The heart of the child, searching the woods for hepaticas--woods

where snow banks still hold their ground on north slopes--is filled

with delight at finding these exquisite saucerlike fungi. They are

more often found on fallen rotting branches which are more or less

buried in leaves, and there are likely to be several of different

sizes on the same stick. When they grow unhindered and while they

are young, they are very perfectly saucer-shaped and range from the

size of a pea to an inch or two across. But the larger they are the

more likely are they to be distorted, either by environment or by the

bulging of rapid growth. The under side of the saucer is beautifully

fleshlike in color and feeling and is attached at the middle to the

stick. The inside of the saucer is the most exquisite scarlet shading

to crimson. This crimson lining bears the spores in little sacs all

over its surface.

[Illustration: _Scarlet saucer._]

_Observations_--1. Where did you find the fungus?

2. What is the shape of the saucer? How large is it? Is it regular

and beautiful or irregular and distorted?

3. What is the color inside?

4. What is the color outside?

5. Turn the one you bring in bottom side up--that is, scarlet side

down--on a piece of white paper, and see whether you can get a spore

harvest.

LESSON CLXXXIV

THE MORELS

[Illustration: _An edible morel_ (_Morchella esculents_).

Photo by George F. Atkinson.]

In May or June in open, damp places, as orchards or the moist fence

corners of meadows, the morels may be found. This mushroom family

contains no member that is poisonous, and the members are very

unlike any other family in appearance. They are very pretty with

their creamy white, thick, swollen stems and a cap more or less

conical, made up of the deep-celled meshes of an unequal network.

The outside edges of the network are yellowish or brownish when the

morel is young and edible, but later turn dark as the spores develop.

In some species the stems are comparatively smooth and in others

their surface is more or less wrinkled. The spores are borne in the

depressions of the network. These mushrooms should not be eaten after

the cells change from creamy white to brownish.

_Observations_--1. Where did you find the morels?

2. Describe the stem. Is it solid or hollow? Is it smooth or rough?

3. What is the shape of the cap? How does it look? What color is the

outer edge of the network? What is the color within the meshes?

4. Take one of these fungi, lay it on a sheet of white paper, and

note the color of the spores.

LESSON CLXXXV

THE STINKHORNS

[Illustration: _A stinkhorn._

Photo by George F. Atkinson.]

To give a nature-study lesson on the stinkhorn is quite out of the

question, for the odor of these strange growths is so nauseating that

even to come near to one of them in the garden is a disagreeable

experience. The reason for mentioning them at all is because of the

impression made by them that most mushrooms are ill smelling, which

is a slander.

It is a pity that these fungi are so offensive that we do not care

to come near enough to them to admire them, for they are most

interesting in appearance. The scientific name of our commonest genus

when translated means “the net bearers,” and it is a most appropriate

name. The stout, white stem is composed of network without and

within. The outer covering of the stem seems to tear loose from

the lower portion as the stem elongates, and is lifted so that it

hangs as a veil around the bottom of the bell-shaped cap, which is

always covered with a pitted network. The mycelium, or spawn, of the

stinkhorn consists of strands which push their way through the ground

or through the decaying vegetable matter on which they feed. On these

strands are produced the stinkhorns, which at first look like eggs;

but later the top of the egg is broken, and the strange horn-shaped

fungus pushes up through it. The spores are borne in the chambers of

the cap, and when ripe the substance of these chambers dissolves into

a thick liquid in which the spores float. The flies are attracted by

the fetid odor and come to feast upon these fungi and to lay their

eggs within them, and incidentally they carry the spores away on

their brushy feet, and thus help to spread the species.

MOLDS

_Teacher’s Story_

It is lucky for our peace of mind that our eyes are not provided with

microscopic lenses, for then we should know that the dust, which

seems to foregather upon our furniture from nowhere, is composed

of all sorts of germs, many of them of the deadly kind. The spores

of mold are very minute objects, the spore-cases being the little

white globes, not larger than the head of a small pin which we

see upon mold, yet each of these spore-cases breaks and lets out

into the world thousands of spores, each one ready and anxious to

start a growth of mold and perfectly able to do it under the right

conditions; almost any substance which we use for food, if placed

in a damp and rather dark place, will prove a favorable situation

for the development of the spore which swells, bursts its wall and

sends out a short thread. This gains nourishment, grows longer and

branches, sending out many threads, some of which go down into the

nutritive material and are called the mycelium. While these threads,

in a way, act like roots, they are not true roots. Presently the

tip ends of the threads, which are spread out in the air above the

bread or other material, begin to enlarge, forming little globules;

the substance (protoplasm) within them breaks up into little round

bodies, and each develops a cell wall and thus becomes a spore. When

these are unripe they are white but later, they become almost black.

In the blue mold the spores are borne in clusters of chains, and

resemble tiny tassels instead of growing within little globular sacs.

Molds, mildews, blights, rusts and smuts are all flowerless plants

and, with the mushrooms, belong to the great group of fungi. Molds

and mildews will grow upon almost any organic substance, if the right

conditions of moisture are present, and the temperature is not too

cold.

Molds of several kinds may appear upon the bread used in the

experiments for this lesson. Those most likely to appear are the

bread mold--consisting of long, white threads tipped with white,

globular spore-cases, and the green cheese-mold--which looks like

thick patches of blue-green powder. Two others may appear, one a

smaller white mold with smaller spore-cases, and a black mold.

However, the bread mold is the one most desirable for this lesson,

because of its comparatively large size. When examined with a lens,

it is a most exquisite plant. The long threads are fringed at the

sides, and they pass over and through each other, making a web fit

for fairies--a web all beset with the spore-cases, like fairy pearls.

However, as the spores ripen, these spore-cases turn black, and after

a time so many of them are developed and ripened that the whole mass

of mold is black. The time required for the development of mold

varies with the temperature. For two or three days nothing may seem

to be happening upon the moist bread; then a queer, soft whiteness

appears in patches. In a few hours or perhaps during the night, these

white patches send up white fuzz which is soon dotted with tiny

pearl-like spore-cases. At first there is no odor when the glass is

lifted from the saucer, but after the spores ripen, the odor is quite

disagreeable.

[Illustration: _Bread mold, enlarged._]

The special point to teach the children in this lesson is that

dryness and sunlight are unfavorable to the development of mold;

and it might be well to take one of the luxuriant growths of mold

developed in the dark, uncover it and place it in the sunlight, and

see how soon it withers. The lesson should also impress upon them

that dust is composed, in part, of living germs waiting for a chance

to grow.

LESSON CLXXXVI

MOLDS

_Leading thought_--The spores of mold are everywhere and help to make

what we call dust. These spores will grow on any substance which

gives them nourishment, if the temperature is warm, the air moist and

the sunlight is excluded.

_Method_--Take bread in slices two inches square, and also the juice

of apple sauce or other stewed fruit. Have each pupil, or the one

who does the work for the class, provided with tumblers and saucers.

Use four pieces of bread cut in about two-inch squares, each placed

on a saucer; moisten two and leave the other two dry. With a feather

or the finger take some dust from the woodwork of the room or the

furniture and with it lightly touch each piece of bread. Cover each

with a tumbler. Set one of the moistened pieces in a warm, dark place

and the other in a dry, sunny place. Place a dry piece in similar

situations. Let the pupils examine these every two or three days.

Put fruit juice in a saucer, scatter a little dust over it and set

it in a warm, dark place. Take some of the same, do not scatter any

dust upon it, cover it safely with a tumbler and put it in the same

place as the other. A lens is necessary for this lesson, and it is

much more interesting for the pupils if they can see the mold under a

microscope with a three-fourths objective.

_Observations_--1. When does the mold begin to appear? Which piece of

bread showed it first? Describe the first changes you noticed. What

is the color of the mold at first? Is there any odor to it?

2. At what date did the little branching mold-threads with round dots

appear? Is there an odor when these appear? What are the colors of

the dots, or spore-cases, at first? When do these begin to change

color? How does the bread smell then? What caused the musty odor?

3. Did the mold fail to appear on any of the pieces of bread? If so,

where were these placed? Were they moist? Were they exposed to the

sunlight?

4. Did more than one kind of mold appear on the bread? If so, how do

you know that they are different kinds? Are there any pink or yellow

patches on the bread? If so, these are made by bacteria and not by

mold.

5. From the results of the experiments, describe in what temperature

mold grows best. In what conditions of dryness or moisture? Does it

flourish in the sunlight or in the dark?

6. Where does the mold come from? What harm does it do? What should

we do to prevent the growth of mold? Name all of the things on which

you have seen mold or mildew growing.

7. Examine the mold through a microscope or a lens. Describe the

threads. Describe the little round spore-cases. Look at some of the

threads that have grown down into the fruit juice. Are they like the

ones which grow in the air?

8. If you have a microscope cut a bit of the mold off, place it in a

drop of water on a glass slide, put on a cover-glass. Examine it with

a three-fourths objective, and describe the spores and spore-cases.

[Illustration:

_1. Cholera bacillus._

_2. Typhoid bacillus._

_3. A bacillus found in sewage. These are all enlarged 2000

times._

_4. Bacteria from tubercle on white sweet clover, much

enlarged._

_5 and 6. Bacteria of lactic acid ferments in ripening of

cheese, much enlarged._

]

BACTERIA

_Teacher’s Story_

The yellow, pink or purple spots developed upon the moist and moldy

bread are caused by bacteria and yeast. Bacteria are one-celled

organisms now classed as plants; they are the smallest known living

beings, and can only be seen through a high power microscope.

Bacteria grow almost everywhere--in the soil, on all foods and

fruits, in the water of ponds, streams and wells, in the mouths

and stomachs of human beings, and in fact in almost all possible

places, and occur in the air. Most of them are harmless, some of them

are useful, and some produce disease in both plants and animals,

including man.

What bacteria do would require many large volumes to enumerate.

Some of them develop colors or pigments; some produce gases, often

ill-smelling; some are phosphorescent; some take nitrogen from the

air and fix it in the soil; some produce putrefaction; and some

produce disease. Nearly all of the “catching diseases” are produced

by bacteria. Diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, consumption,

influenza, grippe, colds, cholera, lockjaw, leprosy, blood poisoning

and many other diseases are the result of bacteria. On the other

hand, many of the bacteria are beneficial to man. Some forms ripen

the cream before churning, others give flavor to butter; while some

are an absolute necessity in making cheese. The making of cider into

vinegar is the work of bacteria; some clear the pollution from ponds

and streams; some help to decompose the dead bodies of animals, so

that they return to the dust whence they came.

We have in our blood little cells whose business it is to destroy

the harmful bacteria which get into the blood. These little fighting

cells move everywhere with our blood, and if we keep healthy and

vigorous by right living, right food and exercise, these cells may

prove strong enough to kill the disease germs before they harm us.

Direct sunlight also kills some of the bacteria. Seven or eight

minutes exposure to bright sunlight is said to kill the germs of

tuberculosis. Exposure to the air is also a help in subduing disease

germs. Bichloride of mercury, carbolic acid, formaldehyde and burning

sulphur also kill germs, and may be applied to clothing or to rooms

in which patients suffering from these germ diseases have been. We

can do much to protect ourselves from harmful bacteria by being

very clean in our persons and in our homes, by bathing frequently

and washing our hands with soap often. We should eat only pure and

freshly cooked food, we should get plenty of sleep and admit the

sunlight to our homes; we should spend all the time possible in the

open air and be careful to drink pure water. If we are not sure that

the water is pure, it should be boiled for twenty minutes and then

cooled for drinking.

In Experiment A the milk vials and the corks are all boiled, so

that we may be sure that no other bacteria than the ones we chose

are present, since boiling kills these germs. As soon as the milk

becomes discolored we know that it is full of bacteria.

Experiment B shows that bacteria can be transplanted to gelatin,

which is a material favorable for its growth. But the point of this

experiment is to show the child that a soiled finger will have upon

it germs which, by growing, cloud the gelatin. They should thus learn

the value of washing their hands often or of keeping their fingers

out of their mouths.

Experiment C shows the way the destructive bacteria attack the

potato. The discolored spots show where the decay begins, and the

odor is suggestive of decay. If a potato thus attacked is put in the

bright sunlight the bacteria are destroyed, and this should enforce

the moral of the value of sunshine.

_References_--The Story of the Bacteria; Dust and its Dangers, M. T.

Prudden, Putnam’s. Bacteria in Relation to Country Life, Lipman.

LESSON CLXXXVII

BACTERIA

_Leading thought_--Bacteria are such small plants that we cannot see

them without the aid of a microscope, but they can be planted and

will grow. The object of this lesson is to enforce cleanliness.

_Method_--_Experiment A_--The bread used for the mold experiment

is likely to develop spots of yellow, red or purple upon it, and

cultures from these spots may be used in this lesson as follows: Take

some vials, boil them and their corks, and nearly fill them with milk

that has been boiled. Take the head of a pin or hairpin, sterilize

the point by holding in a flame, let it cool, touch one of the yellow

spots on the bread with the point, being careful to touch nothing

else, and thrust the point with the bacteria on it into the milk;

then cork the vials.

_Experiment B_--Prepare gelatin as for the table but do not sweeten.

Pour some of this gelatin on clean plates or saucers. After it has

cooled let one of the children touch lightly the gelatin in one

saucer for a few seconds with his soiled finger. Note the place. Ask

him to wash his hands thoroughly with soap and then apply a finger

to the surface of the gelatin in the other plate. Cover both plates

to keep out the dust and leave them for two or three days in a dark

place. The plates touched by the soiled finger will show a clouded

growth in the gelatin; the other plate will show a few irregular,

scattered growths or none.

_Experiment C_--Take a slice of boiled potato, place in a saucer,

leave it uncovered for a time or blow dust upon it, label with date,

then cover with a tumbler to keep from drying and place in a cool,

somewhat dark place.

The pupils should examine all these cultures every day and make the

following notes:

_Experiment A_--How soon did you observe a change in the color of the

milk? How can you tell when the milk is full of the bacteria? How do

you know that the bacteria in the milk was transplanted by the pin?

_Experiment B_--Can you see that the gelatin is becoming clouded

where the soiled finger touched it? This is a growth of the bacteria

which were on the soiled finger.

_Experiment C_--What change has taken place in the appearance of the

slice of potato? Are there any spots growing upon it? What is the

odor? What makes the spots? Describe the shape of the spots. The

color. Are any of them pimple-shaped? Make a drawing of the slice of

potato showing the bacteria spots. What are the bacteria doing to the

potato? Take a part of the slice of potato with the bacteria spots

upon it, and put it in the sunshine. What happens? Compare this with

the part kept in the dark.

After this lesson the children should be asked the following

questions.

1. Why should the hands always be washed before eating?

2. Why should the finger nails be kept clean?

3. Why should we never bite the finger nails nor put the fingers in

the mouth?

4. Why should we never put coins in the mouth?

5. Why should wounds be carefully cleansed and dressed at once?

6. Why should clothing, furniture and the house be kept free from

dust?

7. Why should sweeping be done as far as possible without raising

dust?

8. Why are hardwood floors more healthful than carpets?

9. Why is a damp cloth better than a feather duster for removing dust?

10. Why should the prohibition against spitting in public places be

strictly enforced?

11. Why should the dishes, clothes and other articles used by sick

persons be kept distinctly separate from those used by well members

of the family?

12. Why should food not be exposed for sale on the street?

13. Why, during an epidemic, should water be boiled before drinking?

* * * * *

“_This habit of looking first at what we call the beauty

of objects is closely associated with the old conceit that

everything is made to please man: man is only demanding his

own. It is true that everything is man’s because he may use it

or enjoy it, but not because it was designed and ‘made’ for

‘him’ in the beginning. This notion that all things were made

for man’s special pleasure is colossal self-assurance. It has

none of the humility of the psalmist, who exclaimed, ‘What is

man, that thou art mindful of him?’_”

“_‘What were these things made for, then?’ asked my friend.

Just for themselves! Each thing lives for itself and its kind,

and to live is worth the effort of living for man or bug. But

there are more homely reasons for believing that things were

not made for man alone. There was logic in the farmer’s retort

to the good man who told him that roses were made to make man

happy. ‘No, they wa’n’t’, said the farmer, ‘or they wouldn’t

a had prickers.’ A teacher asked me what snakes are ‘good

for.’ Of course there is but one answer: they are good to be

snakes._”

--“THE NATURE STUDY IDEA”, L. H. BAILEY.

[Illustration: _A Pacific Coast live oak showing the effects of

constant, strong winds from one direction._

Photo by G. K. Gilbert. Courtesy of U. S. Geological Survey.]

TREE STUDY

_Teacher’s Story_

“_I wonder if they like it--being trees?

I suppose they do.

It must feel so good to have the ground so flat,

And feel yourself stand straight up like that.

So stiff in the middle, and then branch at ease,

Big boughs that arch, small ones that bend and blow,

And all those fringy leaves that flutter so.

You’d think they’d break off at the lower end

When the wind fills them, and their great heads bend.

But when you think of all the roots they drop,

As much at bottom as there is on top,

A double tree, widespread in earth and air,

Like a reflection in the water there._”

--“TREE FEELINGS” BY CHARLOTTE PERKINS STETSON.

[Illustration: N]

Natural is our love for trees! A tree is a living being, with a life

comparable to our own. In one way it differs from us greatly: it is

stationary, and it has roots and trunk instead of legs and body; it

is obliged to wait to have what it needs come to it, instead of being

able to search the wide world over to satisfy its wants.

THE PARTS OF THE TREE

The _head_, or _crown_, is composed of the branches as a whole,

which in turn are composed of the larger and smaller branches and

twigs. The _spray_ is the term given to the outer twigs, the finest

divisions of the trunk, which bear the leaves and fruit. The branches

are divisions of the _bole_, or _trunk_, which is the body, or

stem, of the tree. The bole, at the base, divides into roots, and

the roots into rootlets, which are covered with root-hairs. It is

important to understand what each of the parts of a tree’s anatomy

does to help carry on the life of the tree.

[Illustration: _A tree with parts named._]

The roots, which extend out in every direction beneath the surface

of the ground, have two quite different offices to perform: First,

they absorb the water which contains the tree food dissolved from

the soil; second, they hold the tree in place against the onslaught

of the winds. If we could see a tree standing on its head with its

roots spread in the air in the same manner as they are in the ground,

we could then better understand that there is as much of the tree

hidden below ground as there is in sight above ground, although of

quite different shape, being flatter and in a more dense mass. The

roots seem to know in which direction to grow to reach water; thus,

the larger number of the roots of a tree are often found to extend

out toward a stream flowing perhaps some distance from the tree; when

they find plenty of food and water the rootlets interlace forming a

solid mat. On the Cornell Campus are certain elms which, every six or

seven years, completely fill and clog the nearby sewers; these trees

send most of their roots in the direction of the sewer pipe. The

fine rootlets upon the tree-roots are covered with root-hairs, which

really form the mouths by which the liquid food is taken into the

tree.

[Illustration: _The upturned roots of a white pine; a part of a stump

fence a century old._]

To understand how firm a base the roots form to hold up the tall

trunk, we need to see an uprooted tree. The great roots seem to be

molded to take firm grasp upon the soil. It is interesting to study

some of the “stump fences” which were made by our forefathers, who

uprooted the white pines when the land was cleared of the primeval

forest, and made fences of their widespreading but rather shallow

extending roots. Many of these fences stand to-day with branching,

out-reaching roots, white and weather-worn, but still staunch and

massive as if in memory of their strong grasp upon the soil of the

wilderness.

The trunk, or bole, or stem of the tree has also two chief offices:

It holds the branches aloft, rising to a sufficient height in the

forest so that its head shall push through the leaf canopy and expose

the leaves to the sunlight. It also is a channel by which the water

containing the food surges from root to leaf and back again through

each growing part. The branches are divisions of the trunk, and have

the same work to do.

In cross-section, the tree trunk shows on the outside the layer of

protective bark; next to this comes the cambium layer, which is the

vital part of the trunk; it builds on its outside a layer of bark,

and on its inside a layer of wood around the trunk. Just within the

cambium layer is a lighter colored portion of the trunk, which is

called the sap-wood because it is filled with sap which moves up

and down its cells in a mysterious manner; the sap-wood consists

of the more recent annual rings of growth. Within the sap-wood

are concentric rings to the very center or pith; this portion is

usually darker in color and is called the heartwood; it no longer

has anything to do with the life of the tree, but simply gives to

it strength and staunchness. The larger branches, if cut across,

show the same structure as the trunk,--the bark on the outside, the

cambium layer next, and within this the rings of annual growth. Even

the smaller branches and twigs show similar structure, but they are

young and have not attained many annual rings.

The leaves are borne on the outermost parts of the tree. A leaf

cannot grow, and if it could would be of no use, unless it can be

reached by the sunlight. Therefore the trunk lifts the branches

aloft, and the branches hold the twigs far out, and the twigs divide

into the fine spray, so as to spread the leaves and hold them out

into the sunshine. In structure, the leaf is made up of the stem,

or petiole, and the blade, or widened portion of the leaf, which

is sustained usually with a framework of many ribs or veins. The

petioles and the veins are sap channels like the branches and twigs.

_WOOD-GRAIN_

_This is the way that the sap-river ran

From the root to the top of the tree

Silent and dark,

Under the bark,

Working a wonderful plan

That the leaves never know,

And the branches that grow

On the brink of the tide never see._

--JOHN B. TABB.

THE WAY A TREE GROWS

[Illustration: T]

The places of growth on a tree may be found at the tips of the twigs

and the tips of the rootlets; each year through this growth the tree

pushes up higher, down deeper and out farther at the sides. But in

addition to all of these growing tips, there is a layer of growth

over the entire tree--over every root, over the trunk, over the

limbs and over each least twig, just as if a thick coat of paint had

been put over the complete tree. It is a coat of growth instead, and

these coats of growth make the concentric rings which we see when

the trunks or branches are cut across. Such growth as this cannot be

made without food; but the tree can take only liquid food from the

soil; the root-hairs take up the water in which the “fertilizer” is

dissolved, and it is carried up through the larger roots, up through

the sap-wood of the trunk, out through the branches to the leaves,

where in the leaf-factories the water and free oxygen is given off to

the air, and the nourishing elements retained and mixed with certain

chemical elements of the air, thus becoming tree food. The leaf is a

factory; the green pulp in the leaf cells is part of the machinery;

the machinery is set in motion by sunshine power; the raw materials

are taken from the air and from the sap containing food from the

soil; the finished product is largely starch. Thus, it is well, when

we begin the study of the tree, to notice that the leaves are so

arranged as to gain all the sunlight possible, for without sunlight

the starch factories would be obliged to “shut down.” It has been

estimated that on a mature maple of vigorous growth there is exposed

to the sun nearly a half acre of leaf surface. Our tree appears to us

in a new phase when we think of it as a starch factory covering half

an acre.

Starch is plant food in a convenient form for storage, and it is

stored in sap-wood of the limbs, the branches and trunk, to be

used for the growth of the next year’s leaves. But starch cannot

be assimilated by plants in this form, it must be changed to sugar

before it may be used to build up the plant tissues. So the leaves

are obliged to perform the office of stomach and digest the food they

have made for the tree’s use. In the mysterious laboratory of the

leaf-cells, the starch is changed to sugar; and nitrogen, sulphur,

phosphorus and other substances are taken from the sap and starch

added to them, and thus are made the proteids which form another

part of the tree’s diet. It is interesting to note that while the

starch factories can operate only in the sunlight, the leaves can

digest the food and it can be transported and used in the growing

tissues in the _dark_. The leaves are also an aid to the tree in

breathing, but they are not especially the lungs of the tree. The

tree breathes in certain respects as we do; it takes in oxygen and

gives off carbon dioxide; but the air containing the oxygen is taken

in through the numerous pores in the leaves called stomata, and also

through lenticels in the bark; so the tree really breathes all over

its active surface.

[Illustration: _A stump showing rings of growth._]

The tree is a rapid worker and achieves most of its growth and does

most of its work by midsummer. The autumn leaf which is so beautiful

has completed its work. The green starch-machinery or chlorophyl, the

living protoplasm in the leaf cells, has been withdrawn and is safely

secluded in the woody part of the tree. The autumn leaf which glows

gold or red, has in it only the material which the tree can no longer

use. It is a mistake to believe that the frost causes the brilliant

colors of autumn foliage; they are caused by the natural old age and

death of the leaves--and where is there to be found old age and death

more beautiful? When the leaf assumes its bright colors, it is making

ready to depart from the tree; a thin, corky layer is being developed

between its petiole and the twig, and when this is perfected, the

leaf drops from its own weight or the touch of the slightest breeze.

A tree, growing in open ground, records in its shape, the direction

of the prevailing winds. It grows more luxuriantly on the leeward

side. It touches the heart of the one who loves trees to note their

sturdy endurance of the onslaughts of this, their most ancient enemy.

_Reference Books for Tree Study_--The Tree Book, Julia Rogers; Our

Native Trees, Harriet Keeler; Our Northern Shrubs, Harriet Keeler;

The Trees of the Northern States, Romayne Hough. The Trees, N. L.

Britton; Getting Acquainted with the Trees, J. Horace McFarland;

Familiar Trees and their Leaves, Schuyler Mathews; Our Trees and

How to Know Them, Clarence Moores Weed; A Guide to the Trees, Alice

Lounsberry; The First Book of Forestry, Filibert Roth; Practical

Forestry, John Gifford; Trees in Prose and Poetry, Stone & Fickett;

The Primers of Forestry, Pinchot.

[Illustration: _Acorns of the red and the scarlet oaks._

Photo by O. L. Foster.]

HOW TO BEGIN TREE STUDY

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: D]

During autumn the attention of the children should be attracted to

the leaves by their gorgeous colors. It is well to use this interest

to cultivate their knowledge of the forms of leaves of trees; but

the teaching of the tree species to the young child should be done

quite incidentally and guardedly. If the teacher says to the child

bringing a leaf, “This is a white oak leaf,” the child will soon

quite unconsciously learn that leaf by name. Thus, tree study may be

begun in the kindergarten or the primary grades.

1. Let the pupils use their leaves as a color lesson by classifying

them according to color, and thus train the eye to discriminate tints

and color values.

2. Let them classify the leaves according to form, selecting those

which resemble each other.

3. Let each child select a leaf of his own choosing and draw it. This

may be done by placing the leaf flat on paper and outlining it with

pencil or with colored crayon.

4. Let the pupils select paper of a color similar to the chosen leaf

and cut a paper leaf like it.

5. Let each pupil select four leaves which are similar and arrange

them on a card in a symmetrical design. This may be done while the

leaves are fresh, and the card with leaves may be pressed and thus

preserved.

In the fourth grade, begin with the study of a tree which grows

near the schoolhouse. In selecting this tree and in speaking of it,

impress upon the children that it is a living being, with a life

and with needs of its own. I believe so much in making this tree

seem an individual, that I would if necessary name it Pocahontas

or Martha Washington. First, try to ascertain the age of the tree.

Tell an interesting story of who planted it and who were children

and attended school in the schoolhouse when the tree was planted. To

begin the pupils’ work, let each have a little note-book in which

shall be written, sketched or described all that happens to this

particular tree for a year. The following words with their meaning

should be given in the reading and spelling lessons: _Head_, _bole_,

_trunk_, _branches_, _twigs_, _spray_, _roots_, _bark_, _leaf_,

_petiole_, _foliage_, _sap_.

[Illustration: _Mountain maple, sugar maple and red maple._]

LESSON CLXXXVIII

TREE STUDY

_Autumn Work_--1. What is the color of the tree in its autumn

foliage? Sketch it in water colors or crayons, showing the shape of

the head, the relative proportions of head and trunk.

2. Describe what you can see of the tree’s roots. How far do you

suppose the roots reach down? How far out at the sides? In how many

ways are the roots useful to the tree? Do you suppose, if the tree

were turned bottomside up, that it would show as many roots as it now

shows branches?

3. How high on the trunk from the ground do the lower branches come

off? How large around is the trunk three feet from the ground? If you

know how large around it is, how can you get the distance through?

What is the color of the bark? Is the bark smooth or rough? Are the

ridges fine or coarse? Are the furrows between the ridges deep or

shallow? Of what use is the bark to the tree?

4. Describe the leaf from your tree, paying special attention to its

shape, its edges, its color above and below, its veins or ribs, and

the relative length and thickness of its petiole. Are the leaves set

opposite or alternate upon the twigs? As the leaves begin to fall,

can you find two which are exactly the same in size and shape? Draw

in your note-book the two leaves which differ most from each other of

any that grew on your tree. At what date do the leaves begin to fall

from your tree? At what date are they all off the tree?

5. Do you find any fruit or seed upon your tree? If so describe and

sketch it, and tell how you think it is scattered and planted.

_Winter Study of the Tree_--1. Make a sketch of the tree in your

notebook, showing its shape as it stands bare. Does the trunk divide

into branches, or does it extend through the center of the tree and

the branches come off from its sides? Of what use are the branches to

a tree? Is the spray, or the twigs at the end of the branches, coarse

or fine? Does it lift up or droop? Is the bark on the branches like

that on the trunk? Is the color of the spray the same as of the large

branches? Why does the tree drop its leaves in winter? Does the tree

grow during the winter? Do you think that it sleeps during the winter?

2. Study the cut end of a log or stump and also study a slab. Which

is the heart-wood and which is the sap-wood? Can you see the rings

of growth? Can you count these rings and tell how old was the tree

from which this log came? Describe if you can, how a tree trunk grows

larger each year. What is it makes the grain in the wood which we

use for furniture? If we girdle a tree why does it die? If we place

a nail in a tree three feet from the ground this winter, will it be

any higher from the ground ten years from now? How does the tree grow

tall?

3. Take a twig of a tree in February and look carefully at the buds.

What is their color? Are they shiny, rough, sticky or downy? Are they

arranged on the twigs opposite or alternate? Can you see the scar

below the buds where the last year’s leaf was borne? Place the twig

in water and put in a light, warm place, and see what happens to

the buds. As the leaves push out, what happens to the scales which

protected the buds?

4. What birds do you find visiting your tree during winter? Tie some

strips of beef fat upon its branches, and note all of the kinds of

birds which come to feast upon it.

[Illustration: _Trees in winter._]

_Spring Work_--1. At what date do the young leaves appear upon your

tree? What color are they? Look carefully to see how each leaf was

folded in the bud. Were all the leaves folded in the same way? Are

the young leaves thin, downy and tender? Do they stand out straight

as did the old leaves last autumn, or do they droop? Why? Will they

change position and stand out as they grow stronger? Why do the

leaves stand out from the twigs in order to get sunshine? What would

happen to a tree if it lost all its leaves in spring and summer? Tell

all of the things you know which the leaves do for the tree.

2. Are there any blossoms on your tree in the spring? If so, how

do they look? Are the blossoms which bear the fruit on different

trees from those that bear the pollen, or are these flowers placed

separately on the same tree? Or does the same flower which produces

the pollen also produce the seed? Do the insects carry the pollen

from flower to flower, or does the wind do this for your tree?

What sort of seeds are formed by these flowers? How are the seeds

scattered and planted?

3. At what date does your tree stand in full leaf? What color is it

now? What birds do you find visiting it? What insects? What animals

seek its shade? Do the squirrels live in it?

4. Measure the height of your tree as follows: Choose a bright, sunny

morning for this. Take a stick 3½ feet long and thrust it in the

ground so that three feet will project above the soil. Immediately

measure the length of its shadow and of the shadow which your tree

makes from its base to the shadow of its topmost twigs. Supposing

that the shadow from the stick is 4 feet long and the shadow from

your tree is 80 feet long, then your example will be: 4 ft.:3 ft.::80

ft.:? Which will make the tree 60 feet high.

To measure the circumference of the tree, take the trunk three feet

from the ground and measure it exactly with a tape measure. To find

the thickness of the trunk, divide the circumference just found by

3.15.

_Supplementary Reading_--Among Green Trees, Rogers; Chap. I in A

Primer of Forestry, Pinchot; Part I in A First Book of Forestry,

Roth; Chapter IV in Practical Forestry, Gifford.

LESSON CLXXXIX

HOW TO MAKE LEAF PRINTS

A very practical help in interesting children in trees, is to

encourage them to make portfolios of leaf-prints of all the trees of

the region. Although the process is mechanical, yet the fact that

every print must be correctly labeled makes for useful knowledge. One

of my treasured possessions is such a portfolio made by the lads of

St. Andrews School of Richmond, Va., who were guided and inspired in

this work by their teacher, Professor W. W. Gillette. The impressions

were made in green ink and the results are as beautiful as works of

art. Professor Gillette gave me my first lesson in making leaf prints.

_Material_--1. A smooth slate, or better, a thick plate of glass,

about 12 × 15 inches.

2. A tube of printer’s ink, either green or black, and costing 50

cents; one tube contains a sufficient supply of ink for making

several hundred prints. Or a small quantity of printer’s ink may be

purchased at any printing office.

3. Two six-inch rubber rollers, such as photographers use in mounting

prints, which cost 15 cents each. A letter-press may be used instead

of one roller.

4. A small bottle of kerosene to dilute the ink, and a bottle of

benzine for cleaning the outfit after using, care being taken to

store them safe from fire.

5. Sheets of paper 8½ × 11 inches. The paper should be of good

quality, with smooth surface in order that it may take and hold a

clear outline. The ordinary paper used in printers’ offices for

printing newspapers works fairly well. I have used with success the

paper from blank notebooks which cost five cents a piece.

[Illustration: _Leaf print of a sycamore maple._]

To make a print, place a few drops of ink upon the glass or slate,

and spread it about with the roller until there is a thin coat of

ink upon the roller and a smooth patch in the center of the glass

or slate. It should never be so liquid as to “run,” for then the

outlines will be blurred. Ink the leaf by placing it on the inky

surface of the glass and passing the inked roller over it once or

twice until the veins show that they are smoothly filled. Now place

the inked leaf between two sheets of paper and roll _once_ with the

_clean_ roller, bearing on with all the strength possible; a second

passage of the roller blurs the print. Two prints are made at each

rolling, one of the upper, and one of the under side of the leaf. Dry

and wrinkled leaves may be made pliant by soaking in water, drying

between blotters before they are inked.

Prints may also be made a number at a time by pressing them under

weights, being careful to put the sheets of paper with the leaves

between the pages of old magazines or folded newspapers, in order

that the impression of one set of leaves may not mar the others. If a

letter-press is available for this purpose, it does the work quickly

and well.

_SAP_

_Strong as the sea and silent as the grave,

It flows and ebbs unseen,

Flooding the earth, a fragrant tidal wave,

With mists of deepening green._

--JOHN B. TABB.

THE MAPLES

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: T]

The sugar maple, combining beauty with many kinds of utility, is dear

to the American heart. Its habits of growth are very accommodating;

when planted where it has plenty of room, it shows a short trunk

and oval head, which, like a dark green period, prettily punctuates

the summer landscape; but when it occurs in the forest, its noble

bole, a pillar of granite gray, rises to uphold the arches of the

forest canopy; and it attains there the height of 100 feet. It grows

rapidly and is a favorite shade tree, twenty years being long enough

to make it thus useful. The foliage is deep green in the summer,

the leaf being a glossy, dark green above and paler beneath. It has

five main lobes, the two nearest the stem being smaller; the curved

edges between the lobes are marked with a few, smoothly cut, large

teeth; the main veins extend directly from the petiole to the sharp

tips of the lobes; the petiole is long, slender, and occasionally

red. The leaves are placed opposite. The shade made by the foliage

of the maple is so dense that it shades down the plants beneath

it, even grass growing but sparsely there. If a shade tree stands

in an exposed position, it grows luxuriously to the leeward of the

prevailing winds, and thus makes a one-sided record of their general

direction.

[Illustration: _Sugar maple leaves._]

It is its autumn transfiguration which has made people observant

of the maple’s beauty; yellow, orange, crimson and scarlet foliage

make these trees gorgeous when October comes. Nor do the trees get

their color uniformly; even in September, the maple will show a

scarlet branch in the midst of its green foliage. I believe this is

a hectic flush and a premonition of death to the branch which, less

vigorous than its neighbors, is being pruned out by Nature’s slow

but sure method. After the vivid color is on the maple, it begins

to shed its leaves. This is by no means the sad act which the poets

would have us believe; the brilliant colors are an evidence that

the trees have withdrawn from the leaves the green life-substance,

the protoplasm-machinery for making the starch, and have stored it

snugly in trunk and branch for winter keeping. Thus, only the mineral

substances are left in the leaf, and they give the vivid hues. It is

a mistake to think that frost causes this brilliance; it is caused by

the natural, beautiful, old age of the leaf. When the leaves finally

fall, they form a mulch-carpet for the tree that bore them, and add

their substance to the humus from which the tree draws new powers for

growth.

[Illustration: _A foretaste._ Photo by Verne Morton.]

After every leaf has fallen, the maple shows why its shade is dense.

It has many branches set close and at sharp angles to the trunk,

dividing into fine, erect spray, giving the tree a resemblance to

a giant whisk-broom. Its dark, deep-furrowed bark smoothes out and

becomes light gray on the larger limbs, while the spray is purplish,

a color given it by the winter buds. These buds are sharp-pointed and

long. In February, their covering of scales shows premonitions of

spring by enlarging, and as if due to the soft influence, they become

downy, and take on a sunshine color before they are pushed off by

the leaves. The leaves and the blossoms appear together. The leaves

are at first, yellowish, downy and drooping, thus shunning the too

hot sun and the violent pelting rains and fierce spring winds. The

flowers appear in tassellike clusters, each downy drooping thread

of the tassel bearing at its tip a five-lobed calyx, which may hold

seven or eight long, drooping stamens or a pistil with long, double

stigmas. The flowers are greenish yellow, and those that bear pollen

and those that bear the seeds may be borne on separate trees or on

the same tree, but they are always in different clusters. If on the

same tree, the seed-bearing tassels are at the tips of the twigs, and

those bearing pollen are along the sides.

[Illustration: _The trunk of sugar maple in forest._]

The ovary is two-celled, but there is usually only one seed developed

in the pair which forms a “key;” to observe this, however, we have

to dissect the seeds; they have the appearance of two seeds joined

together, each provided with a thin, closely veined wing and the

two attached to the tree by a single long, drooping stem. This

twin-winged form is well fitted to be whirled off by the autumn

winds, for the seeds ripen in September. I have seen seedlings

growing thickly for rods to the leeward of their parent tree, which

stood in an open field. The maples bear blossoms and seeds every

year. There are six species of native maples which are readily

distinguishable. The silver and the red maples and the box elder

are rather large trees; the mountain and the striped (or goosefoot)

maples are scarcely more than shrubs, and mostly grow in woods along

streams. The Norway and the sycamore maples have been introduced from

Europe for ornamental planting. The cut-leaf silver maple comes from

Japan.

The maple wood is hard, heavy, strong, tough and fine-grained; it is

cream-color, the heart-wood showing shades of brown; it takes a fine

polish and is used as a finishing timber for houses and furniture.

It is used in construction of ships, cars, piano action and tool

handles; its fine-grained quality makes it good for wood-carving; it

is an excellent fuel and has many other uses.

MAPLE-SUGAR MAKING

Although we have tapped the trees in America for many hundred years,

we do not as yet understand perfectly the mysteries of the sap flow.

In 1903, the scientists at the Vermont Experiment Station did some

very remarkable work in clearing up the mysteries of sap movement.

Their results were published in their Bulletins 103 and 105, which

are very interesting and instructive.

[Illustration: _Sugar maple blossoms._]

The starch which is changed to sugar in the sap of early spring was

made the previous season and stored within the tree. If the foliage

of the tree is injured by caterpillars one year, very little sugar

can be made from that tree the next spring, because it has been

unable to store enough starch in its sap-wood and in the outer

ray-cells of its smaller branches to make a good supply of sugar.

During the latter part of winter, the stored starch disappears, being

converted into tree-food in the sap, and then begins that wonderful

surging up and down of the sap tide. During the first part of a

typical sugar season, more sap comes from above down than from below

up; toward the end of the season, during poor sap days, there is

more sap coming up from below than down from above. The ideal sugar

weather consists of warm days and freezing nights. This change of

temperature between day and night acts as a pump. During the day

when the branches of the tree are warmed, the pressure forces into

the hole bored into the trunk all the sap located in the adjacent

cells of the wood. Then the suction which follows a freezing night

drives more sap into those cells, which is in turn forced out when

the top of the tree is again warmed. The tree is usually tapped on

the south side, because the action of the sun and the consequent

temperature-pump more readily affects that side.

“Tapping the sugar bush” are magical words to the country boy and

girl. Well do we older folk remember those days in March when the

south wind settled the snow into hard, marblelike drifts, and the

father would say, “We will get the sap-buckets down from the stable

loft and wash them, for we shall tap the sugar-bush soon.” In those

days the buckets were made of staves and were by no means so easily

washed as are the metal buckets of to-day. Well do we recall the

sickish smell of musty sap that greeted our nostrils, when we poured

in the boiling water to clean those old brown buckets. Previously

during the winter evenings, we all had helped fashion sap-spiles from

stems of sumac. With buckets and spiles ready when the momentous

day came, the large, iron caldron kettle was loaded on a stoneboat

together with a sap-cask, log-chain, ax and various other utensils,

and as many children as could find standing room; then the oxen were

hitched on and the procession started across the rough pasture to

the woods, where it eventually arrived after numerous stops for

reloading almost everything but the kettle.

When we came to the boiling place, we lifted the kettle into position

and flanked it with two great logs against which the fire was to

be kindled. Meanwhile the oxen and stoneboat returned to the house

for a load of buckets. The oxen blinking, with bowed heads, or with

noses lifted aloft to keep the underbrush from striking their faces,

“gee’d and haw’d” up hill and down dale through the woods, stopping

here and there while the men with augers bored holes in certain

trees near other holes which had bled sweet juices in years gone by.

When the auger was withdrawn, the sap followed it, and enthusiastic

young tongues met it half way, though they received more chips than

sweetness therefrom; then the spiles were driven in with a wooden

mallet.

[Illustration: _Sugar maple growing in the open._]

The next day after “tapping,” those of us large enough to wear the

neck-yoke donned cheerfully this badge of servitude and with its help

brought pails of sap to the kettle, and the “boiling” began. As the

evening shades gathered, how delicious was the odor of the sap steam,

permeating the woods farther than the shafts of firelight pierced

the gloom! How weird and delightful was this night experience in the

woods! And how cheerfully we swallowed the smoke which the contrary

wind seemed ever to turn toward us! We poked the fire to send the

sparks upward, and now and then added more sap from a barrel, and

removed the scum from the boiling liquid with a skimmer thrust into

the cleft of a long stick for a handle. As the evening wore on, we

drew closer to each other as we told stories of the Indians, bears,

panthers and wolves which had roamed these woods when our father was

a little boy; and came to each of us a disquieting suspicion that

perhaps they were not all gone yet, for everything seemed possible in

those night-shrouded woods; and our hearts suddenly “jumped into our

throats” when near by there sounded the tremulous, blood-curdling cry

of the screech owl.

[Illustration: _Maple seedling._]

After about three days of gathering and boiling sap, came the

“siruping down.” During all that afternoon we added no more sap and

we watched carefully the tawny, steaming mass in the kettle; when

it threatened to boil over, we threw in a thin slice of fat pork

which seemed to have some mysterious calming influence. The odor

grew more and more delicious and presently the sirup was pronounced

sufficiently thick. The kettle was swung off the logs and the sirup

dipped through a cloth strainer into a carrying-pail. Oh, the

blackness of the residue left on that strainer! But it was clean

woods-dirt and never destroyed our faith in the maple-sugar, any more

than did the belief that our friends were made of dirt destroy our

friendship for them. The next day our interests were transferred to

the house where we “sugared off.” There we boiled the sirup to sugar

on the stove and pouring it thick and hot upon snow made that most

delicious of all sweets--the maple-wax; or we stirred it until it

“grained,” before we poured it into the tins to make the “cakes” of

maple-sugar.

[Illustration:

Photo by Slingerland.

_Leaves of silver maple._]

Now the old stave bucket and the sumac spile are gone; in their place

the patent galvanized spile not only conducts the sap but holds in

place a tin bucket carefully covered. The old caldron kettle is

broken, or lies rusting in the shed. In its place, in the new-fangled

sugar-houses, are evaporating vats, set over furnaces with chimneys.

But we may as well confess that the maple-sirup of to-day seems to us

a pale and anaemic liquid, lacking the delicious flavor of the rich,

dark nectar which we, with the help of cinders, smoke and various

other things, brewed of yore in the open woods.

LESSON CXC

THE SUGAR MAPLE

_Leading thought_--The sugar maple grows very rapidly, and is

therefore a useful shade tree. Its wood is used for many purposes,

and from its sap is made a delicious sugar.

_Method_--This study of the maple should be done by the pupils out of

doors, with a tree to answer the questions. The study of the leaves,

blossoms and fruit may be made in the schoolroom. The maple is an

excellent subject for Lesson CLXXXVIII. The observations should begin

in the fall and continue at intervals until June.

_Observations. Fall Work_--1. Where is the maple you are studying?

Is it near other trees? What is the shape of the head? What is the

height of the trunk below the branches? What is the height of the

tree? How large around is the trunk three feet from the ground? Can

you find when the tree was planted? Can you tell by the shape of the

tree from which direction the wind blows most often?

[Illustration: _Blossoms of the silver maple._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

[Illustration: _Blossoms of mountain maple._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

2. Can you find seeds on your tree? Each pair of seeds is called

a key. Sketch a key, showing the way the seeds are joined and the

direction of the wings. Sketch the stem which holds the key to the

twig. Are both seeds of the key good or is one empty? How are the

seeds scattered and planted? How far will a maple key fly on its

wings? Plant a maple seed where you can watch it grow next year.

3. Make leaf prints and describe a leaf of the maple, showing its

shape, its veins and petiole. Are the leaves arranged opposite or

alternate on the twig? Make leaf-prints or sketches of the leaves of

all the other kinds of maples which you can find. How can you tell

the different kinds of maples by their leaves?

4. If your tree stands alone, measure the ground covered by its

shadow from morning until evening. Mark the space by stakes. What

grows beneath the tree? Do grass and other plants grow thriftily

beneath the tree? Do the same plants grow there as in the open field?

[Illustration: _Blossom of striped maple._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

5. Does your maple get its autumn colors all at once, or on one or

two branches first? At what time do you see the first autumn colors

on your tree? When is it completely clothed in its autumn dress? Is

it all red or all yellow, or mixed? If it is yellow this year do you

think it will be red next year? Watch and see. Sketch your maple in

water-colors.

6. At what time do the leaves begin to fall? Do those branches which

first colored brightly shed their leaves before the others? At what

date does your tree stand bare?

7. Find a maple tree in the forest and compare it with one that grows

as a shade tree in a field. Why this difference?

_Winter Work_--8. Make a sketch of your maple with the leaves off.

What sort of bark has it? Is the bark on the branches like that on

the trunk? Are the main branches large? At what angle do they come

off the trunk? Does the trunk extend up through the entire tree? Is

the spray fine or coarse? Is it straight or crooked?

9. Study the winter buds. Are they alternate or opposite on the

twigs? Are they shining or dull?

[Illustration: _Leaves and fruit of striped maple._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

_Spring Study_--10. At what time do we tap maple trees for sap? On

which side of the tree do we make the hole? If we tapped the tree

earlier would we get any sap? What kind of weather is the best for

causing sap flow? Do you suppose that it is the sap going up from

the root to the tree and the branches, or that coming down from the

branches to the root which flows into the bucket? Why do we not make

maple-sugar all summer? Do you suppose the sap ceases to run because

there is no more sap in the tree?

11. Write a story telling all you can find in books or that you know

from your own experience about the making of maple-sugar.

12. When do the leaves of your maple first appear? How do they then

look? Do they stand out or droop?

13. Do the blossoms appear with the leaves or after them? How do the

blossoms look? Can you tell the blossoms with stamens from those with

pistils? Do you find them in the same cluster? Do you find them on

the same tree?

14. What uses do we find for maple wood? What is the character of the

wood?

_Supplementary reading_--Trees in Prose and Poetry pp. 25–41.

[Illustration: _Blossoms of red maple._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

[Illustration]

THE AMERICAN ELM

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: A]

Although the American elm loves moist woods, it is one of those trees

that enjoys gadding; and without knowing just how it has managed to

do it, we can see plainly that it has planted its seeds along fence

corners, and many elms now grace our fields on sites of fences long

ago laid low. Because of its beautiful form and its rapid growth, the

elm has been from earliest times a favorite shade tree in the Eastern

and Middle States. Thirty years after being planted, the elms on the

Cornell Campus clasped branches across the avenues; and the beauty

of many a village and city is due chiefly to these graceful trees of

bounteous shade. Moreover the elm is at no time more beautiful than

when it traces its flowing lines against the background of snow and

gray horizon. Whether the tree be shaped like a vase or a fountain,

the trunk divides into great uplifting branches, which in turn

divide into spray that oftentimes droops gracefully, as if it were

made purposely to sustain from its fine tips the woven pocket-nest

of the oriole. No wonder this bird so often chooses the elm for its

roof-tree!

[Illustration: _The elm in winter._]

In winter, the dark, coarsely-ridged bark and the peculiar, wiry,

thick spray, as well as the characteristic shape of the tree reveal

to us its identity; it also has a peculiar habit of growing its

short branches all the way down its trunk, making it look as if

it were entwined with a vine. The elm leaf, although its ribs are

straight and simple, shows a little quirk of its own in the uneven

sides of its base where it joins the petiole; it is dark green and

rough above, light green and somewhat rough below; but this leaf is

rough only when stroked in certain directions, while the leaf of

the slippery elm is rough whichever way it may be stroked. The leaf

has the edges saw-toothed, which are in turn toothed; the petiole

is short. The leaf comes out of the bud in the spring folded like a

little fan; but before the fans are opened to the spring breezes, the

elm twigs are furry with reddish green blossoms. The blossom consists

of a calyx with an irregular number of lobes, and for every lobe,

a stamen which consists of a threadlike filament from which hangs

a bright red anther; at the center is a two-celled pistil with two

light green styles. These blossoms appear in March or early April,

before the leaves.

When full-grown the fruit hangs like beaded fringe from the twigs.

The seed is flat and has a wide, much veined margin or wing, notched

at the tip and edged with a white silken fringe; the seed is at the

center, wrinkled and flat. Each seed shows at its base the old calyx

and is attached by a slender threadlike stem to the twig at the axils

of last year’s leaves. A little later the lusty breezes of spring

break the frail threads and release the seeds, although few of them

find places fit for growth.

[Illustration: _Elm blossoms._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

The elm roots are water hunters and extend deep into the earth; they

will grow towards water, seeming to know the way. The elm heart-wood

is reddish, the sap-wood being broad and whitish in color; the wood

is very tough because of the interlaced fibers, and therefore very

hard to split. It is used for cooperage, wheel hubs, saddlery,

and is now used more extensively for furniture; its grain is most

ornamental. It is fairly durable as posts, but perhaps the greatest

use of all for the tree is for shade. The slippery elm is much like

the white elm, except that its inner bark is very mucilaginous, and

children love to chew it. The cork elm has a peculiar corky growth

on its branches, giving it a very unkempt look. The wahoo, or winged

elm, is a small tree, and its twigs are ornamented on each side by a

corky layer. The English elm has a solid, round head, very different

from that of our graceful species. The elms are long-lived, some

living for centuries. The Washington elm in Cambridge, and the

William Penn elm in Philadelphia, which now has a monument to mark

its place, were famous trees.

[Illustration: _Elm seed._

Photo by Morgan.]

LESSON CXCI

THE ELM

_Leading thought_--The elm has a peculiarly graceful form, which

makes it of value as a shade tree. It grows best in moist locations.

Its wood is very tough.

_Method_--This work should be begun in the fall with the study of

the shape of the tree and its foliage. Sketches should be made when

the tree is clothed in autumn tints, and later it should be sketched

again when its branches are naked. Its blossoms should be studied in

March and April and its seeds in May.

_Observations_--1. Where does the elm grow? Does it thrive where

there is little water? What is the usual shape of the elm? How does

the trunk divide into branches to make this shape possible? What is

the shape of the larger elms? Describe the spray. Describe the elm

bark. How can you tell the elm from other trees in winter?

2. Study the elm leaf. What is its form? What kind of edges has it?

How large is it? What is the difference in appearance and feeling

between the upper and lower sides? Are the leaves rough above

whichever way you stroke them? If a leaf is folded lengthwise are the

two halves exactly alike? How are the leaves arranged on the twig?

What is their color above and below? Describe the leafy growth along

the trunk.

3. What is the color of the elm tree in autumn? Make a sketch of the

elm tree you are studying.

4. What sort of roots has the elm? Do they grow deep into the earth?

What is the character of its wood? Is it easy to split? Why? What are

the chief uses of the elm?

5. Do you know what distinguishes the slippery elm, the cork elm, the

winged elm, or wahoo, and the English elm from the common American or

white elm which you have been studying?

6. Write an essay on two famous American elms.

7. What birds love to build in the elm trees?

_Spring Study of the Elm_

8. Which appear first, the blossoms or the leaves? Describe the elm

blossom. How long before the seeds ripen? How are the seeds attached

to the twig? Describe an elm seed. How are the seeds scattered? How

are the young leaves folded as they come out of the bud?

_Supplementary reading_--Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 81–92.

THE OAK

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: T]

The symbol of rugged strength since man first gazed upon its noble

proportions, the oak more than other trees has been entangled in

human myth, legend and imagination. It was regarded as the special

tree of Zeus by the Greeks. Virgil sang of it thus:

“Full in the midst of his own strength he stands

Stretching his brawny arms and leafy hands,

His shade protects the plains, his head the hills commands.”

While in primitive England the strange worship of the Druids centered

around it.

[Illustration: _White oak leaves and acorn_]

Although the oak is a tree of grandeur when its broad branches

are covered with leafage, yet it is only in winter when it stands

stripped like an athlete that we realize wherein its supremacy lies.

Then only can we appreciate the massive trunk and the strong limbs

bent and gnarled with combating the blasts of centuries. But there

are oaks and oaks, and each species fights time and tempest in his

own peculiar armor and in his own way. Many of the oaks achieve the

height of eighty to one hundred feet. The great branches come off the

sturdy trunk at wide angles, branches that may be crooked or gnarled

but are ever long and strong; the smaller branches also come off

at wide angles, and in turn bear angular individual spray--all of

which, when covered with leaves, make the broad, rounded head which

characterizes this tree. The oaks are divided into two classes which

the children soon learn to distinguish, as follows:

A. _The white oak group_, the leaves of which have rounded lobes and

are rough and light-colored below; the wood is light-colored, the

acorns have sweet kernels and mature in one year, so that there are

no acorns on the branches in winter. To this class belong the white,

chestnut, bur, and post oaks.

[Illustration: _White oak in winter._

Drawing by W. C. Baker.]

AA. _The black oak group_, the leaves of which are nearly as smooth

below as above, and have angular lobes ending in sharp points. The

bark is dark in color, the acorns have bitter kernels and require

two years for maturing, so that they may be seen on the branches in

winter. To this group belong the red, scarlet, Spanish, pin, scrub,

black-jack, laurel and willow oaks.

There is a great variation in the shape of the leaves on the

same tree, and while the black, the red and the scarlet oaks are

well-marked species, it is possible to find leaves on these three

different trees which are similar in shape. Oaks also hybridize, and

thus their leaves are a puzzle to the botanist; but in general, the

species can be determined by any of the tree books, and the pupils

should learn to distinguish them.

The acorns and their scaly saucers are varied in shape, and are a

delight to children as well as to pigs. The great acorns of the

red oak are made into cups and saucers by the girls, and those

of the scarlet oak into tops by the boys. The white oaks turn a

rich wine-color in the autumn, while the bur and the chestnut are

yellow. The red oak is a dark, wine-red; the black oak russet, and

the scarlet a deep and brilliant red. When the oak leaves first come

from the buds in the spring, they are soft and downy and drooping,

those of the red and scarlet being reddish, and those of the white,

pale green with red tints. Thoreau says of them, “They hang loosely,

flaccidly down at the mercy of the wind, like a new-born butterfly or

dragonfly.”

[Illustration: _Swamp white oak in winter._]

The pollen-bearing flowers are like beads on a string, several

strings hanging down from the same point on the twig, making a

fringe, and they are attractive to the eye that sees. The pistillate

flowers are inconspicuous, at the axils of the leaves, and have

irregular or curved stigmas; they are on the same branch as the

pollen-bearing flowers.

[Illustration: _Leaves and acorn of the swamp white oak._]

The oak is long-lived; it does not produce acorns until about twenty

years of age and requires a century to mature. Although from two to

three hundred years is the average age of most oaks, yet a scarlet

oak of my acquaintance is about four hundred years old, and there

are oaks still living in England which were there when William, the

Conquerer came. The famous Wadsworth Oak at Geneseo, N. Y. had a

circumference of twenty seven feet. This was a swamp white oak. One

reason for their attaining great age is long, strong, tap-roots which

plant them deep, also the great number of roots near the surface

which act as braces, and their large and luxurious heads.

[Illustration: _Leaves and acorn of chestnut oak._]

Oak wood is usually heavy, very strong, tough and coarse. The heart

is brown, the sap-wood whitish. It is used for many purposes--ships,

furniture, wagons, cars, cooperage, farm implements, piles, wharves,

railway ties, etc. The white and live oaks give the best wood. Oak

bark is used extensively for tanning.

LESSON CXCII

THE OAKS

_Leading thought_--The oak tree is the symbol of strength and

loyalty. Let us study it and see what qualities in it have thus

distinguished it.

[Illustration: _Blossoms of chestnut oak._]

_Method_--Any oak tree may be used for this lesson; but whatever

species is used, the lesson should lead to the knowledge of all the

species of oaks in the neighborhood. The tree should be sketched,

essays concerning the connection of the oak with human history should

be written, while the leaves and acorns may be brought into the

schoolroom for study. Use Lesson CLXXXIX for a study of leaves of all

the oaks of the neighborhood.

[Illustration: _Cup and saucer made from the acorns of red oak_]

_Observations_--1. Describe the oak tree which you are studying.

Where is it growing? What shape is its head? How high in proportion

to the head is the trunk? What is the color and character of its

bark? Describe its roots as far as you can see. Are the branches

straight or crooked? Delicate or strong? Is the spray graceful or

angular?

2. What is the name of your oak tree? What is the color of its

foliage in autumn? Find three leaves from your tree which differ

most widely in form, and sketch them or make leaf prints of them for

your note-book. Does the leaf have the lobes rounded, or angular and

tipped with sharp points? Is the leaf smooth on the lower side or

rough? Is there much difference in color between the upper and the

lower side?

3. Describe the acorns which grow on your oak. Has the acorn a stem,

or is it set directly on the twig? How much of the acorn does the cup

cover? Are the scales on the cup fine or coarse? Is the cup rounded

inwards at its rim? What is the length of the acorn including the

cup? The diameter? Are there acorns on your oak in winter? If so,

why? Is the kernel of the acorn sweet or bitter? Plant an acorn and

watch it sprout.

[Illustration: _The red oak in winter._

Photo by Ralph Curtis.]

4. Read all the stories you can find about oak trees, and write them

in your note-book.

5. How great an age does the oak attain? Describe how the country

round about looked when the oak tree you are studying was planted.

6. How many kinds of oaks do you know? What is the difference in

leaves between the white and the black oak groups? What is the

difference in the length of time required for the acorns to mature

in these two groups? The difference in taste of the acorns? The

difference in the general color of the bark? Why is the chestnut oak

an exception to this latter rule?

7. How do the oak leaves look when they first come out of the bud

in spring? What is the color of the tree covered with new leaves?

When does your oak blossom? Find the pollen-bearing blossoms which

are hung in long, fuzzy, beady strings. Find the pistillate flower

which is to form the acorn. Where is it situated in relation to the

pollen-bearing flower?

[Illustration: _The leaves and acorn of red oak._]

8. Make a sketch of your oak tree in the fall, and another in

the winter. Write the autobiography of some old oak tree in your

neighborhood.

[Illustration: _Leaves and acorn of black oak._]

[Illustration: _Leaves and acorn of bur oak._]

9. For what is the oak wood used? How is the bark used?

_Supplementary reading_--Trees in Prose and Poetry, pp. 111–129.

[Illustration: _Leaves and acorn of scarlet oak._]

THE SHAGBARK HICKORY

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: H]

How pathetically the untidy bark of this dignified tree suggests

the careless raiment of a great man! The shagbark is so busy being

something worth while that it does not seem to have time or energy

to clothe itself in tailor-made bark, like the beech, the white ash

and the basswood. And just as we like a great man more because of his

negligence to fashion’s demands, so do we esteem this noble tree, and

involuntarily pay it admiring tribute as we note its trunk with the

bark scaling off in long, thin plates that curve outward at the top

and bottom and seem to be only slightly attached at the middle.

In general shape, the shagbark resembles the oak; the lower branches

are large and, although rising as they leave the bole, their tips

are deflected; and, for their whole length, they are gnarled and

knotted as if to show their strength. The bark on the larger branches

may be scaly toward their bases but above is remarkably smooth. The

spray is angular and extends in almost every direction. The leaves,

like those of other hickories, are compound. There are generally

five leaflets, but sometimes only three and sometimes seven. The

basal pair is smaller than the others. The hickory leaves are borne

alternately on the twig, and from this character the hickory may be

distinguished from the ashes, which have leaves of similar type, but

which are placed opposite on the twigs. The shagbark usually has an

unsymmetrical oblong head; the lower branches are usually shorter

than the upper ones, and the latter are irregularly placed, causing

gaps in the foliage.

The nut is large, with a thick, smooth, outer husk channeled at

the seams and separating readily into sections; the inner shell is

sharply angled and pointed and slightly flattened at the sides; the

kernel is sweet. The winter buds of the shagbark are large, light

brown, egg-shaped and downy; they swell greatly before they expand.

There are from eight to ten bud-scales; the inner ones, which are

red, increase to two or three inches in length before the leaves

unfold, after which they fall away. The young branches are smooth,

soft, delicate in color, and with conspicuous leaf scars.

The hickory bears its staminate and pistillate flowers on the same

tree. The pollen-bearing flowers grow at the base of the season’s

shoots in slender, pendulous, green catkins, which occur usually

in clusters of three swinging from a common stem. The pistillate

flowers grow at the tips of the season’s shoots singly or perhaps

two or three on a common stem. In the shagbark the middle lobe of

the staminate calyx is nearly twice as long as the other two, and is

tipped with long bristles; it usually has four stamens with yellow

anthers; its pistillate calyx is four-toothed and hairy, and has two

large, fringed stigmas.

The big shagbark, or king nut, is similar to the shagbark in height,

manner of growth, and bark. However, its leaves have from seven to

nine leaflets, which are more oblong and wedgelike than are those of

the shagbark; they are also more downy when young and remain slightly

downy beneath. The nut is very large, thick-shelled, oblong, angled,

and pointed at both ends. The kernel is large and sweet but inferior

in flavor to the smaller shagbark. The big shagbark has larger buds

than has the other. Their fringy, reddish purple, inner scales grow

so large that they appear tuliplike before they fall away at the

unfolding of the leaves.

Hickory wood ranks high in value; it is light-colored, close-grained,

heavy, and very durable when not exposed to moisture. It is capable

of resisting immense strain, and, therefore, it is used for the

handles of spades, plows and other tools, and also for spokes and

thills in carriage-making. As a fuel, it is superior to most woods,

making a glowing, hot and quite lasting fire.

LESSON CXCIII

THE SHAGBARK

_Leading thought_--The hickories are important trees commercially.

They have compound leaves which are set alternately upon the twig.

The shagbark can be told from the other hickories by its ragged,

scaling bark.

_Method_--This lesson may be begun in the winter when the tree can

be studied carefully as to its shape and method of branching. Later,

the unfolding of the leaves from the large buds should be watched, as

this is a most interesting process; and a little later the blossoms

may be studied. The work should be taken up again in the fall, when

the fruit is ripe.

_Observations Winter study_--1. What is the general shape of the

whole tree? Are the lower branches very large? At what angle do the

branches, in general, grow from the trunk? Are there many large

branches?

2. Where is the spray borne? What is its character--that is, is it

fine and smooth, or knotted and angled? What is its color?

3. Describe the bark. Is the bark on the limbs like that on the trunk?

4. What is the size and shape of the buds? Are the buds

greenish-yellow, yellowish brown, or do they have a reddish tinge?

5. Count the bud-scales. Are they downy or smooth?

_Spring study_--6. Describe how the hickory leaf unfolds from its

bud. How is each leaflet folded within the bud?

7. Describe the long greenish catkins which bear the pollen. On what

part of the twigs do they grow? Do they grow singly or in clusters?

8. Take one of the tiny, pollen-bearing flowers and hold it under a

lens on the point of a pin. How many lobes has the calyx? Count the

stamens, and note the color of the anthers.

9. Upon what part of the twigs do the pistillate flowers grow? How

many points or lobes has the pistillate calyx? Describe the growth of

the nut from the flower.

_Autumn study_--10. Does the hickory you are studying grow in open

field or wood?

11. Are the trunk and branches slender and lofty, or sturdy and wide

spreading?

12. Note the number and shape of the leaflets. Are they slim and

tapering, or do they swell to the width of half their length? Are

they set directly upon or are they attached by tiny stems to the

mid-stem? Are they smooth or downy on the under side? Are the leaves

set upon the twigs alternately or opposite each other? How are the

leaflets set upon the mid-stem?

13. Describe the outer husk of the nut. Into how many sections does

it open? Does it cling to the nut and fall with it to the ground? Is

the nut angled and pointed, or is it roundish and without angles? Is

the kernel sweet or bitter?

[Illustration:

Photo by Verne Morton.

_Chestnut blossoms._

Note the two pistillate flowers above the staminate catkins.]

THE CHESTNUT

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: T]

This splendid tree, sometimes reaching the height of one hundred

feet, seldom receives the admiration due to it, simply because

humanity is so much more interested in food than in beauty. The fact

that the chestnuts are sought so eagerly has taken away from interest

in the appearance of the tree. The chestnut has a great round head

set firmly on a handsome bole, which is covered with grayish brown

bark divided into rather broad, flat, irregular ridges. The foliage

is superb; the long, slender, graceful leaves, tapering at both

ends, are glossy, brilliant green above and paler below; and they

are placed near the ends of the twigs, those of the fruiting twigs

seeming to be arranged in rosettes to make a background for blossom

or fruit. The leaves are placed alternately and have deeply notched

edges, the veins extending straight and unbroken from midrib to

margin; the petiole is short. The leaf is like that of the beech,

except that it is much longer and more pointed; it resembles in

general shape the leaf of the chestnut oak, except that the edges of

the latter have rounded scallops instead of being sharply toothed.

The burs appear at the axils of the leaves near the end of the twig.

Thoreau has given us a most admirable description of the chestnut

fruit:

“What a perfect chest the chestnut is packed in! With such wonderful

care Nature has secluded and defended these nuts as if they were

her most precious fruits, while diamonds are left to take care of

themselves. First, it bristles all over with sharp, green prickles,

some nearly a half inch long, like a hedgehog rolled into a ball;

these rest on a thick, stiff, barklike rind one-sixteenth to

one-eighth of an inch thick, which again is most daintily lined with

a kind of silvery fur or velvet plush one-sixteenth of an inch thick,

even rising into a ridge between the nuts, like the lining of a

casket in which the most precious commodities are kept. At last frost

comes to unlock this chest; it alone holds the true key; and then

Nature drops to the rustling leaves a ‘done’ nut, prepared to begin

a chestnut’s course again. Within itself again each individual nut

is lined with a reddish velvet, as if to preserve the seed from jar

and injury in falling, and perchance from sudden damp and cold; and

within that a thin, white skin envelops the germ. Thus, it has lining

within lining and unwearied care, not to count closely, six coverings

at least before you reach the contents.”

The red squirrels, as if to show their spite because of the

protection of this treasure chest, have the reprehensible habit of

cutting off the young burs and thus robbing themselves of a rich

later harvest--which serves them right. There are usually two nuts in

each bur, set with flat sides together; but sometimes there are three

and then the middle one is squeezed so that it has two flat sides.

Occasionally there is only one nut developed in a bur--an only child,

so well cared for that it grows to be almost globular. The color we

call chestnut is derived from the beautiful red-brown of the polished

shell of the nut, polished except where the base joins the bur, and

the apex which is gray and downy.

[Illustration: _Detail of a chestnut blossom._

_a._ _a._, pistillate flowers set in a base of scales; _b_,

pistillate flower enlarged; _c_, staminate flower enlarged.]

The chestnut is always a beautiful tree, whether green in summer or

glowing golden yellow in autumn; but it is most beautiful during late

June and July, when covered with constellations of pale yellow stars.

Each of these stars is a rosette of the pollen-bearing blossoms; each

ray consists of a catkin often six or eight inches in length, looking

like a thread of yellowish chenille fringe, clothing this thread in

tufts for its whole length are the stamens, standing out like minute

threads tipped with tiny anther balls. If we observe the blossom

early enough, we can see these stamens curled up as they come forth

from the tiny, pale yellow, six-lobed calyx. One calyx, although

scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch across, develops from ten to twenty

of these stamens; these tiny flowers are arranged in knots along the

central thread of the catkin. No wonder it looks like chenille! There

are often as many as thirty of these catkin rays in the star rosette;

the lower ones come from the axils of the leaves; but toward the tips

of the twig, the leaves are ignored and the catkins have possession.

In one catkin I estimated that there were approximately 2,500 stamens

developed, each anther packed with pollen. When we think that there

may be thirty of the catkins in a blossom-star, we get a glimmering

of the amount of pollen produced.

[Illustration: _Leaves and flowers of chestnut and chestnut oak

showing the differences._

Photo by G. F. Morgan.]

And what is all this pollen for? Can it be simply to fertilize the

three or four inconspicuous flowers at the tip of the twig beyond

and at the center of the star? These pistillate flowers are little

bunches of green scales with some short, white threads projecting

from their centers; and beyond them a skimpy continuation of the

stem with more little green bunches scattered along it, which are

undeveloped pistillate blossoms. The one or two flowers at the base

of the stem get all the nourishment and the others do not develop.

If we examine one of these nests of green scales, we find that there

are six threads belonging to one tiny, green flower with a six-lobed

calyx; the six threads are the stigmas, each one reaching out and

asking for no more than one grain of the rich shower of pollen.

Chestnut wood is light, rather soft, stiff, coarse and not strong. It

is used in cabinet work, cooperage, for telegraph poles and railway

ties. When burned as fuel, it snaps and crackles almost equal to

hemlock.

LESSON CXCIV

THE CHESTNUT

_Leading thought_--The chestnut is one of our most beautiful trees.

We should learn to appreciate it by observing the beauty of its

blossoms and of its foliage when green and when brilliant yellow in

autumn. Until the chestnut fruit is ripe, it is well protected by its

spiny bur.

_Method_--This study may be begun in the fall when chestnuts are

ripe. Ask the boys to describe the trees from which they get this

longed-for harvest. The leaves, burs and nuts may be studied in the

schoolroom.

_Observations_--1. Where do chestnut trees grow? What is the general

form of the head of the tree? How high is the trunk below the

branches? Do the branches divide into fine twigs or spray at the tips?

2. Sketch and describe a chestnut leaf, showing the veins, edges

and petiole. Are the leaves placed opposite or alternate? What is

their color above and below? How do the chestnut leaves differ from

those of the beech and of the chestnut oak? What is the color of the

chestnut foliage in autumn?

3. Where on the branch is the bur borne? How does the green chestnut

bur look? Why is this prickly exterior beneficial to the fruit? Does

the bur open easily when green? What causes the chestnut bur to open?

Into how many lobes does it open? Describe an open bur outside and in.

[Illustration: _Chestnuts in burs._

Photo by Verne Morton.]

4. Where in the bur are the chestnuts set? How many in one bur? How

can you tell by the shape of the chestnut whether it grew as a twin

or single in a bur? Are there ever three in a bur? If so, what shape

is the middle one? Do the burs fall when the chestnuts are ripe?

5. Take a single chestnut. Describe its shape and color. What is the

mark on its large end? Describe the coloring and covering of the tip.

Open the shell and note the lining. Describe how the meat is finally

protected. Can you see where the germ is? Plant a chestnut and watch

it grow.

6. Study the chestnut blossom in late June or July. What kind of

blossoms are those which look like yellow stars all over the tree?

Study one of the catkins which makes a ray of the star, and describe

it. Can you see the anthers and the pollen? How many of these

pollen-bearing flowers are on one stem? Where are the pistillate

flowers which will grow into young chestnuts? Describe them.

[Illustration: _Chestnuts._

Photo by O. L. Foster.]

7. How much are chestnuts worth per bushel? To what uses is chestnut

timber put? What is the character of the wood?

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT

_Teacher’s Story_

[Illustration: T]

The wealth of children is, after all, the truest wealth in this

world; and the horse-chestnuts, brown and smooth, looking so

appetizing and so belying their looks, have been used from time

immemorial by boys as legal tender--a fit use, for these handsome

nuts seem coined purposely for boys’ pockets.

The horse-chestnut is a native of Asia Minor. It has also a home in

the high mountains of Greece. In America, it is essentially a shade

tree. Its head is a broad cone, its dark green foliage is dense and,

when in blossom, the flower clusters stand out like little white

pyramids against the rich back-ground in a most striking fashion.

“A pyramid of green supporting a thousand pyramids of white” is a

clever description of this tree’s blossoming. The brown bark of the

trunk has a tendency to break into plates, and the trunk is just high

enough to make a fitting base for the handsome head.

[Illustration: a, _blossom of the sweet buck-eye and young fruit_; b,

_blossom and young fruit of horse-chestnut_.]

The blossom panicle is at the tip end of the twig and stops its

growth at that point; the side buds continue to grow thus making

a forking branch. Each blossom panicle stands erect like a candle

flame, and the flowers are arranged spirally around the central

stem, each pedicel carrying from four to six flowers. The calyx has

five unequal lobes, and it and the stem are downy. Five spreading

and unequal petals with ruffled margins are raised on short claws,

to form the corolla; seven stamens with orange colored anthers are

thrust far out and up from the flower. The blossoms are creamy or

pinkish white and have purple or yellow blotches in their throats.

Not all the flowers have perfect pistils. The stigmas ripen before

the pollen, and are often thrust forth from the unopened flower.

The flowers are fragrant and are eagerly visited by bumblebees,

honey-bees and wasps.

[Illustration: _Horse-chestnut blossoms._

Photo by Verne Morton.]

Very soon after the blossom falls, there may be seen one or two

green, prickly balls which are all the fruits one flower cluster

could afford to mature. By October the green, spherical husk breaks

open in three parts, showing its white satin lining and the roundish,

shining, smooth nut at its center. At first there were six little

nuts in this husk, but all except one gave up to the burly occupant.

The great, round, pale scar on the nut is where it joined the husk.

Very few American animals will eat the nut; the squirrels scorn it

and horses surely disown it.

In winter, the horse-chestnut twig has at its tip a large bud and

looks like a knobbed antenna thrust forth to test the safety of the

neighborhood. There are, besides the great varnished buds at the ends

of the twigs, smaller buds opposite to each other along the sides

of the twig, standing out stiffly. On each side of the end bud, and

below each of the others, is a horseshoe-shaped scar left by the

falling leaf of last year. The “nails” in this horseshoe are formed

by the leafy fibres which joined the petiole to the twig. The great

terminal buds hold both leaves and flowers. The buds in winter are

brown and shining as if varnished; when they begin to swell, they

open, displaying the silky gray floss which swaddles the tiny leaves.

The leaves unfold rapidly and lift up their green leaflets, looking

like partly opened umbrellas, and giving the tree a very downy

appearance, which Lowell so well describes:

“And gray hoss-chestnut’s leetle hands unfold

Softer’n a baby’s be at three days old.”

The leaf, when fully developed, has seven leaflets, of which the

central ones are the larger. They are all attached around the tip of

the petiole. The number of leaflets may vary from three to nine, but

is usually seven. The leaflets are oval in shape, being attached to

the petiole at the smaller end; their edges are irregularly toothed.

The veins are large, straight and lighter in color; the upper surface

is smooth and dark green, the under side is lighter in color and

slightly rough. The petiole is long and shining and enlarges at both

ends; when cut across, it shows a woody outer part encasing a bundle

of fibres, one fiber to each leaflet. The places where these fibers

were attached to the twig make the nails in the horseshoe scar. The

leaves are placed opposite on the twigs.

Very different from that of the horse-chestnut is the flower of the

yellow or sweet, buckeye; the calyx is tubular, long and five-lobed;

the two side petals are on long stalks and are closed like spoons

over the stamens and anthers; the two upper petals are also on

long stalks, lifting themselves up and showing on their inner

surfaces a bit of color to tell the wandering bee that here is a

tube to be explored. The flowers are greenish yellow. The flowers

of the Ohio buckeye show a stage between the sweet buckeye and the

horse-chestnut. The Ohio buckeye is our most common native relative

of the horse-chestnut. Its leaves have five leaflets instead of

seven. The Sweet buckeye is also an American species and grows in the

Alleghany mountains.

LESSON CXCV

THE HORSE-CHESTNUT

_Leading thought_--The horse-chestnut has been introduced into

America as a shade tree from Asia Minor and southern Europe. Its

foliage and its flowers are both beautiful.

_Method_--This tree is almost always at hand for the village teacher,

as it is so often used as a shade tree. Watching the leaves develop

from the buds is one of the most common of the nature-study lessons.

The study of the buds, leaves and fruits may be made in school; but

the children should observe the tree where it grows and pay special

attention to its insect visitors when it is in bloom.

_Observations_--1. Describe the horse-chestnut tree when in blossom.

At what time does this occur? What is there in its shape and foliage

and flowers which make it a favorite shade tree? Where did it grow

naturally? What relatives of the horse-chestnut are native to America?

2. Study the blossom cluster; are the flowers borne on the ends or

on the sides of the twig? Describe the shape of the cluster. How are

the flowers arranged on the main flower stalk to produce this form?

Do the flowers open all at once from top to bottom of the cluster?

Are all the flowers in the cluster the same color? Are they fragrant?

What insects visit them?

[Illustration: _Horse-chestnuts, the coin of the small boy._

Photo by O. L. Foster.]

3. Take a single flower; describe the form of the calyx. Is it smooth

or downy? Are the lobes all the same size? Are the petals all alike

in size and shape? What gives them the appearance of Japanese paper?

Are any connected together? Are they all splashed with color alike?

4. How many stamens are there? Where do you see them? What color are

the anthers? Search the center of a flower for a pistil with its

green style. Do you find one in every flower? Could a bee reach the

nectar at the base of the blossom without touching the stigma? Could

she withdraw without dusting herself with pollen?

5. How long after the blossom does the young fruit appear? How does

it look? How many nuts are developed from each cluster of blossoms?

What is the shape of the bur? Into how many parts does it open?

Describe the outside; the inside. Describe the shape of the nuts,

their color and markings. Which make the best “conquerers,” those

which grow single in the bur or as twins? Open a nut. Can you find

any division in the kernel? Is it good to eat?

_Horse-chestnut Twigs and Leaves in Spring_--6. Are the buds on the

twigs nearly all the same size? Where are the larger ones situated?

What is the color of the buds? How are the scales arranged on them?

Are they shiny or dull? What do the scales enfold? Can you tell

without opening them which buds contain flowers and which ones leaves?

7. Describe the scars below the buds. What caused them? What marks

are on them? What made the “nails” in the horseshoe? Has the twig

other scars? How do the ring-marks show the age of the twig? Do you

see the little, light colored dots scattered over the bark of the

twig? What are they?

8. Describe how the leaf unfolds from the bud. What is the shape of

the leaf? Do all the leaves have the same number of leaflets? Do

any of them have an even number? How are the leaflets set upon the

petiole? Describe the leaflets, including shape, veins, edges, color

above and below. Is the petiole pliant, or stiff and strong? Is it

the same shape and size throughout its length? Break a petiole, is

it green throughout? What can you see at its center? Are the leaves

opposite or alternate? When they fall, do they drop entire or do the

leaflets fall apart from the stem?

9. Sketch the horse-chestnut tree.

10. How do the flowers and leaves of the horse-chestnut differ from

those of the sweet buckeye and of the Ohio buckeye?

_Supplementary reading_--Trees in Prose and Poetry, p. 17.

THE WILLOWS

_Teacher’s Story_

_They shall spring up among the grass, as willows by the water courses._

--ISAIAH.

“_When I cross opposite the end of Willow Row the sun comes

out and the trees are very handsome, like a rosette, pale,

tawny or fawn color at base and red-yellow or orange-yellow

for the upper three or four feet. This is, methinks, the

brightest object in the landscape these days. Nothing so

betrays the spring sun. I am aware that the sun has come out

of the cloud just by seeing it light up the osiers._”--THOREAU.

[Illustration: T]

The willow, Thoreau noted, is the golden osier, a colonial dame, a

descendent from the white willow of Europe. It is the most common

tree planted along streams to confine them to their channels, and

affords an excellent subject for a nature-study lesson. The golden

osier has a short though magnificent trunk, giving off tremendous

branches, which in turn branch and uphold a mass of golden terminal

shoots. But there are many willows besides this, and the one who

tries to determine all the species and hybrids must conclude that of

making willows there is no end. The species beloved by children is

the pussy willow which is often a shrub, rarely reaching twenty feet

in height. It loves moist localities, and on its branches in early

spring are developed the silky, furry pussies. These are favorite

objects for a nature-study lesson, and yet how little have the

teachers or pupils known about these flowers!

[Illustration: _Enlarged willow blossoms._

Pistillate blossom showing nectar, gland, (n.gl.)

Staminate flower showing the nectar, gland (n.gl.) ]

The willow pussies are the pollen-bearing flowers; they are covered

in winter by a brown, varnished, double, tentlike bract. The pussy

in full bloom shows beneath each fur-bordered scale two stamens with

long filaments and plump anthers; but there are no pistils in this

blossom. The flowers which produce seed are borne on another tree

entirely and in similar greenish gray catkins, but not so soft and

furry. In the pistillate catkin each fringed scale has at its base a

pistil which thrusts out a Y-shaped stigma. The question of how the

pollen from one gets to the pistils of another is a story which the

bees can best tell. The willow flowers give the bees almost their

earliest spring feast and, when they are in blossom, the happy hum

of the bees working in them can be heard for some distance from

the trees. The pollen gives them bee bread for their early brood,

and they get their honey supply from the nectar which is produced

in little jug-shaped glands, at the base of each pollen-bearing

flower on the “pussy” catkin, and in a long pocket at the base of

each flower on the pistillate catkin. So they pass back and forth,

carrying their pollen loads to fertilize the stigmas on trees where

there is no pollen. It has been asserted that the pussies, or

pollen-bearing flowers, yield no nectar but give only pollen, so that

the bee is obliged to seek both trees in order to secure a diet of

“balanced ration;” but the person who made this statement had never

taken the pains to look at the tiny jugs over-flowing with nectar

found at their bases.

[Illustration: _The willow pussies. The staminate blossoms of the

willow._

Photo by Verne Morton.]

In June the willow seed is ripe. The catkin then is made up of tiny

pods, which open like milkweed pods and are filled with seed equipped

with balloons. When these fuzzy seeds are being set free people say

that the willows “shed cotton.”

Although the seed of the willow is produced in abundance, it is

hardly needed for preserving the species. Twigs which we place in

water to develop flowers will also put forth roots; even if the twigs

are placed in water wrong side up, rootlets will form. A twig lying

flat on moist soil will push out rootlets along its entire length

as though it were a root; and shoots will grow from the buds on its

upper side. This habit of the willows and the fact that the roots

are long, strong and fibrous make these trees of great use as soil

binders. There is nothing better than a thick hedge of willows to

hold streams to their proper channels during floods; the roots reach

out in all directions, interlacing themselves in great masses, and

thus hold the soil of the banks in place. The twigs of several of

the species, notably the crack and sand-bar willows, are broken off

easily by the wind and carried off down stream, and where they lodge,

they take root; thus, many streams are bordered by self-planted

willow hedges.

The willow foliage is fine and makes a beautiful, soft mass with

delicate shadows. The leaf is long, narrow, pointed and slender,

with finely toothed edges and short petiole; the exact shape of the

leaf, of course, depends upon the species, but all of them are much

lighter in color below than above. The willows are, as a whole, water

lovers and quick growers.

Although willow wood is soft and exceedingly light, it is very tough

when seasoned and is used for many things. The wooden shoes of the

European peasant, artificial limbs, willowware, and charcoal of the

finest grain used in the manufacture of gunpowder, are all made from

the willow wood. The toughness and flexibility of the willow twigs

have given rise to many industries; baskets, hampers, carriage bodies

and furniture are made of them. To get these twigs the willow trees

are pollarded, or cut back every year between the fall of the leaves

and the flow of the sap in the spring. This pruning results in many

twigs. The use of willow twigs in basketry is ancient. The Britons

fought the Roman soldiers from behind shields of basket work; and

the wattled huts in which they lived were woven of willow saplings

smeared with clay. Salicylic acid, used widely in medicine, is made

from willow bark, which produces also tannin and some unfading dyes.

[Illustration: _The pistillate blossoms of the willow._

Photo by Verne Morton.]

There are many insect inhabitants of the willow, but perhaps the most

interesting is the little chap which makes a conelike object on the

twig of certain species of willow growing along our streams. This

cone is naturally considered a fruit by the ignorant, but we know

that the willow seeds are grown in catkins instead of cones. This

willow cone is made by a small gnat which lays its egg in the tip

of the twig; as soon as the little grub hatches, it begins to gnaw

the twig, and this irritation for some reason stops the growth. The

leaves instead of developing along the stem are dwarfed and overlap

each other. Just in the center of the cone at the tip of the twig the

little larva lives its whole life surrounded by food and protected

from enemies; it remains in the cone all winter, in the spring

changes to a pupa, and after a time comes forth--a very delicate

little fly. The larva in this gall is very hospitable. It has its own

little apartment at the center but does not object to having a tenant

in its outer chambers, a fact which is taken advantage of by another

gall-gnat which breeds there in large numbers. It is well to gather

these cones in winter; examine one by cutting it open to find the

larva, and place others in a fruit jar with a cover so as to see the

little flies when they shall issue in the spring. (See p. 362). For

supplementary reading see “Outdoor Studies,” page 24.

There is another interesting winter tenant of willow leaves, but it

is rather difficult to find. On the lower branches may be discovered,

during winter and spring, leaves rolled lengthwise and fastened,

making elongated cups. Each little cup is very full of a caterpillar

which just fits it, the caterpillar’s head forming the plug of the

opening. This is the partially grown larva of the viceroy butterfly.

It eats off the tip of the leaf each side of the midrib for about

half its length, fastens the petiole fast to the twig with silk, then

rolls the base of the leaf into a cup, lines it with silk and backs

into it, there to remain until fresh leaves on the willow in spring

afford it new food.

[Illustration: “_My willow-tent._”

Photo by W. C. Baker.]

LESSON CXCVI

THE WILLOWS

_Leading thought_--The willows have their pollen-bearing flowers

and their seed-bearing flowers on separate trees; the bees carry

the pollen from one to the other. The willow pussies are the

pollen-bearing flowers.

_Method_--As early in March as is practicable, have the pupils gather

twigs of as many different kinds of willows as can be found; these

should be put in jars of water and placed in a warm, sunny window.

The catkins will soon begin to push out from the bud-scales, and the

whole process of flowering may be watched.

[Illustration: _Seeds of willow._

Photo by Verne Morton.]

_Observations_--1. How can you tell the common willow tree from afar?

In what localities do these trees grow? What is the general shape of

the big willow? How high is the trunk, or bole? What sort of bark

has it? Are the main branches large or small? Do they stand out at a

wide angle or lift up sharply? What color are the terminal shoots, or

spray?

2. Are the buds opposite or alternate on the twigs? Is there a bud at

exactly the end of any twig? How many bracts are there covering the

bud?