it would not milk a cow if it could, and it could not if it would. It
has never yet been induced to drink milk when in captivity; and if
it were very thirsty, it could not drink more than two teaspoonfuls
of milk at most; thus in any case, its depredations upon the milk
supply need not be feared. Its object, in frequenting milk houses
and stables, is far other than the milking of cows, for it is an
inveterate hunter of rats and mice and is thus of great benefit to
the farmer. It is a constrictor, and squeezes its prey to death in
its coils.
The ground color of the milk snake is pale gray, but it is covered
with so many brown or dark gray saddle-shaped blotches, that they
seem rather to form the ground-color; the lower side is white, marked
with square black spots and blotches. The snake attains a length of
about three feet when fully grown. Although it is called commonly the
spotted adder, it does not belong to the adders at all, but to the
family of the king snakes.
During July and August, the mother snake lays from seven to twenty
eggs; they are deposited in loose soil, in moist rubbish, in compost
heaps, etc. The egg is a symmetrical oval in shape and is about one
and one-eighth inches long by a half inch in diameter. The shell is
soft and white, like kid leather, and the egg resembles a puffball.
The young hatch nearly two months after the eggs are laid, meanwhile
the eggs have increased in size so that the snakelings are nearly
eight inches long when they hatch. The saddle-shaped blotches on the
young have much red in them. The milk snake is not venomous; it will
sometimes, in defence, try to chew the hand of the captor, but the
wounds it can inflict are very slight and heal quickly.
[Illustration: _The milk snake, or spotted adder._]
LESSON L
THE MILK SNAKE, OR SPOTTED ADDER
_Leading thought_--The milk snake is found around stables where it
hunts for rats and mice but never milks the cows.
_Method_--Although the snake acts fiercely, it is perfectly harmless
and may be captured in the hands and placed in a glass-covered box
for a study in the schoolroom.
_Observations_--1. Where is the milk snake found? Why is it called
milk snake? Look at its mouth and see if you think it could possibly
suck a cow. See if you can get the snake to drink milk.
2. What does it live upon? How does it kill its prey? Can the milk
snake climb a tree?
3. Where does the mother snake lay her eggs? How do the eggs look?
How large are they? How long are the little snakes when they hatch
from the egg? Are they the same color as the old ones?
4. Describe carefully the colors and markings of the milk snake and
explain how its colors protect it from observation. What are its
colors on the under side?
5. Have you ever seen a snake shed its skin? Describe how it was
done. How does the sloughed-off skin look? What bird always puts
snake skins around its nest?
* * * * *
_I have the same objection to killing a snake that I have to
the killing of any other animal, yet the most humane man I
know never omits to kill one._
* * * * *
_Aug. 5, 1853._
_The mower on the river meadows, when he comes to open his hay
these days, encounters some overgrown water adder, full of
young_ (_?_) _and bold in defense of its progeny, and tells
a tale when he comes home at night which causes a shudder
to run through the village--how it came at him and he ran,
and it pursued and overtook him, and he transfixed it with a
pitchfork and laid it on a cock of hay, but it revived and
came at him again. This is the story he tells in the shops at
evening. The big snake is a sort of fabulous animal. It is
always as big as a man’s arm and of indefinite length. Nobody
knows exactly how deadly is its bite but nobody is known to
have been bitten and recovered. Irishmen introduced into these
meadows for the first time, on seeing a snake, a creature
which they have seen only in pictures before, lay down their
scythes and run as if it were the Evil One himself and cannot
be induced to return to their work. They sigh for Ireland,
where they say there is no venomous thing that can hurt you._
--THOREAU’S JOURNAL.
THE WATER SNAKE
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: E]
Every boy that goes fishing, knows the snake found commonly about
mill-dams and wharves or on rocks and bushes near the water. The
teacher will have accomplished a great work, if these boys are made
to realize that this snake is a more interesting creature for study,
than as an object to pelt with stones.
The water snake is a dingy brown in color, with cross-bands of
brownish or reddish brown which spread out into blotches at the side.
Its color is very protective as it lies on stones or logs in its
favorite attitude of sunning itself. It is very local in its habits,
and generally has a favorite place for basking and returns to it year
after year on sunny days.
This snake lives mostly upon frogs and salamanders and fish; however,
it preys usually upon fish of small value, so it is of little
economic importance. It catches its victims by chasing, and seizing
them in its jaws. It has a very keen sense of smell and probably
traces its prey in this manner, something as a hound follows a fox.
It is an expert swimmer, usually lifting the head a few inches above
the water when swimming, although it is able to dive and remain below
the water for a short time.
The water snake is a bluffer, and, when cornered, it flattens itself
and strikes fiercely. But its teeth contain no poison and it can
inflict only slight and harmless wounds. When acting as if it would
“rather fight than eat,” if given a slight chance to escape, it will
flee to the water like a “streak of greased lightning,” as any boy
will assure you.
[Illustration: _The water snake._]
The water snake attains a length of about four feet. The young do not
hatch from eggs, but are born alive in August and September; they
differ much in appearance from their parents as they are pale gray in
color, with jet-black cross-bands.
LESSON LI
THE WATER SNAKE
_Leading thought_--The water snake haunts the banks of streams
because its food consists of creatures that live in and about water.
_Method_--If water snakes are found in the locality, encourage the
boys to capture one without harming it, and bring it to school
for observation. However, as the water snake is very local in its
habits, and haunts the same place year after year, it will be
better nature-study to get the children to observe it in its native
surroundings.
_Observations_--1. Where is the water snake found? How large is the
largest one you ever saw?
2. Why does the water snake live near water? What is its food? How
does it catch its prey?
3. Describe how the water snake swims. How far does its head project
above the water when swimming? How long can it stay completely
beneath the water?
4. Describe the markings and colors of the water snake. How do these
colors protect it from observation? How do the young look?
5. Does each water snake have a favorite place for sunning itself?
6. Where do the water snakes spend the winter?
* * * * *
_May 12, 1858._
_Found a large water adder by the edge of Farmer’s large
mudhole, which abounds with tadpoles and frogs, on which it
was probably feeding. It was sunning on the bank and would
face me and dart its head toward me when I tried to drive it
from the water. It is barred above, but indistinctly when
out of the water, so that it appears almost uniformly dark
brown, but in the water, broad, reddish brown bars are seen,
very distinctly alternating with very dark-brown ones. The
head was very flat and suddenly broader than the neck behind.
Beneath, it was whitish and reddish flesh-color. It was about
two inches in diameter at the thickest part. The inside of
its mouth and throat was pink. They are the biggest and most
formidable-looking snakes that we have. It was awful to
see it wind along the bottom of the ditch at last, raising
wreaths of mud amid the tadpoles, to which it must be a very
sea-serpent. I afterward saw another, running under Sam
Barrett’s grist-mill, the same afternoon. He said that he saw
a water-snake, which he distinguished from a black snake, in
an apple tree near by, last year, with a young robin in its
mouth, having taken it from the nest. There was a cleft or
fork in the tree which enabled it to ascend._
--THOREAU’S JOURNAL.
THE TURTLE
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: A]
A turtle is at heart a misanthrope; its shell is in itself proof of
its owner’s distrust of this world. But we need not wonder at this
misanthropy, if we think for a moment of the creatures that lived on
this earth, at the time when turtles first appeared. Almost any of us
would have been glad of a shell in which to retire, if we had been
contemporaries of the smilodon and other monsters of earlier geologic
times.
When the turtle feels safe and walks abroad for pleasure, his head
projects far from the front end of his shell, and the legs, so wide,
and soft that they look as if they had no bones in them, project out
at the side, while the little, pointed tail brings up an undignified
rear; but frighten him and at once head, legs and tail all disappear,
and even if we turn him over, we see nothing but the tip of the nose,
the claws of the feet and the tail turned deftly sidewise. When
frightened, he hisses threateningly; the noise seems to be made while
the mouth is shut, and the breath emitted through the nostrils.
[Illustration: _Carapace of painted terrapin in retirement._]
[Illustration: _Plastron of same terrapin._]
The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace and the lower
shell, the plastron. There is much difference in the different
species of turtles in the shape of the upper shell and the size and
shape of the lower one. In most species the carapace is sub-globular
but in some it is quite flat. The upper shell is grown fast to the
backbone of the animal, and the lower shell to the breast bone.
The markings and colors of the shell offer excellent subjects for
drawing. The painted terrapin has a red-mottled border to the shell,
very ornamental; the wood turtle has a shell made up of plates each
of which is ornamented with concentric ridges; and the box-turtle
has a front and rear trap-door, hinged to the plastron, which can be
pulled up against the carapace when the turtle wishes to retire, thus
covering it entirely.
The turtle’s head is decidedly snakelike. Its color differs with
different species. The wood turtle has a triangular, horny covering
on the top of the head, in which the color and beautiful pattern of
the shell are repeated; the underparts are brick-red with indistinct
yellowish lines under the jaw. The eyes are black with a yellowish
iris, which somehow gives them a look of intelligence. The turtle has
no eyelids like our own, but has a nictitating membrane which comes
up from below and completely covers the eye; if we seize the turtle
by the head and attempt to touch its eyes, we can see the use of this
eyelid. When the turtle winks, it seems to turn the eyeball down
against the lower lid.
The sense of smell in turtles is not well developed, as may be
guessed by the very small nostrils, which are mere pin-holes in the
snout. The mouth is a more or less hooked beak, and is armed with
cutting edges instead of teeth. The constant pulsation in the throat
is caused by the turtle swallowing air for breathing.
[Illustration: _Boxy, a trained turtle._
Photo by Silas Lottridge.]
The turtle’s legs, although so large and soft, have bones within
them, as the skeleton shows. The claws are long and strong; there
are five claws on the front and four on the hind feet. Some species
have a distinct web between the toes; in others, it is less marked,
depending upon whether the species lives mostly in water or out of
it. The color of the turtle’s body varies with the species; the body
is covered with coarse, rough skin made up of various-sized plates.
The enemies of turtles are the larger fishes and other turtles.
Two turtles should never be kept in the same aquarium, since they
eat each others’ tails and legs with great relish. They feed upon
insects, small fish, or almost anything soft-bodied which they can
find in the water; they are especially fond of earthworms. The
species which frequent the land, feed upon tender vegetation and
also eat berries. In an aquarium, a turtle should be fed earthworms,
chopped fresh beef, lettuce leaves and berries. The wood turtle is
especially fond of cherries.
The aquarium should always have in it a stone or some other object
projecting above the water, so that the turtle may climb out, if
it chooses. In winter, turtles bury themselves in the ooze at the
bottom of ponds and streams. Their eggs have white leathery shells,
are oblong in shape, and are buried by the mother in the sand or
soil near a stream or pond. The long life of turtles is a well
authenticated fact, dates carved upon their shells show them to have
attained the age of thirty or forty years.
The following are, perhaps, the most common species of turtles:
(a) _The Snapping Turtle_--This sometimes attains a shell 14 inches
long and a weight of forty pounds. It is a vicious creature and
inflicts a severe wound with its sharp, hooked beak; it should not be
used for a nature-study lesson unless the specimen is very young.
(b) _The Mud Turtle_--The musk turtle and the common mud turtle both
inhabit slow streams and ponds; they are truly aquatic and only come
to shore to deposit their eggs. They cannot eat, unless they are
under water, and they seek their food in the muddy bottoms. The musk
turtle when handled, emits a very strong odor; it has on each side of
the head two broad yellow stripes. The mud turtle has no odor. Its
head is ornamented with greenish yellow spots.
(c) _The Painted Terrapin, or Pond Turtle_--This can be determined by
the red mottled border of its shell. It makes a good pet, if kept in
an aquarium by itself, but will destroy other creatures. It will eat
meat or chopped fish, and is fond of earthworms and soft insects.
(d) _The Spotted Turtle_--This has the upper shell black with
numerous round yellow spots upon it. It is common in ponds and marshy
streams and its favorite perch is, with many of its companions, upon
a log. It feeds under water, eating insect larvæ, dead fish and
vegetation. It likes fresh lettuce.
(e) _The Wood Terrapin_--This is our most common turtle; it is found
in damp woods and wet places, since it lives largely upon the land.
Its upper shell often reaches a length of six and one-half inches and
is made up of many plates, ornamented with concentric ridges. This is
the turtle upon whose shell people carve initials and dates and then
set it free. All the fleshy parts of this turtle, except the top of
the head and the limbs, are brick-red. It feeds on tender vegetables,
berries and insects. It makes an interesting pet and will soon learn
to eat from the fingers of its master.
(f) _The Box-Turtle_--This is easily distinguished from the others,
because the front and rear portions of the lower shell are hinged so
that they can be pulled up against the upper shell. When this turtle
is attacked, it draws into the shell and closes both front and back
doors, and is very safe from its enemies. It lives entirely upon land
and feeds upon berries, tender vegetation and insects. It lives to a
great age.
(g) _The Soft-shelled Turtle_--These are found in streams and canals.
The upper shell looks as if it were of one piece of soft leather, and
resembles a griddle-cake. Although soft-shelled, these turtles are
far from soft-tempered, and must be handled with care.
LESSON LII
THE TURTLE
_Leading thought_--The turtle’s shell is for the purpose of
protecting its owner from the attack of enemies. Some turtles live
upon land and others in water.
_Method_--A turtle of any kind, in the schoolroom, is all that is
needed to make this lesson interesting.
[Illustration: _A snapping turtle._
Photo by J. T. Lloyd.]
_Observations_--1. How much can you see of the turtle when it is
walking? If you disturb it what does it do? How much of it can you
see then? Can you see more of it from the lower side than the upper?
What is the advantage to the turtle of having such a shell?
2. Compare the upper shell with the lower as follows: How are they
shaped differently? What is their difference in color? Would it be a
disadvantage to the turtle if the upper shell were as light colored
as the lower? Why? Make a drawing of the upper and the lower shell
showing the shape of the plates of which they are composed. Where are
the two grown together?
3. Is the border of the upper shell different from the central
portion in color and markings? Is the edge smooth or scalloped?
4. How far does the turtle’s head project from the front of the
shell? What is the shape of the head? With what colors and pattern is
it marked? Describe the eyes. How are they protected? How does the
turtle wink? Can you discover the little eyelid which comes up from
below to cover the eye?
5. Describe the nose and nostrils. Do you think it has a keen sense
of smell?
6. Describe the mouth. Are there any teeth? With what does it bite
off its food? Describe the movement of the throat. Why is this
constant pulsation?
7. What is the shape of the leg? How is it marked? How many claws on
the front feet? Are any of the toes webbed? On which feet are the
webbed toes? Why should they be webbed? Describe the way a turtle
swims. Which feet are used for oars?
8. Describe the tail. How much can be seen from above when the turtle
is walking? What becomes of it, when the turtle withdraws into its
shell?
9. How much of the turtle’s body can you see? What is its color? Is
it rough or smooth?
10. What are the turtle’s enemies? How does it escape from them? What
noise does the turtle make when frightened or angry?
11. Do all turtles live for part of the time in water? What is their
food and where do they find it? Write an account of all the species
of turtles that you know.
12. How do turtle eggs look? Where are they laid? How are they hidden?
_Supplementary reading_--“Turtle Eggs for Agassiz,” Dalles Lore
Sharp, Atlantic Monthly, Feb., 1910.
V. MAMMAL STUDY
[Illustration]
[Illustration: F]
For some inexplicable reason, the word animal, in common parlance,
is restricted to the mammals. As a matter of fact, the bird, the
fish, the insect and the snake have as much right to be called
animals as has the squirrel or the deer. And while I believe that
much freedom in the matter of scientific nomenclature is permissible
in nature-study, I also believe that it is well for the child to
have a clearly defined idea of the classes into which the animal
kingdom is divided; and I would have him gain this knowledge by
noting how one animal differs from another rather than by studying
the classification of animals in books. He sees that the fish differs
in many ways from the bird and that the toad differs from the snake;
and it will be easy for him to grasp the fact that the mammals
differ from all other animals in that the young are nourished by
milk produced for this purpose in the breasts of the mother; when he
understands this, he can comprehend how such diverse forms as the
whale, the cow, the bat, and human beings are akin.
[Illustration: _A cotton-tail rabbit._]
THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT
_Teacher’s Story_
“_The Bunnies are a feeble folk whose weakness is their
strength.
To shun a gun a Bun will run to almost any length._”
--OLIVER HERFORD.
[Illustration: I]
It is well for Molly Cotton-tail and her family that they have
learned to shun more than guns for almost every predatory animal and
bird makes a dinner of them on every possible occasion. But despite
these enemies, moreover, with the addition of guns, men and dogs, the
cotton-tail lives and flourishes in our midst. A “Molly” raised two
families last year in a briar-patch back of our garden on the Cornell
Campus, where dogs of many breeds abound; and after each fresh fall
of snow this winter we have been able to trace our bunny neighbors
in their night wanderings around the house, beneath the spruces and
in the orchard. The track consists of two long splashes, paired, and
between and a little behind them, two smaller ones; the rabbit uses
its front feet as a boy uses a vaulting pole and lands both hind feet
on each side and ahead of them; owing to the fact that the bottoms
of the feet are hairy the print is not clear-cut. When the rabbit is
not in a hurry it has a peculiar lope, but when frightened it makes
long jumps. The cotton-tails are night wanderers and usually remain
hidden during the day. In summer, they feed on clover or grass or
other juicy herbs and show a fondness for sweet apples and fresh
cabbage; in our garden last summer Molly was very considerate. She
carefully pulled all the grass out of the garden-cress bed, leaving
the salad for our enjoyment. In winter, the long, gnawing teeth of
the cotton-tail are sometimes used to the damage of fruit trees and
nursery stock since the rabbits are obliged to feed upon bark in
order to keep alive.
The long, strong hind legs and the long ears tell the whole bunny
story. Ears to hear the approach of the enemy, and legs to propel the
listener by long jumps to a safe retreat. The attitude of the ears
is a good indication of the bunny’s state of mind; if they are set
back to back and directed backward, they indicate placidity, but a
placidity that is always on guard; if lifted straight up they signify
attention and anxiety; if one is bent forward and the other backward
the meaning is: “Now just where did that sound come from?” When
running or when resting in the form, the ears are laid back along the
neck. When the cotton-tail stands up on its haunches with both ears
erect, it looks very tall indeed.
Not only are the ears always alert, but also the nose; the nostrils
are partially covered and in order to be always sure of getting every
scent they wabble constantly, the split upper lip aiding in this
performance; when the rabbit is trying to get a scent it moves its
head up and down in a sagacious, apprehensive manner.
The rabbit has an upper and lower pair of incisors like other
rodents, but on the upper jaw there is a short incisor on each
side of the large teeth; these are of no use now but are inherited
from some ancestor which found them useful. There are at the back
of each side of the upper jaw six grinding teeth, and five on each
side of the lower jaw. The split upper lip allows the free use of
the upper incisors. The incisors are not only used for taking the
bark from trees, but also for cutting grass and other food. The
rabbit has a funny way of taking a stem of grass or clover at the
end and with much wabbling of lips, finally taking it in, meanwhile
chewing it with a sidewise motion of the jaws. The rabbits’ whiskers
are valuable as feelers, and are always kept on the _qui vive_ for
impressions; when two cotton-tails meet each other amicably, they
rub whiskers together. The eyes are large and dark and placed on the
bulge at the side of the head, so as to command the view both ways.
Probably a cotton-tail winks, but I never caught one in the act.
The strong hind legs of the rabbit enable it to make prodigious
jumps, of eight feet or more; this is a valuable asset to an animal
that escapes its enemies by running. The front feet are short and
cannot be turned inward like those of the squirrel, to hold food.
There are five toes on the front feet, and four on the hind feet; the
hair on the bottom of the feet is a protection, much needed by an
animal which sits for long periods upon the snow. When sleeping, the
front paws are folded under and the rabbit rests on the entire hind
foot, with the knee bent, ready for a spring at the slightest alarm;
when awake, it rests on the hind feet and front toes; and when it
wishes to see if the coast is clear, it rises on its hind feet, with
front paws drooping.
The cotton-tail has a color well calculated to protect it from
observation; it is brownish-gray on the back and a little lighter
along the sides, grayish under the chin and whitish below; the ears
are edged with black, and the tail when raised shows a large, white
fluff at the rear. The general color of the rabbit fits in with
natural surroundings; since the cotton-tail often escapes its enemies
by “freezing,” this color makes the scheme work well. I once saw
a marsh hare, on a stone in a brook, freezing most successfully. I
could hardly believe that a living thing could seem so much like a
stone; only its bright eyes revealed it to us.
The rabbit cleans itself in amusing ways. It shakes its feet, one at
a time, with great vigor and rapidity to get off the dirt and then
licks them clean. It washes its face with both front paws at once. It
scratches its ear with the hind foot, and pushes it forward so that
it can be licked; it takes hold of its fur with its front feet to
pull it around within reach of the tongue.
[Illustration: _Washing up._]
The cotton-tail does not dig a burrow, but sometimes occupies the
deserted burrow of a woodchuck or skunk. Its nest is called a “form,”
which simply means a place beneath a cover of grass or briars, where
the grass is beaten down or eaten out for a space large enough for
the animal to sit. The mother makes a soft bed for the young, using
grass and her own hair for the purpose; and she constructs a coarse
felted coverlet, under which she tucks her babies with care, every
time she leaves them. Young rabbits are blind at first, but when
about three weeks old, are sufficiently grown to run quite rapidly.
Although there may be five or six in a litter, yet there are so many
enemies that only a few escape.
Fox, mink, weasel, hawk, owl and snake all relish the young
cotton-tail if they can get it. Nothing but its runways through the
briars can save it. These roads wind in and out and across, twisting
and turning perplexingly; they are made by cutting off the grass
stems, and are just wide enough for the rabbit’s body. However, a
rabbit has weapons and can fight if necessary; it leaps over its
enemy, kicking it on the back fiercely with its great hind feet. Mr.
Seton tells of this way of conquering the black snake, and Mr. Sharp
saw a cat completely vanquished by the same method. The rabbit can
also bite, and when two males are fighting, they bite each other
savagely. Mr. E. W. Cleeves told me of a Belgian doe which showed her
enmity to cats in a peculiar way. She would run after any cats that
came in sight, butting them like a billy-goat. The cats soon learned
her tricks, and would climb a tree as soon as they caught sight of
her. The rabbit’s sound of defiance, is thumping the ground with the
strong hind foot. Some have declared that the front feet are used
also for stamping; although I have heard this indignant thumping more
than once, I could not see the process. The cotton-tail is a hare,
while the common domestic rabbit is a true rabbit. The two differ
chiefly in the habits of nesting; the hares rest and nest in forms,
while the rabbit makes burrows, digging rapidly with the front feet.
[Illustration: _Rabbit tracks._]
Not the least of tributes to the rabbit’s sagacity, are the negro
folk-stories told by Uncle Remus, wherein Bre’r Rabbit, although
often in trouble, is really the most clever of all the animals. I
have often thought when I have seen the tactics which rabbits have
adopted to escape dogs, that we in the North have under-rated the
cleverness of this timid animal. In one instance at least that came
under our observation, a cotton-tail led a dog to the verge of a
precipice, then doubled back to safety, while the dog went over,
landing on the rocks nearly three hundred feet below.
LESSON LIII
THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT
_Leading thought_--The cotton-tail thrives amid civilization; its
color protects it from sight; its long ears give it warning of the
approach of danger; and its long legs enable it to run by swift, long
leaps. It feeds upon grasses, clover, vegetables and other herbs.
[Illustration: _Belgian hares and Dutch rabbit._]
_Method_--This study may be begun in the winter, when the rabbit
tracks can be observed and the haunts of the cotton-tail discovered.
If caught in a box trap, the cotton-tail will become tame if properly
fed and cared for, and may thus be studied at close range. The cage I
have used for rabbits as thus caught, is made of wire screen, nailed
to a frame, making a wire-covered box, two feet high and two or three
feet square, with a door at one side and no bottom. It should be
placed upon oil-cloth or linoleum, and thus may be moved to another
carpet when the floor needs cleaning. If it is impossible to study
the cotton-tail, the domestic rabbit may be used instead.
_Observations_--1. What sort of tracks does the cotton-tail make in
the snow? Describe and sketch them. Where do you find these tracks?
How do you know which way the rabbit was going? Follow the track
and see if you can find where the rabbit went. When were these
tracks made, by night or by day? What does the rabbit do during the
day? What does it find to eat during the winter? How are its feet
protected so that they do not freeze in the snow?
2. What are the two most noticeable peculiarities of the rabbit?
Of what use are such large ears? How are the ears held when the
rabbit is resting? When startled? When not quite certain about the
direction of the noise? Explain the reasons for these attitudes. When
the rabbit wishes to make an observation to see if there is danger
coming, what does it do? How does it hold its ears then? How are the
ears held when the animal is running?
3. Do you think the rabbit has a keen sense of smell? Describe the
movements of the nostrils and explain the reason. How does it move
its head to be sure of getting the scent?
4. What peculiarity is there in the upper lip? How would this be an
aid to the rabbit when gnawing? Describe the teeth; how do these
differ from those of the mouse or squirrel? Of what advantage are the
gnawing teeth to the rabbit? How does it eat a stem of grass? Note
the rabbit’s whiskers. What do you think they are used for?
5. Describe the eyes. How are they placed so that the rabbit can see
forward and backward? Do you think that it sleeps with its eyes open?
Does it wink?
6. Why is it advantageous to the rabbit to have such long, strong,
hind legs? Compare them in size with the front legs. Compare the
front and hind feet. How many toes on each? How are the bottoms of
the feet protected? Are the front feet ever used for holding food
like the squirrel’s? In what position are the legs when the rabbit is
resting? When it is standing? When lifted up for observation?
7. How does the cotton-tail escape being seen? Describe its coat. Of
what use is the white fluff beneath the tail? Have you ever seen a
wild rabbit “freeze”? What is meant by freezing and what is the use
of it?
8. In making its toilet how does the rabbit clean its face, ears,
feet, and fur?
9. What do the cotton-tails feed upon during the summer? During the
winter? Do they ever do much damage?
10. Describe the cotton-tail’s nest. What is it called? Does it
ever burrow in the ground? Does it ever use a second-hand burrow?
Describe the nest made for the young by the mother. Of what is the
bed composed? Of what is the coverlet made? What is the special use
of the coverlet? How do the young cotton-tails look? How old are they
before they are able to take care of themselves?
11. What are the cotton-tail’s enemies? How does it escape them? Have
you ever seen the rabbit roads in a briar patch? Do you think that a
dog or fox could follow them? Do rabbits ever fight their enemies? If
so, how? How do they show anger? Do they stamp with the front or the
hind foot?
12. Tell how the cotton-tail differs in looks and habits from the
common tame rabbit. How do the latter dig their burrows? How many
breeds of tame rabbits do you know?
13. Write or tell stories on the following topics: “A Cotton-tail’s
Story of its Own Life Until it is a Year Old;” “The Jack-rabbit of
the West;” “The Habits of the White Rabbit or Varying Hare;” “The
Rabbit in Uncle Remus’ Tales.”
_Supplementary reading_--“Raggylug” and “Little War Horse,”
Thompson-Seton; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Watchers
in the Woods, Sharp; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Familiar Life in
Field and Forest, Mathews; Sharp Eyes, Gibson; Neighbors with Claws
and Hoofs, Johonnot; True Tales of Birds and Beasts, Jordan; Uncle
Remus Stories, especially The Tar Baby, which emphasizes the fact
that the rabbits’ runways are in the protecting briar-patch.
[Illustration: _Winter lodge of muskrats._
Photo by Silas Lottridge.]
THE MUSKRAT
_Teacher’s Story_
“_Having finished this first course of big-neck clams, they
were joined by a third muskrat, and, together, they filed
over the bank and down into the meadow. Shortly two of them
returned with great mouthfuls of the mud-bleached ends of
calamus-blades. Then followed the washing._
_They dropped their loads upon the plank, took up the stalks,
pulled the blades apart, and soused them up and down in the
water, rubbing them with their paws until they were as clean
and white as the whitest celery one ever ate. What a dainty
picture! Two little brown creatures, humped on the edge of a
plank, washing calamus in moonlit water!_”
--DALLAS LORE SHARP.
[Illustration: T]
Tracking is a part of every boy’s education who aspires to a
knowledge of wood lore; and a boy with this accomplishment is sure to
be looked upon with great admiration by other boys, less skilled in
the interpretation of that writing made by small feet, on the soft
snow or on the mud of stream margins. To such a boy, the track of the
muskrat is well known, and very easily recognized.
The muskrat is essentially a water animal, and therefore its tracks
are to be looked for along the edges of ponds, streams or in marshes.
Whether the tracks are made by walking or jumping, depends upon
the depth of the snow or mud; if it is deep, the animal jumps, but
in shallow snow or mud, it simply runs along. The tracks show the
front feet to be smaller than the hind ones. The muskrat track is,
however, characterized by the tail imprint. When the creature jumps
through the snow, the mark of the tail follows the paired imprints
of the feet; when it walks, there is a continuous line made by this
strong, naked tail. This distinguishes the track of the muskrat from
that of the mink, as the bushy tail of the latter does not make so
distinct a mark. Measuring the track, is simply a device for making
the pupils note its size and shape more carefully. The tracks may be
looked for during the thaws of March or February, when the muskrats
come out of the water to seek food.
In appearance the muskrat is peculiar. The body is usually about a
foot in length and the tail about eight inches. The body is stout and
thickset, the head is rounded and looks like that of a giant meadow
mouse; the eyes are black and shining; the ears are short and close
to the head; the teeth, like those of other rodents, consist of a
pair of front teeth on each jaw, then a long, bare space and four
grinders on each side. There are long sensitive hairs about the nose
and mouth, like the whiskers of mice.
The muskrat’s hind legs are much larger and stronger than the front
ones; and too, the hind feet are much longer than the front feet and
have a web between the toes; there are also stiff hairs which fill
the space between the toes, outside the web, thus making this large
hind foot an excellent swimming organ. The front toes are not webbed
and are used for digging. The claws are long, stout and sharp. The
tail is long, stout and flattened at the sides; it has little or no
fur upon it but is covered with scales; it is used as a scull and
also as a rudder when the muskrat is swimming.
The muskrat’s outer coat consists of long, rather coarse hairs; its
under coat is of fur, very thick and fine, and although short, it
forms a waterproof protection for the body of the animal. In color,
the fur is dark brown above with a darker streak along the middle of
the back; beneath, the body is grayish changing to whitish on the
throat and lips, with a brown spot on the chin. In preparing the
pelts for commercial use, the long hairs are plucked out leaving
the soft, fine under coat, which is dyed and sold under the name of
“electric seal.”
The muskrat is far better fitted by form, for life in the water than
upon the land. Since it is heavy-bodied and short-legged, it cannot
run rapidly but its strong, webbed hind feet are most efficient oars,
and it swims rapidly and easily; for rudder and propeller the strong,
flattened tail serves admirably, while the fine fur next the body
is so perfectly waterproof that, however much the muskrat swims or
dives, it is never wet. It is a skillful diver and can stay under
water for several minutes; when swimming, its nose and sometimes the
head and the tip of the tail appear on the surface of the water.
The food of muskrats is largely roots, especially those of the sweet
flag and the yellow lily. They also feed on other aquatic plants
and are fond of the fresh-water shell-fish. Mr. Sharp tells us, in
one of his delightful stories, how the muskrats wash their food by
sousing it up and down in water many times before eating it. Often,
a muskrat chooses some special place upon the shore which it uses
for a dining-room, bringing there and eating pieces of lily root or
fresh-water clams, and leaving the debris to show where it habitually
dines. It does most of its hunting for food at night, although
sometimes it may be seen thus employed during the day.
The winter lodge of the muskrat is a most interesting structure.
A foundation of tussocks of rushes, in a stream or shallow pond,
is built upon with reeds plastered with mud, making a rather
regular dome which may be nearly two or three feet high; or, if
many-chambered, it may be a grand affair of four or five feet
elevation; but it always looks so much like a natural hummock that
the eye of the uninitiated never regards it as a habitation. Always
beneath this dome and above the water line, is a snug, covered
chamber carpeted with a soft bed of leaves and moss, which has a
passage leading down into the water below, and also has an air-hole
for ventilation. In these cabins, closely cuddled together, three or
four in a chamber, the muskrats pass the winter. After the pond is
frozen they are safe from their enemies and are always able to go
down into the water and feed upon the roots of water plants. These
cabins are sometimes built in the low, drooping branches of willows
or on other objects.
[Illustration: _A muskrat’s summer home._
Drawn by A. MacKinnon, a boy of 13 years.]
Whether the muskrat builds itself a winter lodge or not, depends
upon the nature of the shore which it inhabits; if it is a place
particularly fitted for burrows, then a burrow will be used as a
winter retreat; but if the banks are shallow, the muskrats unite in
building cabins. The main entrance to the muskrat burrow is always
below the surface of the water, the burrow slanting upward and
leading to a nest well lined, which is above the reach of high water;
there is always an air hole above, for ventilating this nest, and
there is also often a passage, with a hidden entrance, leading out to
dry land.
The flesh of the muskrat is delicious, and therefore the animal has
many enemies; foxes, weasels, dogs, minks and also hawks and owls
prey upon it. It escapes the sight of its enemies as does the mouse,
by having the color of its fur not noticeable; when discovered,
it escapes its enemies by swimming, although when cornered, it is
courageous and fights fiercely, using its strong incisors as weapons.
In winter, it dwells in safety when the friendly ice protects it from
all its enemies except the mink; but it is exposed to great danger
when the streams break up in spring, for it is then often driven from
its cabin by floods, and preyed upon while thus helplessly exposed.
The muskrat gives warning of danger to its fellows by splashing the
water with its strong tail.
It is called muskrat because of the odor, somewhat resembling musk,
which it exhales from two glands on the lower side of the body
between the hind legs; these glands may be seen when the skin is
removed, which is the too common plight of this poor creature, since
it is hunted mercilessly for its pelt.
[Illustration: _The muskrat._
Photo by Silas Lottridge.]
The little muskrats are born in April and there are usually from six
to eight in a litter. Another litter may be produced in June or July
and a third in August or September. It is only thus, by rearing large
families often, that the muskrats are able to hold their own against
the hunters and trappers and their natural enemies.
_References_--Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; A Watcher in the Woods,
Sharp; Wild Life, Ingersoll, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 396, U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture.
LESSON LIV
THE MUSKRAT
_Leading thought_--The muskrat, while a true rodent, is fitted for
life in the water more than for life upon the land. Its hind feet are
webbed for use as oars and its tail is used as a rudder. It builds
lodges of mud, cat-tails and rushes in which it spends the winter.
_Method_--It might be well to begin this work by asking for
observations on the tracks of the muskrat which may be found about
the edges of almost any creek, pond or marsh. If there are muskrat
lodges in the region they should be visited and described. For
studying the muskrat’s form a live muskrat in captivity is almost
necessary. If one is trapped with a “figure four” it will not be
injured and it may be made more or less tame by feeding it with
sweet apples, carrots and parsnips. The pupils can thus study it at
leisure although they should not be allowed to handle the creature as
it inflicts very severe wounds and is never willing to be handled.
If a live muskrat cannot be obtained perhaps some hunter in the
neighborhood will supply a dead one for this observation lesson.
While studying the muskrat the children should read all the stories
of beavers which are available as the two animals are very much alike
in their habits.
_Observations_--1. In what locality have you discovered the tracks of
the muskrat? Describe its general appearance. Measure the muskrat’s
track as follows: (a) Width and length of the print of one foot; (b)
the width between the prints of the two hind feet; (c) the length
between the prints made by the hind feet in several successive steps
or jumps.
2. Was the muskrat’s track made when the animal was jumping or
walking? Can you see in it a difference in the size of the front and
hind feet? Judging from the track, where do you think the muskrat
came from? What do you think it was hunting for?
3. What mark does the tail make in the snow or mud? Judging by its
imprint, should you think the muskrat’s tail was long or short, bare
or brushy, slender or strong?
4. How long is the largest muskrat you ever saw? How much of the
whole length is tail? Is the general shape of the body short and
heavy or long and slender?
5. Describe the muskrat’s eyes, ears and teeth. For what are the
teeth especially fitted? Has the muskrat whiskers like mice and rats?
6. Compare the front and hind legs as to size and shape. Is there a
web between the toes of the hind feet? What does this indicate? Do
you think that the muskrat is a good swimmer?
7. Describe the muskrat fur. Compare the outer and under coat. What
is its color above and below? What is the name of muskrat fur in the
shops?
8. Describe the tail. What is its covering? How is it flattened? What
do you think this strong, flattened tail is used for?
9. Do you think the muskrat is better fitted to live in the water
than on land? How is it fitted to live in the water in the following
particulars: Feet? Tail? Fur?
10. How much of the muskrat can you see when it is swimming? How long
can it stay under water when diving?
11. What is the food of the muskrat? Where does it find it? How does
it prepare the food for eating? Does it seek its food during the
night or day? Have you ever observed the muskrat’s dining room? If
so, describe it.
12. Describe the structure of the muskrat’s winter lodge, or cabin,
in the following particulars: Its size. Where built? Of what
material? How many rooms in it? Are these rooms above or below the
water level? Of what is the bed made? How is the nest ventilated? How
is it arranged so that the entrance is not closed by the ice? Is such
a home built by one or more muskrats? How many live within it? Do the
muskrats always build these winter cabins? What is the character of
the shores where they are built?
13. Describe the muskrat’s burrow in the bank in the following
particulars: Is the entrance above or below water? Where and how is
the nest made? Is it ventilated? Does it have a back door leading out
upon the land?
14. What are the muskrat’s enemies? How does it escape them? How
does it fight? Is it a courageous animal? How does the muskrat give
warning to its fellows when it perceives danger? At what time of year
is it comparatively safe? At what time is it exposed to greatest
danger?
15. Why is this animal called muskrat? Compare the habits of muskrats
with those of beaver and write an English theme upon the similarity
of the two.
16. At what time of year do you find the young muskrats? How many in
a litter?
17. Read Farmers’ Bulletin No. 396 of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
and write an English theme on the destructive habits of muskrats and
the economic uses of these animals.
_Supplementary reading_--Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; Little
Beasts of Field and Wood, Cram; Squirrels and other Fur-bearers,
Burroughs; “The Builders” in Ways of Wood Folk, Long.
[Illustration: _The white-footed, or deer, mouse._
Drawn by Anna Stryke.]
[Illustration: _The house mouse feeds upon almost anything which
people like to eat._]
THE HOUSE MOUSE
_Teacher’s Story_
_Somewhere in the darkness a clock strikes two;
And there is no sound in the sad old house,
But the long veranda dripping with dew,
And in the wainscot--a mouse._
--BRET HARTE.
[Illustration: W]
Were mouse-gray a less inconspicuous color, there would be fewer
mice; when a mouse is running along the floor, it is hardly
discernible, it looks so like a flitting shadow; if it were black or
white or any other color, it would be more often seen and destroyed.
Undoubtedly, it is owing to the fact that its soft fur has this
shadowy color, that this species has been able to spread over the
world.
At first glance one wonders what possible use a mouse can make of a
tail which is as long as its body, but a little careful observation
will reveal the secret. The tail is covered with transverse ridges
and is bare save for sparse hairs, except toward the tip. Dr. Ida
Reveley first called my attention to the fact that the house mouse
uses its tail in climbing. I verified this interesting observation,
and found that my mouse used the tail for aid when climbing a string.
He would go up the string, hand over hand, like a sailor, then in
trying to stretch to the edge of his jar, he invariably wound his
tail about the string two or three times, and hanging to the string
with the hind feet and tail, would reach far out with his head and
front feet. Also, when clinging to the edge of the cover of the jar,
he invariably used his tail as a brace against the side of the glass,
so that it pressed hard for more than half its length. Undoubtedly
the tail is of great service when climbing up the sides of walls.
The tail is also of some use, when the mouse jumps directly upwards.
The hind legs are very much longer and stronger than the front legs.
The hind feet are also much longer and larger than the front feet;
and although the mouse, when it makes its remarkable jumps, depends
upon its strong hind legs, I am sure that often the tail is used as a
brace to guide and assist the leap. The feet are free from hairs but
are downy; the hind foot has three front toes, a long toe behind on
the outside and a short one on the inside. The claws are fairly long
and very sharp so that they are able to cling to almost anything but
glass. When exploring, a mouse stands on its hind feet, folding its
little front paws under its chin while it reaches up ready to catch
anything in sight; it can stretch up to an amazing height. It feeds
upon almost anything which people like to eat and, when eating, holds
its food in its front paws like a squirrel.
The thin, velvety ears are flaring cornucopias for taking in sound;
the large, rounded outer ear can be moved forward or back to test the
direction of the noise. The eyes are like shining, black beads; and
if a mouse can wink, it does it so rapidly as not to be discernible.
The nose is long, inquisitive, and always sniffing for new
impressions. The whiskers are delicate and probably sensitive. The
mouth is furnished with two long, curved gnawing teeth at the front
of each jaw, then a bare space, and four grinding teeth on each side,
above and below, like the teeth of woodchucks and other rodents. The
gnawing teeth are very strong and enable the mouse to gnaw through
board partitions and other obstacles.
The energy with which the mouse cleans itself is inspiring to behold.
It nibbles its fur and licks it with fervor, reaching around so as to
get at it from behind, and taking hold with its little hands to hold
firm while it cleans. When washing its face and head, it uses both
front feet, licking them clean and rubbing them both simultaneously
from behind the ears down over the face. It takes its hind foot in
both front feet and nibbles and licks it. It scratches the back of
its head with its hind foot.
[Illustration: _Young mice, blind, pink and hairless._]
Young mice are small, downy, pink and blind when born. The mother
makes for them a nice, soft nest of pieces of cloth, paper, grass, or
whatever is at hand; the nest is round like a ball and at its center
is nestled the family. Mice living in houses, have runways between
the plaster and the outside, or between ceiling and floor. In winter
they live on what food they can find, and upon flies or other insects
hibernating in our houses. The house mice sometimes live under stacks
of corn or grain in the fields, but usually confine themselves to
houses or barns. They are thirsty little fellows and they like to
make their nests within easy reach of water. Our house mice came from
ancestors which lived in Asia originally; they have always been great
travelers and they have followed men wherever they have gone, over
the world. They came to America on ships with the first explorers and
the Pilgrim fathers. They now travel back and forth, crossing the
ocean in ships of all sorts. They also travel across the continent on
trains. Wherever our food is carried they go; and the mouse, which
you see in your room one day, may be a thousand miles away within a
week. They are clever creatures, and learn quickly to connect cause
and effect. For two years, I was in an office in Washington, and as
soon as the bell rang for noon, the mice would appear instantly,
hunting waste-baskets for scraps of lunch. They had learned to
connect the sound of the bell with food.
[Illustration: _Track of white-footed mouse._
Notice tail-track.]
Of all our wild mice, the white-footed or deer mouse is the most
interesting and attractive. It is found almost exclusively in woods
and is quite different in appearance from other mice. Its ears are
very large; its fur is fine and beautiful and a most delicate gray
color. It is white beneath the head and under the sides of the body.
The feet are pinkish, the front paws have short thumbs, while the
hind feet are very much longer and have a long thumb looking very
much like an elfin hand in a gray-white silk glove. On the bottom of
the feet are callous spots which are pink and serve as foot pads.
It makes its nest in hollow trees and stores nuts for winter use.
We once found two quarts of shelled beech nuts in such a nest. It
also likes the hips of the wild rose and many kinds of berries; it
sometimes makes its summer home in a bird’s nest, which it roofs over
to suit itself. The young mice are carried, hanging to the mother’s
breasts. As an inhabitant of summer cottages, white-foot is cunning
and mischievous; it pulls cotton out of quilts, takes covers off of
jars, and as an explorer, is equal to the squirrel. I once tried to
rear some young deer mice by feeding them warm milk with a pipette;
although their eyes were not open, they invariably washed their faces
after each meal, showing that neatness was bred in the bone. This
mouse has a musical voice and often chirps as sweetly as a bird. Like
the house mouse it is more active at night.
The meadow mouse is the one that makes its run-ways under the snow,
making strange corrugated patterns over the ground which attract our
attention in spring. It has a heavy body, short legs, short ears
and short tail. It is brownish or blackish in color. It sometimes
digs burrows straight into the ground, but more often makes its nest
beneath sticks and stones or stacks of corn. It is the nest of this
field mouse which the bumblebee so often takes possession of, after
it is deserted. The meadow mouse is a good fighter, sitting up like
a woodchuck and facing its enemy bravely. It needs to be courageous,
for it is preyed upon by almost every creature that feeds upon
small animals; the hawks and owls especially are its enemies. It is
well for the farmer that these mice have so many enemies, for they
multiply rapidly and would otherwise soon overrun and destroy the
grain fields. This mouse is an excellent swimmer.
A part of winter work, is to make the pupils familiar with the tracks
of the meadow mice and how to distinguish them from other tracks.
[Illustration: _Mouse traps._
The bow trap.
1. A smooth splint or a peeled twig. 2. Splint bowed and tied at D,
the bait inserted at C. 3. The inverted bowl balanced on splint bow.
Figure 4, trap.]
_Trapping Field Mice_--Probably wild animals have endured more
cruelty through the agency of traps than through any other form of
human persecution. The savage steel traps often catch the animal by
the leg, holding it until it gnaws off the imprisoned foot, and thus
escapes maimed and handicapped for its future struggle for food; or
if the trap gets a strong hold, the poor creature may suffer tortures
during a long period, before the owner of the trap appears to put
an end to its sufferings by death. If box traps are used, they are
often neglected and the poor creature imprisoned, is left to languish
and starve. The teacher cannot enforce too strongly upon the child
the ethics of trapping. Impress upon him that the box traps are far
less cruel; but that if set, they must be examined regularly and not
neglected. The study of mice affords a good opportunity for giving
the children a lesson in humane trapping. Let them set a figure 4
or a bowl trap, which they must examine every morning. The little
prisoners may be brought to school and studied; meanwhile, they
should be treated kindly and fed bountifully. After a mouse has been
studied, it should be set free, even though it be one of the quite
pestiferous field mice. The moral effect of killing an animal, after
a child has become thoroughly interested in it and its life, is
always bad.
_References_--Claws and Hoofs, Johomot; American Animals, Stone &
Cram; Secrets of the Woods, Long; Wild Life, Ingersoll; Familiar Wild
Animals, Lottridge.
LESSON LV
THE HOUSE MOUSE
_Leading thought_--The mouse is fitted by color, form, agility and
habits to thrive upon the food which it steals from man, and to live
in the midst of civilized people.
_Method_--A mouse cage can be easily made of wire window-screen
tacked upon a wooden frame. I have even used aquarium jars with
wire screen covers, and by placing one jar upon another, opening
to opening, and then laying them horizontal, the mouse can be
transferred to a fresh cage without trouble, and thus the mousey
odor can be obviated, while the little creature is being studied. A
little water in a wide-necked bottle can be lowered into this glass
house by a string, and the food can be given in like manner. Stripped
paper should be put into the jar for the comfort of the prisoner; a
stiff string hanging down from the middle of the cage will afford the
prisoner a chance to show his feats as an acrobat.
_Observations_--1. Why is the color of the mouse of special benefit
to it? Do you think it protects it from the sight of its enemies? Can
you see a mouse easily as it runs across the room? What is the nature
of the fur of a mouse?
2. How long is a mouse’s tail as compared with its body? What is the
covering of the tail? Of what use to the mouse is this long, ridged
tail? Watch the mouse carefully and discover, if you can, the use of
the tail in climbing.
3. Is the mouse a good jumper? Are the hind legs long and strong
when compared with the front legs? How high do you think a mouse can
jump? Do you think it uses its tail as an aid in jumping? How much
of the legs are covered with hair? Compare the front and hind feet.
What sort of claws have they? How does the mouse use its feet when
climbing the string? How can it climb up the side of a wall?
4. Describe the eyes. Do you think the mouse can see very well? Does
it wink? What is the shape of the ears? Do you think it can hear
well? Can it move its ears forward or backward?
5. What is the shape of the snout? Of what advantage is this? Note
the whiskers. What is their use? Describe the mouth. Do you know how
the teeth are arranged? For what other use than to bite food does the
mouse use its teeth? What other animals have their teeth arranged
like those of the mouse? What food does the house mouse live upon?
How does it get it?
6. How does the mouse act when it is reaching up to examine
something? How does it hold its front feet? Describe how the mouse
washes its face. Its back. Its feet.
7. Where does the house mouse build its nest? Of what material? How
do the baby mice look? Can they see when they are first born?
8. House mice are great travelers. Can you tell how they manage to
get from place to place? Write a story telling all you know of their
habits.
9. How many kinds of mice do you know? Does the house mouse ever live
in the field? What do you know of the habits of the white-footed
mouse? Of the meadow mice? Of the jumping mice?
THE WOODCHUCK
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: H]
He who knows the ways of the woodchuck can readily guess where it
is likely to be found; it loves meadows and pastures where grass
or clover lushly grows. It is also fond of garden truck and has a
special delectation for melons. The burrow is likely to be situated
near a fence or stone heap, which gives easy access to the chosen
food. The woodchuck makes its burrow by digging the earth loose with
its front feet, and pushing it backward and out of the entrance
with the hind feet. This method leaves the soil in a heap near the
entrance, from which paths radiate into the grass in all directions.
If one undertakes to dig out a woodchuck, one needs to be not only a
husky individual, but something of an engineer; the direction of the
burrow extends downward for a little way, and then rises at an easy
angle, so that the inmate may be in no danger of flood. The nest is
merely an enlargement of the burrow, lined with soft grass, which the
woodchucks bring in in their mouths. During the early part of the
season, the father and mother and the litter of young may inhabit the
same burrow, although there are likely to be at least two separate
nests. There is usually more than one back door to the woodchuck’s
dwelling, through which it may escape, if pressed too closely by
enemies; these back doors differ from the entrance, in that they are
usually hidden and have no earth heaped near them.
The woodchuck usually feeds in the morning and again in the evening,
and is likely to spend the middle of the day resting. It often goes
some distance from its burrow to feed, and at short intervals, lifts
itself upon its hind feet to see if the coast is clear; if assailed,
it will seek to escape by running to its burrow; and when running,
it has a peculiar gait well described as “pouring itself along.” If
it reaches its burrow, it at once begins to dig deeply and throw
the earth out behind it, thus making a wall to keep out the enemy.
When cornered, the woodchuck is a courageous and fierce fighter; its
sharp incisors prove a powerful weapon and it will often whip a dog
much larger than itself. Every boy knows how to find whether the
woodchuck is in its den or not, by rolling a stone into the burrow,
and listening; if the animal is at home, the sound of its digging
apprises the listener of the fact. In earlier times, the ground-hogs
were much preyed upon by wolves, wildcats and foxes; now, only the
fox remains and he is fast disappearing, so that at present, the
farmer and his dog are about the only enemies this burrower has to
contend with. It is an animal of resources and will climb a tree if
attacked by a dog; it will also climb trees for fruit, like peaches.
During the late summer, it is the ground-hog’s business to feed
very constantly and become very fat. About the first of October, it
retires to its den and sleeps until the end of March or April. During
this dormant state, the beating of its heart is so faint as to be
scarcely perceptible, and very little nourishment is required to
keep it alive; this nourishment is supplied by the fat stored in its
body, which it uses up by March, and comes out of its burrow in the
spring, looking gaunt and lean. The old saying that the ground-hog
comes out on Candlemas Day, and if it sees its shadow, goes back to
sleep for six weeks more, may savor of meteorological truth, but it
is certainly not true of the ground-hog.
The full-grown woodchuck ordinarily measures about two feet in
length. Its color is grizzly or brownish, sometimes blackish in
places; the under parts are reddish and the feet black. The fur
is rather coarse, thick and brown, with longer hairs which are
grayish. The skin is very thick and tough and seems to fit loosely,
a condition which gives the peculiar “pouring along” appearance when
it is running. The hind legs and feet are longer than those in front.
Both pairs of feet are fitted for digging, the front ones being used
for loosening the earth and the hind pair for kicking it out of the
burrow.
[Illustration: _Treed!_
Photo by Verne Morton.]
The woodchuck’s ears are roundish and not prominent, and by muscular
contraction they are closed when the animal is digging, so that no
soil can enter; the sense of hearing is acute. The teeth consist of
two large incisors at the front of each jaw, a bare space and four
grinders on each side, above and below; the incisors are used for
biting food and also for fighting. The eyes are full and bright. The
tail is short and brushy, and it with the hind legs, form a tripod
which supports the animal, as it sits with its forefeet lifted.
When feeding, the woodchuck often makes a contented grunting noise;
when attacked and fighting, it growls; and when feeling happy
and conversational, it sits up and whistles. I had a woodchuck
acquaintance once which always gave a high, shrill, almost birdlike
whistle when I came in view, a very jolly greeting. There are plenty
of statements in books that woodchucks are fond of music, and Mr.
Ingersoll states that at Wellesley College a woodchuck on the chapel
lawn was wont to join the morning song exercises with a “clear
soprano.” The young woodchucks are born about the first of May and
the litter usually numbers four or five. In June the “chucklings” may
be seen following the mother in the field with much babyish grunting.
If captured at this period, they make every interesting pets. By
August or September the young woodchucks leave the home burrow and
start burrows of their own.
_References_--Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll;
Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Familiar Wild Animals,
Lottridge.
LESSON LVI
THE WOODCHUCK OR GROUND-HOG
_Leading thought_--The woodchuck has thriven with civilization,
notwithstanding the farmer’s dog, gun, traps and poison. It makes
its nest in a burrow in the earth and lives upon vegetation; it
hibernates in winter.
_Method_--Within convenient distance for observation by the pupils
of every country schoolhouse and of most village schoolhouses, maybe
found a woodchuck and its dwelling. The pupils should be given the
outline for observations which should be made individually through
watching the woodchuck for weeks or months.
_Observations_--1. Where is the woodchuck found? On what does it
live? At what time of day does it feed? How does it act when startled?
2. Is the woodchuck a good fighter? With what weapons does it fight?
What are its enemies? How does it escape its enemies when in or out
of its burrow? How does it look when running?
3. What noises does the woodchuck make and what do they mean? Play a
“mouth-organ” near the woodchuck’s burrow and note if it likes music.
4. How does the woodchuck make its burrow? Where is it likely to be
situated? Where is the earth placed which is taken from the burrow?
How does the woodchuck bring it out? How is the burrow made so
that the woodchuck is not drowned in case of heavy rains? In what
direction do the underground galleries go? Where is the nest placed
in relation to the galleries? Of what is the nest made? How is the
bedding carried in? Of what special use is the nest?
5. Do you find paths leading to the entrances of the burrow? If so,
describe them. How can you tell whether a woodchuck is at home or not
if you do not see it enter? Where is the woodchuck likely to station
itself when it sits up to look for intruders?
6. How many woodchucks inhabit the same burrow? Are there likely to
be one or more back doors to the burrow? What for? How do the back
doors differ from the front doors?
7. How long is the longest woodchuck that you have ever seen? What
is the woodchuck’s color? Is its fur long or short? Coarse or fine?
Thick or sparse? Is the skin thick or thin? Does it seem loose or
close fitting?
8. Compare the front and hind feet and describe difference in size
and shape. Are either or both slightly webbed? Explain how both
front and hind feet and legs are adapted by their shape to help the
woodchuck. Is the tail long or short? How does it assist the animal
in sitting up?
9. What is the shape of the woodchuck’s ear? Can it hear well? Why
are the ears not filled with soil when the animal is burrowing? Of
what use are the long incisors? Describe the eyes.
10. How does the woodchuck prepare for winter? Where and how does
it pass the winter? Did you ever know a woodchuck to come out on
Candlemas Day to look for its shadow?
11. When does the woodchuck appear in the spring? Compare its general
appearance in the fall and in the spring and explain the reason for
the difference.
12. When are the young woodchucks born? What do you know of the way
the mother woodchuck cares for her young?
* * * * *
_As I turned round the corner of Hubbard’s Grove, saw a
woodchuck, the first of the season, in the middle of the field
six or seven rods from the fence which bounds the wood, and
twenty rods distant. I ran along the fence and cut him off,
or rather overtook him, though he started at the same time.
When I was only a rod and a half off, he stopped, and I did
the same; then he ran again, and I ran up within three feet
of him, when he stopped again, the fence being between us. I
squatted down and surveyed him at my leisure. His eyes were
dull black and rather inobvious, with a faint chestnut iris,
with but little expression and that more of resignation than
of anger. The general aspect was a coarse grayish brown, a
sort of grisel. A lighter brown next the skin, then black
or very dark brown and tipped with whitish rather loosely.
The head between a squirrel and a bear, flat on the top and
dark brown, and darker still or black on the tip of the nose.
The whiskers black, two inches long. The ears very small and
roundish, set far back and nearly buried in the fur. Black
feet, with long and slender claws for digging. It appeared to
tremble, or perchance shivered with cold. When I moved, it
gritted its teeth quite loud, sometimes striking the under
jaw against the other chatteringly, sometimes grinding one
jaw on the other, yet as if more from instinct than anger.
Whichever way I turned, that way it headed. I took a twig a
foot long and touched its snout, at which it started forward
and bit the stick, lessening the distance between us to two
feet, and still it held all the ground it gained. I played
with it tenderly awhile with the stick, trying to open its
gritting jaws. Ever its long incisors, two above and two
below, were presented. But I thought it would go to sleep if
I stayed long enough. It did not sit upright as sometimes,
but standing on its fore feet with its head down, i. e., half
sitting, half standing. We sat looking at one another about
half an hour, till we began to feel mesmeric influences.
When I was tired, I moved away, wishing to see him run, but
I could not start him. He would not stir as long as I was
looking at him or could see him. I walked around him; he
turned as fast and fronted me still. I sat down by his side
within a foot. I talked to him quasi forest lingo, baby-talk,
at any rate in a conciliatory tone, and thought that I had
some influence on him. He gritted his teeth less. I chewed
checkerberry leaves and presented them to his nose at last
without a grit; though I saw that by so much gritting of the
teeth he had worn them rapidly and they were covered with a
fine white powder, which, if you measured it thus, would have
made his anger terrible. He did not mind any noise I might
make. With a little stick I lifted one of his paws to examine
it, and held it up at pleasure. I turned him over to see what
color he was beneath (darker or most pusely brown), though he
turned himself back again sooner than I could have wished.
His tail was also brown, though not very dark, rat-tail like,
with loose hairs standing out on all sides like a caterpillar
brush. He had a rather mild look. I spoke kindly to him. I
reached checkerberry leaves to his mouth. I stretched my hands
over him, though he turned up his head and still gritted a
little. I laid my hand on him, but immediately took it off
again, instinct not being wholly overcome. If I had had a few
fresh bean leaves, thus in advance of the season, I am sure
I should have tamed him completely. It was a frizzly tail.
His is a humble, terrestrial color like the partridge’s, well
concealed where dead wiry grass rises above darker brown or
chestnut dead leaves--a modest color. If I had had some food,
I should have ended with stroking him at my leisure. Could
easily have wrapped him in my handkerchief. He was not fat nor
particularly lean. I finally had to leave him without seeing
him move from the place. A large, clumsy, burrowing squirrel.
Arctomys, bear-mouse. I respect him as one of the natives. He
lies there, by his color and habits so naturalized amid the
dry leaves, the withered grass, and the bushes. A sound nap,
too, he has enjoyed in his native fields, the past winter. I
think I might learn some wisdom of him. His ancestors have
lived here longer than mine. He is more thoroughly acclimated
and naturalized than I. Bean leaves the red man raised for
him, but he can do without them._
--THOREAU’S JOURNAL.
[Illustration]
THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE
_Teacher’s Story_
_Just a tawny glimmer, a dash of red and gray,
Was it a flitting shadow, or a sunbeam gone astray!
It glances up a tree trunk, and a pair of bright eyes glow
Where a little spy in ambush is measuring his foe.
I hear a mocking chuckle, then wrathful, he grows bold
And stays his pressing business to scold and scold and scold._
[Illustration: W]
We ought to yield admiring tribute to those animals which have been
able to flourish in our midst despite man and his gun, this weapon
being the most cowardly and unfair invention of the human mind.
The only time that man has been a fair fighter, in combating his
four-footed brethren, was when he fought them with a weapon which
he wielded in his hand. There is nothing in animal comprehension
which can take into account a projectile, and much less a shot from
a gun; but though it does not understand, it experiences a deathly
fear at the noise. It is pathetic to note the hush in a forest that
follows the sound of a gun; every song, every voice, every movement
is stilled and every little heart filled with nameless terror. How
any man or boy can feel manly when, with this scientific instrument
of death in his hands, he takes the life of a little squirrel, bird
or rabbit, is beyond my comprehension. In pioneer days when it was a
fight for existence, man against the wilderness, the matter was quite
different; but now it seems to me that anyone who hunts what few
wild creatures we have left, and which are in nowise injurious, is,
whatever he may think of himself, no believer in fair play.
Within my own memory, the beautiful black squirrel was as common in
our woods as was his red cousin; the shot-gun has exterminated this
splendid species. Well may we rejoice that the red squirrel has,
through its lesser size and greater cunning, escaped a like fate; and
that pugnacious and companionable and shy, it lives in our midst and
climbs our very roofs to sit there and scold us for coming within its
range of vision. It has succeeded not only in living despite of man,
but because of man, for it rifles our grain bins and corn cribs and
waxes opulent by levying tribute upon our stores.
Thoreau describes most graphically the movements of this squirrel.
He says: “All day long the red squirrels came and went. One would
approach at first warily, warily, through the shrub-oaks, running
over the snow crust by fits and starts and like a leaf blown by the
wind, now a few paces this way, with wonderful speed and waste of
energy, making inconceivable haste with his “trotters,” as if it
were for a wager, and now as many paces that way, but never getting
on more than half a rod at a time; and then suddenly pausing with
a ludicrous expression and a gratuitous somersault, as if all the
eyes of the universe were fixed on him,... and then suddenly, before
you could say Jack Robinson he would be in the top of a young pitch
pine, winding up his clock, and chiding all imaginary spectators,
soliloquizing and talking to all the universe at the same time.”
It is surely one of the most comical of sights to see a squirrel stop
running and take observations; he lifts himself on his haunches, and
with body bent forward, presses his little paws against his breast
as if to say, “Be still, oh my beating heart!” which is all pure
affectation because he knows he can scurry away in perfect safety. He
is likely to take refuge on the far side of a tree, peeping out from
this side and that, and whisking back like a flash as he catches our
eye; we might never know he was there except as Riley puts it, “he
lets his own tail tell on him.” When climbing up or down a tree, he
goes head first and spreads his legs apart to clasp as much of the
trunk as possible; meanwhile his sharp little claws cling securely to
the bark. He can climb out on the smallest twigs quite as well, when
he needs to do so, in passing from tree to tree or when gathering
acorns.
[Illustration: _Red squirrel or Chickaree._]
A squirrel always establishes certain roads to and from his abiding
place and almost invariably follows them. Such a path may be entirely
in the treetops, with air bridges from a certain branch of one tree
to a certain branch of another, or it may be partially on the ground
between trees. I have made notes of these paths in the vicinity of
my own home, and have noted that if a squirrel leaves them for
exploring, he goes warily; while, when following them, he is quite
reckless in his haste. When making a jump from tree to tree, he
flattens himself as widely as possible and his tail is held somewhat
curved, but on a level with the body, as if its wide brush helped to
buoy him up and perhaps to steer him also.
During the winter the chickaree is quite dingy in color and is an
inconspicuous object, especially when he “humps himself up” so that
he resembles a knot on a limb; but with the coming of spring, he dons
a brighter coat of tawny-red and along his sides, where the red meets
the grayish white of the under side, there is a dark line which is
very ornamental; and now his tail is a shower of ruddiness. As the
season advances, the colors seem to fade; they are probably a part
of his wooing costume. When dashing up a tree trunk, his color is
never very striking but looks like the glimmer of sunlight; this has
probably saved many of his kind from the gunner, whose eyes being at
the front of his head, cannot compare in efficiency with those of the
squirrel, which being large and full and alert, are placed at the
sides of the head so as to see equally well in all directions.
The squirrel’s legs are short because he is essentially a climber
rather than a runner; the hips are very strong which insures his
power as a jumper and his leaps are truly remarkable. A squirrel uses
his front paws for hands in a most human way; with them he washes
his face and holds his food up to his mouth while eating, and it is
interesting to note the skill of his claws when used as fingers. The
track he makes in the snow is quite characteristic. The tracks are
paired and those of the large five-toed hind feet are always in front.
[Illustration: _Squirrel tracks._]
The squirrel has two pairs of gnawing teeth which are very long and
strong, as in all rodents, and he needs to keep busy gnawing hard
things with them, or they will grow so long that he cannot use them
at all and will starve to death. He is very clever about opening nuts
so as to get all the meats. He often opens a hickory nut with two
holes which tap the places of the nut meats squarely; with walnuts or
butternuts, which have much harder shells, he makes four small holes,
one opposite each quarter of the kernel. He has no cheek-pouches like
a chipmunk but he can carry corn and other grain. He often fills his
mouth so full that his cheeks bulge out like those of a boy eating
pop-corn; but anything as large as a nut he carries in his teeth.
His food is far more varied than many suppose and he will eat almost
anything eatable; he is a little pirate and enjoys stealing from
others with keenest zest. In spring, he eats leaf buds and hunts our
orchards for apple seeds. In winter, he feeds on nuts and cones;
it is marvelous how he will take a cone apart, tearing off the
scales and leaving them in a heap while searching for seeds; he is
especially fond of the seeds of Norway spruce and hemlock. Of course,
he is fond of nuts of all kinds and will cut the chestnut burs from
the tree before they are ripe, so that he may get ahead of the other
harvesters. He stores his food for winter in all sorts of odd places
and often forgets where he puts it. We often find his winter stores
untouched the next summer. He also likes birds’ eggs and nestlings,
and if it were not for the chastisement he gets from the parent
robins, he would work much damage in this way.
The squirrel is likely to be a luxurious fellow and have a winter and
a summer home. The former is in some hollow tree or other protected
place; the summer home consists of a platform of twigs in some
tree-top, often built upon an abandoned crow or hawk nest; but just
how he uses these two homes, is as yet, a matter of guessing and is a
good subject for young naturalists to investigate. During the winter,
he does not remain at home except in coldest weather, when he lies
cozily with his tail wrapped around him like a boa to keep him warm.
He is too full of interest in the world to lie quietly long, but
comes out, hunts up some of his stores, and finds life worth while
despite the cold. One squirrel adopted a bird house in one of our
trees, and he or his kin have lived there for years; in winter, he
takes his share of the suet put on the trees for birds, and because
of his greediness, we have been compelled to use picture wire for
tying on the suet.
The young are born in a protected nest, usually in the hollow of
a tree. There are four to six young in a litter and they appear
in April. If necessary to move the young, the mother carries the
squirrel baby clinging to her breast with its arms around her neck.
The squirrel has several ways of expressing his emotions; one is by
various curves in his long beautiful, bushy tail. If the creatures
of the wood had a stage, the squirrel would have to be their chief
actor. Surprise, incredulousness, indignation, fear, anger and joy
are all perfectly expressed by tail gestures and also by voice.
As a vocalist he excels; he chatters with curiosity, “chips” with
surprise, scolds by giving a gutteral trill, finishing with a
falsetto squeal. He is the only singer I know who can carry two parts
at a time. Notice him sometimes in the top of a hickory or chestnut
tree when nuts are ripe, and you will hear him singing a duet all by
himself, a high shrill chatter with a chuckling accompaniment. Long
may he abide with us as an uninvited guest at our cribs! For, though
he be a freebooter and conscienceless, yet our world would lack its
highest example of incarnate grace and activity, if he were not in it.
LESSON LVII
THE RED SQUIRREL OR CHICKAREE
_Leading thought_--The red squirrel by its agility and cleverness
has lived on, despite its worst enemy--man. By form and color and
activity it is fitted to elude the hunter.
_Method_--If a pet squirrel in a cage can be procured for observation
at the school, the observations on the form and habits of the animal
can be best studied thus; but a squirrel in a cage is an anomaly and
it is far better to stimulate the pupils to observe the squirrels
out of doors. Give the following questions, a few at a time, and ask
the pupils to report the answers to the entire class. Much should be
done with the supplementary reading, as there are many interesting
squirrel stories illustrating its habits.
_Observations_--1. Where have you seen a squirrel? Does the squirrel
trot along or leap when running on the ground? Does it run straight
ahead or stop at intervals for observation? How does it look? How
does it act when looking to see if the “coast is clear”?
2. When climbing a tree, does it go straight up, or move around
the trunk? How does it hide itself behind a tree trunk and observe
the passer-by? Describe how it manages to climb a tree. Does it go
down the tree head first? Is it able to climb out on the smallest
branches? Of what advantage is this to it?
3. Look closely and see if a squirrel follows the same route always
when passing from one point to another. How does it pass from tree to
tree? How does it act when preparing to jump? How does it hold its
legs and tail when in the air during a jump from branch to branch?
4. Describe the colors of the red squirrel above and below. Is there
a dark stripe along its side, if so, what color? How does the color
of the squirrel protect it from its enemies? Is its color brighter in
summer or in winter?
5. How are the squirrel’s eyes placed? Do you think it can see behind
as well as in front all the time? Are its eyes bright and alert, or
soft and tender?
6. Are its legs long or short? Are its hind legs stronger and longer
than the front legs? Why? Why does it not need long legs? Do its paws
have claws? How does it use its paws when eating and in making its
toilet?
7. Describe the squirrel’s tail. Is it as long as the body? Is it
used to express emotion? Of what use is it when the squirrel is
jumping? Of what use is it in the winter in the nest?
8. What is the food of the squirrel during the autumn? Winter?
Spring? Summer? Where does it store food for the winter? Does it
steal food laid up by jays, chipmunks, mice or other squirrels?
How does it carry nuts? Has it cheek-pouches like the chipmunk for
carrying food? Does it stay in its nest all winter living on stored
food like a chipmunk?
9. Where does the red squirrel make its winter home? Does it also
have a summer home, if so, of what is it made and where built? In
what sort of a nest are the young born and reared? At what time of
the year are the young born? How does the mother squirrel carry her
little ones if she wishes to move them?
10. How much of squirrel language can you understand? How does it
express surprise, excitement, anger, or joy during the nut harvest?
Note how many different sounds it makes and try to discover what they
mean.
11. Describe or sketch the tracks made by the squirrel in the snow.
12. How does the squirrel get at the meats of the hickory nut and
the walnut? How are its teeth arranged to gnaw holes in such hard
substances as shells?
_Supplementary reading_--Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, John
Burroughs; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Secrets of the Woods,
Long; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, Mathews; Little Beasts
of Field and Wood, Cram; Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Wild
Animals, Lottridge.
FURRY
[Illustration: F]
Furry was a baby red squirrel. One day in May his mother was moving
him from one tree to another. He was clinging with his little arms
around her neck and his body clasped tightly against her breast, when
something frightened her and in her sudden movement, she dropped her
heavy baby in the grass. Thus, I inherited him and entered upon the
rather onerous duties of caring for a baby of whose needs I knew
little; but I knew that every well cared for baby should have a book
detailing all that happens to it, therefore, I made a book for Furry,
writing in it each day the things he did. If the children who have
pets keep similar books, they will find them most interesting reading
afterward, and they will surely enjoy the writing very much.
_Extracts from Furry’s Note-book_
May 18, 1902--The baby squirrel is just large enough to cuddle in
one hand. He cuddles all right when once he is captured; but he is
a terrible fighter, and when I attempt to take him in my hand, he
scratches and bites and growls so that I have been obliged to name
him Fury. I told him, however, if he improved in temper I would
change his name to Furry.
May 19--Fury greets me, when I open his box, with the most
awe-inspiring little growls, which he calculates will make me turn
pale with fear. He has not cut his teeth yet, so he cannot bite very
severely, but that isn’t his fault, for he tries hard enough. The
Naturalist said cold milk would kill him, so I warmed the milk and
put it in a teaspoon and placed it in front of his nose; he batted
the spoon with both forepaws and tried to bite it, and thus got
a taste of the milk, which he drank eagerly lapping it up like a
kitten. When I hold him in one hand and cover him with the other, he
turns contented little somersaults over and over.
May 20--Fury bit me only once to-day, when I took him out to feed
him. He is cutting his teeth on my devoted fingers. I tried giving
him grape-nuts soaked in milk, but he spat it out in disgust.
Evidently he does not believe he needs a food for brain and nerve. He
always washes his face as soon as he is through eating.
May 21--Fury lies curled up under his blanket all day. Evidently
good little squirrels stay quietly in the nest, when the mother is
not at home to give them permission to run around. When Fury sleeps,
he rolls himself up in a little ball with his tail wrapped closely
around him. The squirrel’s tail is his “furs,” which he wraps around
him to keep his back warm when he sleeps in winter.
May 23--Every time I meet Uncle John he asks, “Is his name Fury or
Furry now?” Uncle John is much interested in the good behavior of
even little squirrels. As Fury has not bitten me hard for two days, I
think I will call him Furry after this. He ate some bread soaked in
milk to-day, holding it in his hands in real squirrel fashion. I let
him run around the room and he liked it.
May 25--Furry got away from me this morning and I did not find him
for an hour. Then I discovered him in a pasteboard box of drawing
paper with the cover on. How did he squeeze through?
May 26--He holds the bowl of the spoon with both front paws while he
drinks the milk. When I try to draw the spoon away, to fill it again
after he has emptied it, he objects and hangs on to it with all his
little might, and scolds as hard as ever he can. He is such a funny,
unreasonable baby.
May 28--To-night I gave Furry a walnut meat. As soon as he smelled
it he became greatly excited; he grasped the meat in his hands and
ran off and hid under my elbow, growling like a kitten with its first
mouse.
May 30--Since he tasted nuts he has lost interest in milk. The nut
meats are too hard for his new teeth, so I mash them and soak them in
water and now he eats them like a little piggy-wig with no manners at
all. He loves to have me stroke his back while he is eating. He uses
his thumbs and fingers in such a human way that I always call his
front paws _hands_. When his piece of nut is very small he holds it
in one hand and clasps the other hand behind the one which holds the
dainty morsel, so as to keep it safe.
May 31--When he is sleepy he scolds if I disturb him and turning
over on his back bats my hand with all of his soft little paws and
pretends that he is going to bite.
June 4--Furry ranges around the room now to please himself. He is
a little mischief; he tips over his cup of milk and has commenced
gnawing off the wall paper behind the book-shelf to make him a nest.
The paper is green and will probably make him sorry.
June 5--This morning Furry was hidden in a roll of paper. I put my
hand over one end of the roll and then reached in with the other
hand to get him; but he got me instead, because he ran up my sleeve
and was much more contented to be there than I was to have him. I
was glad enough when he left his hiding place and climbed to the top
shelf of the bookcase, far beyond my reach.
June 6--I have not seen Furry for twenty-four hours, but he is here
surely enough. Last night he tipped over the ink bottle and scattered
nut shells over the floor. He prefers pecans to any other nuts.
June 7--I caught Furry to-day and he bit my finger so it bled.
But afterwards, he cuddled in my hand for a long time, and then
climbed my shoulder and went hunting around in my hair and wanted
to stay there and make a nest. When I took him away, he pulled out
his two hands full of my devoted tresses. I’ll not employ him as a
hairdresser.
June 9--Furry sleeps nights in the top drawer of my desk; he crawls
in from behind. When I pull out the drawer he pops out and scares me
nearly out of my wits; but he keeps his wits about him and gets away
before I can catch him.
June 20--I keep the window open so Furry can run out and in and learn
to take care of himself out-of-doors.
Furry soon learned to take care of himself, though he often returned
for nuts, which I kept for him in a bowl. He does not come very near
me out-of-doors, but he often speaks to me in a friendly manner from
a certain pitch pine tree near the house.
There are many blank leaves in Furry’s note-book. I wish that he
could have written on these of the things that he thought about
me and my performances. It would certainly have been the most
interesting book concerning squirrels in the world.
THE CHIPMUNK
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: W]
While the chipmunk is a good runner and jumper, it is not so able a
climber as is the red squirrel, and it naturally stays nearer the
ground. One windy day I was struck by the peculiar attitude of what,
I first thought, was a red squirrel gathering green acorns from a
chestnut oak in front of my window. A second glance showed me that it
was a chipmunk lying close to the branch, hanging on for “dear life”
and with an attitude of extreme caution, quite foreign to the red
squirrel in a similar situation. It would creep out, seize an acorn
in its teeth, creep back to a larger limb, take off the shell, and
with its little paws stuff the kernel into its cheek pouches; it took
hold of one side of its mouth with one hand to stretch it out, as if
opening a bag, and stuffed the acorn in with the other. I do not know
whether this process was necessary or not at the beginning, for his
cheeks were distended when I first saw him; and he kept on stuffing
them until he looked as if he had a hopeless case of mumps. Then with
obvious care he descended the tree and retreated to his den in the
side hill, the door of which I had already discovered, although it
was well hidden by a bunch of orchard grass.
Chipmunks are more easily tamed than red squirrels and soon learn
that pockets may contain nuts and other things good to eat. The first
tame chipmunk of my acquaintance belonged to a species found in the
California mountains. He was a beautiful little creature and loved to
play about his mistress’ room; she being a naturalist as well as a
poet, was able to understand her little companion, and the relations
between them were full of mutual confidence. He was fond of English
walnuts and would always hide away all that were placed in a dish on
the table. One day his mistress, when taking off her bonnet after
returning from church, discovered several of these nuts tucked safely
in the velvet bows; they were invisible from the front but perfectly
visible from the side. Even yet, she wonders what the people at
church that day thought of her original ideas in millinery; and she
wonders still more how “Chipsie” managed to get into the bonnet-box,
the cover of which was always carefully closed.
[Illustration: _“Chipsie”, a chipmunk of the Sierras._]
The chipmunk is a good home builder and carries off, presumably in
its cheek pouches, all of the soil which it removes in making its
burrow. The burrow is made usually in a dry hillside, the passageway
just large enough for its own body, widening to a nest which is well
bedded down. There is usually a back door also, so that in case
of necessity, the inmate can escape. It retires to this nest in
late November and does not appear again until March. In the nest,
it stores nuts and other grains so that when it wakens, at long
intervals, it can take refreshment.
If you really wish to know whether you see what you look at or not,
test yourself by trying to describe the length, position and number
of the chipmunk’s stripes. These stripes, like those of the tiger in
the jungle, make the creature less conspicuous; when on the ground,
where its stripes fall in with the general shape and color of the
grass and underbrush, it is quite invisible until it stirs. Its tail
is not so long nor nearly so bushy as that of the squirrel; it does
not need a tail to balance and steer with in the tree tops; and since
it lives in the ground, a bushy tail would soon be loaded with earth
and would be an incubus instead of a thing of beauty.
The chipmunk is not a vocalist like the red squirrel, but he can
cluck like a cuckoo and chatter gayly or cogently; and he can make
himself into a little bunch with his tail curved up his back, while
he eats a nut from both his hands, and is even more amusing than the
red squirrel in this attitude; probably because he is more innocent
and not so much of a _poseur_. His food consists of all kinds of
nuts, grain and fruit, but he does little or no damage, as a rule. He
is pretty and distinctly companionable, and I can rejoice, in that
I have had him and his whole family as my near neighbors for many
years. I always feel especially proud when he shows his confidence,
by scampering around our piazza floor and peeping in at our windows,
as if taking a reciprocal interest in us.
LESSON LVIII
THE CHIPMUNK
_Leading thought_--The chipmunk lives more on the ground than does
the squirrel; its colors are protective and it has cheek pouches in
which it carries food, and also soil when digging its burrow. It
stores food for winter in its den.
_Method_--The field note-book should be the basis for this work. Give
the pupils an outline of observations to be made, and ask for reports
now and then. Meanwhile stimulate interest in the little creatures by
reading aloud from some of the references given.
_Observations_--1. Do you see the chipmunk climbing around in trees
like the red squirrel? How high in a tree have you ever seen a
chipmunk?
2. What are the chipmunk’s colors above and below? How many stripes
has it? Where are they and what are their colors? Do you think that
these stripes conceal the animal when among grasses and bushes?
3. Compare the tails of the chipmunk and the red squirrel. Which is
the longer and bushier? Tell if you can the special advantage to the
chipmunk in having this less bushy tail?
4. What does the chipmunk eat? How does it carry its food? How does
it differ in this respect from the red squirrel? Does it store its
food for winter use? How does it prepare its nuts? How does it hold
its food while eating?
5. Where does the chipmunk make its home? How does it carry away
soil from its burrow? How many entrances are there? How is the den
arranged inside? Does it live in the same den the year round? When
does it retire to its den in the fall? When does it come out in the
spring?
6. Does the chipmunk do any damage to crops? What seeds does it
distribute? At what time do the little chipmunks appear in the spring?
7. Observe carefully the different tones of the chipmunk and compare
its chattering with that of the squirrel.
_Supplementary reading_--Squirrels and Other Fur-Bearers, John
Burroughs; American Animals, Stone and Cram.
[Illustration:
Photo by Verne Morton.
_The Eastern Chipmunk._]
_TO A CAPTIVE CHIPMUNK OF THE SIERRAS_
_Bright little comrade from the woods, come show
Thy antic cheer about my sunlit room
Of books, that stand in moods of gloom
Because thought’s tide is out, heart’s rhythm is low
With weariness. Friendly thou art and know
Good friend in me, who yet did dare presume
To take thee from thy home, thy little doom
To make for thee, and longer life bestow.
So, thou hast not been eaten by the snake;
Thy gentle blood no weasel drank at night;
Thou hast not starved ’mid winter’s frozen wood,
Nor waited vainly for the sun to make
Sweet the wild nuts for thee. Yet, little sprite,
Thou still doth question if my deed were good?_
--IRENE HARDY.
THE LITTLE BROWN BAT
_Teacher’s Story_
_His small umbrella, quaintly halved,
Describing in the air an arc alike inscrutable,--
Elate philosopher!_
--EMILY DICKENSON.
[Illustration: W]
Whoever first said “as blind as a bat,” surely never looked a bat in
the face, or he would not have said it. The deep-set, keen, observant
eyes are quite in keeping with the alert attitude of the erect,
pointed ears; while the pug-nose and the wide open, little, pink bag
of a mouth, set with tiny, sharp teeth, give this anomalous little
animal a deliciously impish look. Yet how have those old artists
belied the bat, who fashioned their demons after his pattern, ears,
eyes, nose, mouth, wings and all! Certain it is, if human beings ever
get to be winged angels in this world, they are far more likely to
have their wings fashioned like those of the bat than like those of
the bird. As a matter of fact, there are no other wings so wonderful
as the bat’s; the thin membrane is equipped with sensitive nerves
which inform the flier of the objects in his path, so that he darts
among the branches of trees at terrific speed and never touches a
twig; a blinded bat was once set free in a room, across which threads
were stretched, and he flew about without ever touching one. After
we have tamed one of these little, silky flitter-mice we soon get
reconciled to his wings for he proves the cunningest of pets; he soon
learns who feeds him, and is a constant source of entertainment.
The flight of the bat is the highest ideal we may have, for the
achievement of the aeroplane. It consists of darting hither and
thither with incredible swiftness, and making sharp turns with no
apparent effort. Swifts and swallows are the only birds that can
compete with the bat in wing celerity and agility; it is interesting
to note that these birds also catch insects on the wing, for food.
The bat, like the swift, keeps his mouth open, scooping in all the
insects in his way; more than this, he makes a collecting net of the
wing membrane, stretched between the hind legs and tail, doubling it
up like an apron on the unfortunate insects, and then reaching down
and gobbling them up; and thus he is always doing good service to us
on summer evenings by swallowing mosquitoes and gnats.
The short fur of the bat is as soft as silk, and covers the body
but not the wings; the plan of the wing is something like that of
the duck’s foot; it consists of a web stretched between very much
elongated fingers. If a boy’s fingers were as long in proportion, as
a bat’s, they would measure four feet. Stretched between the long
fingers is a thin, rubbery membrane, which extends back to the ankles
and thence back to the tip of the bony tail; thus, the bat has a
winged margin all around his body. Since fingers make the framework,
it is the thumb that projects from the front angle of the wing,
in the form of a very serviceable hook, resembling that used by a
one-armed man to replace the lost member. These hooks the bat uses
in many ways. He drags himself along the floor with their aid, or he
scratches the back of his head with them, if occasion requires. He
is essentially a creature of the air and is not at all fitted for
walking; his knees bend backward in an opposite direction from ours.
This renders him unable to walk, and when attempting to do so, he has
the appearance of “scrabbling” along on his feet and elbows. When
thus moving he keeps his wings fluttering rapidly, as if feeling his
way in the dark, and his movements are trembly. He uses his teeth to
aid in climbing.
The little brown bat’s wings often measure nine inches from tip to
tip, and yet he folds them so that they scarcely show, he does not
fold them like a fan, but rather like a pocket knife. The hind legs
merely act as a support for the side wing, and the little hip bones
look pitifully sharp, the membrane reaches only to the ankle, the
tiny emaciated foot projecting from it is armed with five, wirelike
toes, tipped with sharp hooked claws. It is by these claws that he
hangs when resting during the day, for he is upside-down-y in his
sleeping habits, slumbering during the daytime, while hanging head
downward, without any inconvenience from a rush of blood to the
brain; when thus suspended, the tail is folded down. Sometimes he
hangs by one hind foot and a front hook; and he is a wee thing when
all folded together and hung up, with his nose tucked between his
hooked thumbs, in a very babyish fashion.
The bat is very particular about his personal cleanliness. People who
regard the bat as a dirty creature, had better look to it that they
are even half as fastidious as he. He washes his face with the front
part of his wing, and then licks his wash-cloth clean; he scratches
the back of his head with his hind foot and then licks the foot;
when hanging head down, he will reach one hind foot down and scratch
behind his ear with an _aplomb_ truly comical in such a mite; but it
is most fun of all to see him clean his wings; he seizes the edges
in his mouth and stretches and licks the membrane until we are sure
it is made of silk elastic, for he pulls and hauls it in a way truly
amazing.
The bat has a voice which sounds like the squeak of a toy
wheelbarrow, and yet it is expressive of emotions. He squeaks in one
tone when holding conversation with other bats, and squeaks quite
differently when seized by the enemy.
The mother bat feeds her little ones from her breasts as a mouse does
its young, only she cradles them in her soft wings while so doing;
often she takes them with her when she goes out for insects in the
evenings; they cling to her neck during these exciting rides; but
when she wishes to work unencumbered, she hangs her tiny youngsters
on some twig and goes back to them later. The little ones are born in
July and usually occur as twins. During the winter, bats hibernate
like woodchucks or chipmunks. They select for winter quarters some
hollow tree or cave or other protected place. They go to sleep when
the cold weather comes, and do not awake until the insects are
flying; they then come forth in the evenings, or perhaps early in the
morning, and do their best to rid the world of mosquitoes and other
insect nuisances.
There are many senseless fears about the bat; for instance, that he
likes to get tangled in a lady’s tresses, a situation which would
frighten him far more than the lady; or that he brings bedbugs into
the house, when he enters on his quest for mosquitoes, which is an
ungrateful slander. Some people believe that all bats are vampires,
and only await an opportunity to suck blood from their victims. It is
true that in South America there are two species which occasionally
attack people who are careless enough to sleep with their toes
uncovered, but feet thus injured seem to recover speedily; and these
bats do little damage to people, although they sometimes pester
animals; but there are no vampires in the United States. Our bats,
on the contrary, are innocent and beneficial to man; and if we had
more of them we should have less malaria. There a few species in our
country, which have little, leaf-like growths on the end of the nose;
and when scientists study the bat from a nature-study instead of an
anatomical standpoint, we shall know what these leafy appendages are
used for.
[Illustration: _The little brown bat._]
LESSON LIX
THE BAT
_Leading thought_--Although the bat’s wings are very different
from those of the bird’s yet it is a rapid and agile flier. It
flies in the dusk and catches great numbers of mosquitoes and other
troublesome insects, upon which it feeds.
_Method_--This lesson should not be given unless there is a live bat
to illustrate it; the little creature can be cared for comfortably in
a cage in the schoolroom, as it will soon learn to take flies or bits
of raw meat when presented on the point of a pencil or toothpick. Any
bat will do for this study, although the little brown bat is the one
on which my observations were made.
_Observations_--1. At what time of day do we see bats flying?
Describe how the bat’s flight differs from that of birds. Why do bats
dart about so rapidly?
2. Look at a captive bat and describe its wings. Can you see what
makes the framework of the wings? Do you see the three finger bones
extending out into the wings? How do the hind legs support the wing?
The tail? Is the wing membrane covered with fur? Is it thick and
leathery or thin and silky and elastic? How does the bat fold up its
wings?
3. In what position does the bat rest? Does it ever hang by his thumb
hooks?
4. Can you see whether the knees of the hind legs bend upward or
downward? How does the bat act when trying to walk or crawl? How does
it use its thumb hooks in doing this?
5. What does the bat do daytimes? Where does it stay during the day?
Do many bats congregate together in their roosts?
6. Describe the bat’s head, including the ears, eyes, nose and mouth.
What is its general expression? Do you think it can see and hear
well? How is its mouth fitted for catching insects? Does it shut its
mouth while chewing or keep it open? Do you think that bats can see
by daylight?
7. What noises does a bat make? How does it act if you try to touch
it? Can it bite severely? Can you understand why the Germans call it
a flitter-mouse?
8. Do you know how the mother bat cares for her young? How does she
carry them? At what time of year may we expect to find them?
9. When making its toilet, how does a bat clean its wings? Its face?
Its back? Its feet? Do you know if it is very clean in his habits?
10. How and where do the bats pass the winter? How are they
beneficial to us? Are they ever harmful?
_Supplementary reading_--American Animals, Stone and Cram.
* * * * *
_Nature-study should not be unrelated to the child’s life and
circumstances. It stands for directness and naturalness. It
is astonishing when one comes to think of it, how indirect
and how remote from the lives of pupils much of our education
has been. Geography still often begins with the universe, and
finally, perhaps, comes down to some concrete and familiar
object or scene that the pupil can understand. Arithmetic has
to do with brokerage and partnerships and partial payments and
other things that mean nothing to the child. Botany begins
with cells and protoplasm and cryptogams. History deals with
political and military affairs, and only rarely comes down to
physical facts and to those events that express the real lives
of the people; and yet political and social affairs are only
the results of expressions of the way in which people live.
Readers begin with mere literature or with stories of scenes
the child will never see. Of course these statements are meant
to be only general, as illustrating what is even yet a great
fault in educational methods. There are many exceptions, and
these are becoming commoner. Surely, the best education is
that which begins with the materials at hand. A child knows a
stone before it knows the earth._
--L. H. BAILEY in “THE NATURE-STUDY IDEA.”
THE SKUNK
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: T]
Those who have had experience with this animal, surely are glad that
it is small; and the wonder always is, that so little a creature
can make such a large impression upon the atmosphere. A fully grown
skunk is about two feet long: its body is covered with long, shining,
rather coarse hair, and the tail which is carried like a flag in the
air, is very large and bushy. In color, the fur is sometimes entirely
black, but most often has a white patch on the back of the neck, with
two stripes extending down the back and along the sides to the tail;
the face, also, has a white stripe.
The skunk has a long head and a rather pointed snout; its front legs
are very much shorter than its hind legs, which gives it a very
peculiar gait. Its forefeet are armed with long, strong claws, with
which it digs its burrow, which is usually made in light soil. It
also often makes its home in some crevice in rocks, or even takes
possession of an abandoned woodchuck’s hole; or trusting to its
immunity from danger, makes its home under the barn. In the fall, it
becomes very fat, and during the early part of winter, hibernates
within its den; it comes out during the thaws of winter and early
spring.
The young skunks appear in May; they are born in an enlarged portion
of the burrow, where a nice bed of grass and leaves is made for them;
the skunk is scrupulously neat about its own nest. The young skunks
are very active, and interesting to watch, when playing together like
kittens.
[Illustration:
Photo by Verne Morton.
_The skunk._]
The skunk belongs to the same family as the mink and weasel, which
also give off a disagreeable odor when angry. The fetid material
which is the skunk’s defence, is contained in two capsules under the
root of the tail. These little capsules are not larger than peas, and
the quantity of liquid forced from them in a discharge is scarcely
more than a large drop; yet it will permeate the atmosphere with
its odor for a distance of a mile. The fact that this discharge is
so disagreeable to all other animals, has had a retarding influence
upon the skunk’s intelligence. It has not been obliged to rely upon
its cunning to escape its enemies, and has therefore never developed
either fear or cleverness. It marches abroad without haste, confident
that every creature which sees it will give it plenty of room. It is
a night prowler, although it is not averse to a daytime promenade.
The white upon its fur gives warning at night, that here is an animal
which had best be left alone. This immunity from attack makes the
skunk careless in learning wisdom from experience; it never learns
to avoid a trap or a railway or trolley track.
The skunk’s food consists largely of insects, mice, snakes and other
small animals. It also destroys the eggs and young of birds which
nest upon the ground. It uses its strong forepaws in securing its
prey. Dr. Merriam, who made pets of young skunks after removing their
scent capsules, found them very interesting. He says of one which was
named “Meph”: “We used to walk through the woods to a large meadow
that abounded in grasshoppers. Here, Meph would fairly revel in his
favorite food, and it was rich sport to watch his manœuvres. When a
grasshopper jumped, he jumped, and I have seen him with as many as
three in his mouth and two under his forepaws at the same time.”
The only injury which the skunk is likely to do to the farmers, is
the raiding of the hens’ nests, and this can be obviated by properly
housing the poultry. On the other hand, the skunk is of great use
in destroying injurious insects and mice. Often when skunks burrow
beneath barns, they completely rid the place of mice. Skunk fur is
very valuable and is sold under the name of Alaskan sable. The skunk
takes short steps, and goes so slowly that it makes a double track,
the imprints being very close together. The foot makes a longer track
than that of the cat, as the skunk is plantigrade; that is, it walks
upon its palms and heels as well as its toes.
[Illustration: _Skunk tracks._]
_References_--Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life in Field and
Forest, Mathews; American Animals, Stone and Cram; Squirrels and
Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.
LESSON LX
THE SKUNK
_Leading thought_--The skunk has depended so long upon protecting
itself from its enemies by its disagreeable odor, that it has become
stupid in this respect, and seems never to be able to learn to keep
off of railroad tracks. It is a very beneficial animal to the farmer
because its food consists so largely of injurious insects and rodents.
_Method_--The questions should be given the pupils and they should
answer them from personal observations or inquiries.
_Observations_--1. How large is a skunk? Describe its fur. Where does
the black and white occur in the fur? Of what use is the white to the
skunk? Is the fur valuable? What is its commercial name?
2. What is the shape of the skunk’s head? The general shape of the
body? The tail? Are the front legs longer or shorter than the hind
legs? Describe the front feet. For what are they used?
3. Where and how does the skunk make its nest? Does it sleep like a
woodchuck during the winter? What is its food? How does it catch its
prey? Does it hunt for its food during the day or the night? Does
the skunk ever hurry? Is it afraid? How does it protect itself from
its enemies? Do you think that the skunk’s freedom from fear has
rendered the animal less intelligent?
4. At what time do the skunk kittens appear? Have you ever seen
little skunks playing? If so, describe their antics. How is the nest
made soft for the young ones?
5. How does the skunk benefit farmers? Does it ever do them any
injury? Do you think that it does more good than harm?
6. Describe the skunk’s track as follows: How many toes show in the
track? Does the palm or heel show? Are the tracks near together? Do
they form a single or a double line?
_Supplementary reading_--Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.
* * * * *