellow, blue, orange, red, ruby, and green, excepting
the Turk, who regards the latter as a sacred color and not to be
trodden on. He therefore seldom uses it in any but those of the prayer
design.
An expert can often distinguish between an aniline dyed rug and a
vegetable dyed one merely by feeling of it, as the coal tar product
robs the wool of its oil, making it stiffer, harder, and dryer. Another
way to differentiate is to examine some of the white which lies next to
some bright color like blue, red, orange, or green and see if it has
become tinted with the brighter color. If not, wet the two and after
they dry see if the white has taken any of the other color. If so it
is probably aniline. In the Orient they use a string of amber beads
with which to test the dyes. The beads are drawn over the surface of
the rug so that the colors reflect through them. If aniline they are
said to have a cloudy appearance, while if vegetable they have a clear
wavy appearance. If there is any knowledge imparted by this test it
certainly is only in the hands of the experienced. A vegetable dye will
fade into a lighter tone of itself, while in a chemical dye some one
of the colors used to make up the composite color will disappear. For
instance a blue, which has been used with yellow to make green, may
entirely disappear, leaving the yellow; thus in the aniline product the
surface will show the changed color and the original color will show
down next to the warp, while in the vegetable dyed product there will
simply be two shades of the same color.
Weavers frequently choose colors according to their symbolic
significance, so that they work into their rugs a sort of poetry which
only the initiated can read. Thus to the Persian, the Chinese, and the
Indian Mohammedan, white is an emblem of mourning; green is regarded by
the Mohammedan as a sacred color and denotes immortality; blue to the
Persian means air, while to the Mongolian it means authority and power;
black denotes sorrow, evil, and vice; red denotes joy, happiness, life,
truth, virtue, and sincerity; yellow is a Chinese color for royalty;
orange is the Buddhist and Mohammedan color for sorrow, and rose for
divine wisdom. The following is a list of some of the most common
Oriental colors with a short description of the sources from which they
are derived:
[Illustration: PERSIAN DYE POTS]
[Illustration: A PERSIAN VILLAGE]
RED.--The best and most lasting is the rich carmine known as Kermes
and consists of dried insects which live on a species of oak tree.
These insects are collected in the month of June and are killed by
being exposed to the vapors of acetic acid evolved by heating vinegar.
Kermes was known to have been used in Syria in the time of Moses, and
is probably the most lasting and most preservative of all dyestuffs.
Of late years, however, it has been to a large extent supplemented by
cochineal, which is more brilliant. Madder root, ground and boiled, is
the basis of a multitude of reds and is also noted for its fastness.
From it can be obtained many degrees of red from pink to intense
scarlet, but the shade most commonly used by the Persians of to-day
is obtained by combining madder with alum and grape juice. Although
cochineal is used considerably by Eastern dyers, it is really a modern
dye, being obtained from dried insects which are found on the cacti of
Mexico. It gives soft, beautiful reds, is absolutely fast and is very
expensive. With bichromate of potash it gives purple; with sulphuric
acid, crimson and scarlet, and with madder, cherry and various shades
of pink. One of the best, richest and most lasting vermilions was made
by a secret process from sheep's blood, but the secret has long since
been lost. In recent years many reds have had as a basis the dye woods,
such as Campeachy wood, Brazil wood, and others. They are sometimes
obtained from onion skins, ivy berries, beets, and other plants, but
these latter pigments are not as enduring as those previously mentioned.
BLUE.--Indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid, to which is added alum,
forms a basis of most blues and was used long before the Christian era.
It is obtained from the leaves of various specimens of Indigofera which
are cultivated largely in India. The deep Persian blue is obtained by
applying indigo over madder. It can be compounded with almost any other
dyeing material known and it is by this mixing process that beautiful
violets, porcelain blues and pinks are obtained. A superb dark blue
found in some of the antique Persian rugs has been in disuse for nearly
a half century. The secret of making it seems to have been lost and no
one has been able to reproduce it.
GREEN.--Indigo in combination with one of the yellows furnishes most of
the greens. With buckthorn it produces Chinese greens, both bright and
dull.
BROWN.--Browns are most frequently obtained by mixing madder with
yellow or by dyeing with madder over yellow. Valonia, catechu,
gall-nuts, and the green husks of walnuts also enter largely into the
making of browns.
YELLOW.--The principal yellows are obtained from the Persian berries,
from turmeric, from saffron and sumac roots. Persian berries give
a fast dull yellow. Turmeric is from the root of a plant growing
abundantly in East India and China and it gives a bright orange color.
Orange yellow is also obtained from henna and by combining madder and
turmeric. A light yellow is obtained from larkspur; a greenish yellow
from a fungus of the mulberry, and, of late years, a buff colored
yellow has been obtained from quercitron bark.
BLACK.--Black seems to be the only color which the rug makers of older
days were unable to produce from vegetable or animal sources. The
principal black used was that made from iron filings with vinegar and
pomegranate rind, but it destroyed the fibres of the wool. For this
reason very little black was used in the antique pieces excepting where
the fleece of black sheep could be obtained. Nowadays logwood, which
grows in Central America, is the essential basis of all blacks in
wool, although other colors are frequently used with it to modify or
intensify the shade.
PURPLE.--From very early times the Phœnicians were renowned for a
purple which they obtained from a shellfish found in the Ægean Sea,
but the secret of making it has long since become a lost art. A great
many shades of purple, heliotrope and lavender are obtained from the
different red dyes in combination with indigo and the dye woods as well
as from the bodies of marine insects and mollusks.
GRAY.--Gray is secured from Smyrna gall-nuts with copperas.
SALMON.--Salmon is obtained by mixing madder with valonia.
VIOLET.--Violet is frequently made from milk, sour grape juice, madder
and water.
[Illustration: DAGHESTAN RUG
Size 8' × 3'6"
FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE AUTHOR
Knot: Ghiordes. Seven to the inch horizontally and eight vertically,
making fifty-six to the square inch.
This rug illustrates the best Caucasian spirit in design and
workmanship. It is glorious in color and its combination of blues,
reds, yellows and greens belong to an age which is bygone in the
textile art of Caucasia.
The Georgian design in the outer border is a Caucasian characteristic
and especially of the Daghestans.
(See page 254)]
WEAVING AND WEAVERS
The method of weaving in the Orient to-day is practically the same as
it was one thousand years ago with the exception, perhaps, that there
are now fewer crooked fabrics woven than in the days gone by. Next to
the quality of the material from which it is made, and the dye with
which it is colored, the splendid durability of the Oriental rug is due
to the manner in which the pile is tied to the warp thread. It is so
secure that it is impossible to remove it by pulling either end of the
knot. This differs from the domestic method in which the pile is merely
drawn between the warp threads without tying or fastening. In the finer
fabrics of the East the knots are so close that it requires careful
examination to discover them except in very old rugs where the pile is
worn down, then the knot is distinctly seen.
In some parts of Persia the best artisans are men but in most other
sections the weavers are mostly women and children. The latter begin
working at the loom as early as four or five years of age and serve
an apprenticeship of two years, after which they receive a few pennies
a day. A skilful woman weaver will earn from three to six shillings a
week and they usually work from sunrise to sunset, week after week,
month after month, year after year. As a rule they have no education,
can neither read nor write, and have absolutely nothing else to do
but weave and gossip. Rug weaving proves a sort of an amusement and a
source of income; besides they take a great interest in the work and
the height of their ambition is to realize hope of royal recognition
for their superior workmanship.
Each rug is given in charge of a master weaver who usually gets one
anna (two cents) for every eleven hundred knots tied. He it is who
hires and pays the weavers and makes himself responsible for the
quality of the work done.
The girls, especially those of Asia Minor, frequently buy with their
earnings perforated gold coins with which to decorate themselves
by making them into necklaces or bracelets or by arranging them on
their headgear. These coins not only serve to make known their skill
as weavers, but also answer as dowries for their future husbands. A
skilful weaver can tie from twelve to fourteen knots a minute or from
seven to eight thousand knots a day. This would be equal to from
fourteen square inches to three square feet, according to the fineness
of the rug. For this she receives, on the average, nine cents a day.
For a rug 10 × 6 with 182 knots to the square inch, she would receive,
in rough figures, from $18.00 to $20.00, and the rug would sell in
Constantinople for no less than $75.00. If the women of the Orient are
ever emancipated we will have to pay much higher prices for Eastern
carpets than we do now.
[Illustration: A TURKISH LOOM]
The Eastern loom, which is the same to-day as it was a thousand years
ago, consists merely of four poles joined together by ropes according
to the size of the rug to be woven. On these the warp threads are
strung and kept at the proper tension by weights, which are attached to
one of the cross poles.
From one to six, or even more, weavers work on a rug at the same time,
according to its size. They sit cross-legged either on the floor or on
a raised frame, so that their work will be on a level with their knees.
Before them, as seen in the accompanying illustration, is fastened the
model which they are to follow or what is known as the "talim," a chart
which indicates the colors to be used and the number of knots to be
tied in each color. Like expert pianists their fingers seem to know
the pattern and much of the time their eyes are not even upon the work.
[Illustration: Showing the left and right Senna knots and the
Ghiordes knot both before and after the trimming of the pile.]
[Illustration: YOUTHFUL WEAVERS]
In many cases the head weaver sings these symbols for the benefit
of the other weavers. Among the Nomads the design is frequently kept
in the brain, or roughly drawn on paper or in the sand. If they have
another rug as a model they get the right design by simply counting on
the back the number of knots of every color in each row. Beginning at
the bottom and working towards the right, the wool yarn, which goes to
form the pile, is looped around the warp threads by the aid of blunt
pointed needles and then tied in such a way that by each knotting two
of the warp threads are bound. When the Turkish knot is used, these two
threads are bound side by side. When the Persian knot is used, if tied
tightly, one is bound in front of the other. This process is repeated
along the line with the proper colors required by the patterns and
after each row of knots one or more weft threads are passed through
between the warp threads and then beaten down with a sort of comb,
the teeth of which pass between the warp threads. The pile is then
trimmed off with the scissors to the desired length. The Caucasians and
Kurds, as a rule, leave a long pile, while the Turkomans and Persians
clip theirs quite short. Close trimming brings out more minutely the
color variations. The number of knots to the square inch is determined
by the closeness of the warp threads and the number of weft threads
thrown across after each row, also by the thickness of these threads.
The tighter and closer the knots are tied the more perpendicular the
pile and more durable the fabric. In coarse fabrics, like the Kazak,
there are usually four or five weft threads between each row of
knots. In such fabrics the rows of pile yarn overlap, thus giving it
ample opportunity to untwist and become more lustrous. This is why the
loosely woven, long naped rugs have more sheen than do the tightly
woven short naped ones. Uneven trimming of the pile or unskilled use of
the comb will produce unevenness in the completed rug.
[Illustration: A Wooden Comb.]
The fewer and the lighter the weft threads are, the more flexible is
the rug. The great depth of pile is also a good feature in certain
rugs, as the heavier the fabric is the better it will lie. Stronger
warp threads are usually put on each side to strengthen and give better
support to the weft and sometimes both warp and weft are dyed, either
in toto or at the ends only, in order to give a colored webbing to the
finished product.
[Illustration: A PERSIAN LOOM]
As a rule the nap of all rugs which are tied with the Ghiordes knot
runs directly towards one end, while those that are tied with the Senna
knot have a nap which runs towards one corner, right or left, according
to whether the right or left Senna knot is employed. Frequently rugs
are found with either the Ghiordes or the Senna knot where the nap runs
directly towards one side. This may be due to an untwisting of the pile
yarn or to the washing process, the washer in such cases having scraped
the water out towards the side of the rug instead of towards the end.
[Illustration: KAZAK RUG
PROPERTY OF MR. CHARLES SCHUBERT, CHICAGO, ILL.
PLATE LOANED BY THE SIMPLICITY CO., GRAND RAPIDS, MICH.
The field consists of a series of medallions in dark brown and green
upon a field of old rose. The main border stripe is rather foreign to
the rugs of this class, being more like those found in the Bergama
products. The next two important stripes carry the "crab design"
while all the four guard stripes carry the conventional "saw teeth."
That this piece has some age is quite evident from the condition of
its ends.
(See page 272)]
DESIGNS AND THEIR SYMBOLISM
The soul of the Oriental is in his design, which is invariably well
composed of skilfully conventionalized figures and superbly rich,
harmonious colorings of which one never tires, while that of the
European has a stiff set pattern which soon fails to attract.
The transmission of ancient patterns has been going on from century to
century, the old designs and colorings being copied by the weavers from
one generation to another and many of those used at the present time
are doubtless the same that were used in the time of Abraham.
Each district, tribe or family had its characteristic patterns and
color combinations which were regarded as its individual inheritance
and were never copied by other districts, tribes or families. So it
is possible for the expert to tell the locality from which an antique
rug came, but the source of the modern one is not quite as accurately
determined on account of the changes in designs brought about by
the influence of immigration, travel and conquest. A design may be
borrowed by a neighboring province and gradually undergo changes
according to the taste of the adopting people until its original form
is completely lost. The patterns have also become limited in number,
so that to-day the entire output of Persian fabrics comprises only
about thirty original designs, but of these the varieties of form,
arrangement and combination are very large. Turkey and India have even,
in some instances, adopted European designs. The Nomad products are
perhaps the freest of all from outside influences.
In the way of characterization we might state that the Persian designs
are usually floral, while the Turkish designs are for the most part
a mixture of the floral and the geometrical, the former being much
less natural than those of the Persians. Caucasian and Turkoman
designs are nearly always geometrical. Occasionally they are floral
but of a rectilineal nature and never connected with wavy lines as
in the Persian. The Kurdish designs are more like the Persian, while
the Chinese consist largely of dragons, monsters, and animals of all
sorts. It is curious to note how the Persians make many patterns out
of one design by employing various methods of coloring. Even when the
same colors are used there is always a great dissimilarity between the
different makes of the same design.
[Illustration: SYMBOLIC PERSIAN SILK RUG
LOANED BY H. B. CLAFLIN & CO.
(See page 316)]
Sir George Birdwood says, "Whatever their type of ornamentation may
be, a deep and complicated symbolism, originating in Babylon and
possibly India, pervades every denomination of Oriental carpets." The
geometrical figures, floral designs and the figures of animals and
beings all carry with them a mystical, poetical idea of religious
sentiment, the study of which, though difficult, is very fascinating
to one who has the ability to interpret them. It seems perfectly
natural that the Oriental who is so passionately devoted to symbols
should profusely weave them into his fabrics. The Turks, being orthodox
Mohammedans, never weave figures of animals, birds or human beings into
their rugs, as the teachings of the Koran forbid it lest it should lead
to idolatry. Neither do they, as a rule, make their rugs symmetrical,
their idea being to symbolize the fact that only Allah is perfect. The
Persians and Chinese, however, being more liberal, exercise greater
freedom in these respects, and in some of their old hunting rugs, of
which but few remain, are depicted animals of all kinds.
It seems strange to us that the weaver, who worked day after day for
months and sometimes for years on a single piece, seldom signed or
dated it. I have seldom seen the name of the weaver, of the place
of manufacture, or the date, on an antique rug. Many of the modern
commercial pieces are provided with dates to make them more attractive
to the buyer. Inscriptions, on the other hand, are frequently found in
rugs of all ages and are most frequently on the borders. As a rule they
are prayers or quotations from the Koran or poems from the writings of
some famous Persian poet and with but few exceptions are in the Arabic
language. The ability to read these inscriptions adds greatly to the
charm and interest of their possession.
The date, when present, will usually be found in one corner of the rug,
sometimes in the border on one side or end, and should be read from
left to right. If the spot is well worn and the figures are indistinct
turn the rug over and read on the back from right to left.
The following are the Arabic figures, of which there are numerous
modifications:
[Illustration: Arabic figures]
[Illustration: SEMI-PERSIAN RUG; DESIGN FURNISHED BY EUROPEAN
MANUFACTURERS
LOANED BY H. B. CLAFLIN & CO.
Even the novice can tell at a glance that this is not purely an
Oriental product; it so closely resembles the Domestic carpet.]
If we will but remember that the Mohammedan reckoning began on July
16, 622, A.D., when Mohammed made his pilgrimage to Mecca, and that the
Mohammedan year consists of thirty-three days less than ours, it will
be easy to find the year in our calendar corresponding to a given year
in the Mohammedan. The rule is to subtract from the Mohammedan year one
thirty-third of itself and add 622 to the remainder; thus, 1331 ÷ 33 =
40 (do nothing with the fraction), 1331-40 = 1291 + 622 = 1913.
The following is an alphabetically arranged list of the different
designs with descriptions and suggestive drawings of the same. For
that part referring to the Chinese and Indian mythology the author is
greatly indebted to Prof. Du Bois Reymond of Shanghai, China, and to
Mr. B. A. Gupte, F. Z. S., of Calcutta, India, respectively:
ALLIGATOR, see Kulah border design.
ALMOND, see Pear.
[Illustration: Angular hook.]
ANGULAR HOOK OR LATCH HOOK.--A modification of the Swastika and carries
the same meaning. It has been called the trade-mark of the Caucasian
rugs, in which it is almost invariably used; in fact, it is apparent
in nearly all of the Western Asia designs. With the Chinese the latch
hook stands for privacy. (See colored plate at p. 60, also doubletone
at p. 264.)
ANTHEMION OR HOM consists of an alternate bud and fir cone arrangement
with strong lateral markings. It is frequently used as a flower on the
sacred tree.
APPLE, see Silibik.
BALL AND CLAW.--Similar to that used on the legs of chairs and tables
of the 17th and 18th centuries.
BARBER-POLE STRIPE (a border design).--An alternate arrangement of
diagonal stripes of red and white or blue and white, found more or less
in the borders of rugs from all parts of the Orient, especially the
Caucasian products. Frequently the stripes carry some small decorative
pattern. (See colored plate at p. 158, also doubletones at pp. 204 and
254.)
[Illustration: Barber-pole stripe]
BASKET.--One of the Chinese Buddhist ornaments.
BAT.--A Chinese design which is symbolic of happiness. Found quite
commonly in the Chinese fabrics. Five bats often appear in the centre
of Chinese rugs and represent riches, longevity, health, love of virtue
and peaceful end.
[Illustration: Bat]
BEADS.--The rosary was anciently used to record time, and a circle,
being a line without termination, was the natural emblem of its
perpetual continuity; hence we find circles of beads upon the heads
of deities and enclosing the sacred symbols upon coins and other
ornaments. Beads are always carried by the Mohammedans to assist them
in their prayers. The Moslem rosary consists of ninety-nine beads, each
one designating one of the ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah.
BEE.--In China it is symbolic of many descendants. In India it has been
adopted from British associations and represents industry, but is not
regarded as an old symbol.
[Illustration: Beetle]
BEETLE OR SCARABÆUS.--A Chinese symbol of creation, resurrection or
new life. In India it is a symbol of royalty. Wings of the gold beetle
are used in decorating peacock feather fans and morchels or royal fly
flaps. As the blue beetle it represents one that lives on honey and is
portrayed near the form of a young lady whose lotus-like face it is
supposed to have mistaken for that flower.
BOAR.--In India a boar with a ball on its right tusk represents Vishnu
the Protector in his third incarnation when he lifted up and saved the
earth from being engulfed by the great flood (the deluge).
BOUQUET, see Pear.
BUTTERFLY.--The Chinese symbol of vanity. In India it was not used in
the older decoration, but in modern decoration it has the associations
of a flirt, owing to English environments. Butterfly forms are
frequently found in Chinese rugs intermingled with those of bats.
[Illustration: Butterfly ornament]
BOW KNOT.--As one of the emblems of Buddha it is used in Chinese and
Japanese ornament and is often found in the border of Chinese rugs.
Sometimes it partakes of a floral character in the Shiraz and Kirman
rugs and is very commonly found in the Shemakha weaving, where it is a
talismanic design.
[Illustration: SHIRAZ PRAYER RUG
Size 4'5" × 3'
PROPERTY OF MRS. WILLIS HOLDEN, SYRACUSE, N. Y.
(See page 206)]
CANOPY.--A Chinese Buddhist symbol.
CAUCASIAN BORDER DESIGN.--So called by the author because it is seldom
found in any but the Caucasian fabrics. It is a sort of an S-shaped
arrangement of the latch hook design. (See doubletones at pp. 254 and
256.)
[Illustration: Caucasian border design]
CHECKER BOARD.--An arrangement of squares of two or more different
colors similar to that of a checker board. Seldom found in any rugs
excepting the Bergama and Yomud.
CHICHI BORDER DESIGN.--Usually consists of an eight-petaled flower
arranged on the alternate steps of the Greek meander. It is seldom found
in any rugs but the Tchetchen. (See doubletone at p. 260.)
[Illustration: Chichi border design]
CHIN, see Pearl.
CHINESE CLOUD BAND, see Cloud, Chinese.
CHINESE FRET, GREEK FRET, GREEK KEY (a border design), suggested by
the overlapping of the sea waves. It is commonly found in the borders
of the Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand, Beluchistan, and nearly all of the
Chinese products. (See doubletones at pp. 264 and 296.)
[Illustration: Chinese fret. Greek fret.]
CIRCLE.--Quite commonly used in Chinese decoration, where it denotes
eternity, having no commencement and no end. In India it is considered
inauspicious. It is related that one of the Maharajahs of India
returned a costly landau to a British manufacturer because it had
circles of embroidered tape on its cushions.
CIRCLE OF HAPPINESS (see colored plates, pp. 306 and 318, and
doubletone at p. 290).--A circle or ovoid within which are usually
worked various Chinese designs, either floral or animal. Found in
nearly all classes of Chinese products.
CLAW AND BALL, see Ball and Claw.
CLOUD BAND, see Cloud, Chinese.
[Illustration: Chinese cloud design]
CLOUD, CHINESE, is one of the most famous of the Mongolian patterns,
although it is frequently found in Caucasian and Kurdish fabrics. It
is symbolic of immortality and represents the constellation of Ursa
Major, in which, by the Mongolian, the great Ruler was supposed to
reside. (See doubletone at p. 194 and color plate at p. 300.)