swallow, being eight inches in length, while the barn swallow does
not measure quite seven. The male is shining, steel-blue above and
below; the female is brownish above, has a gray throat, brownish
breast and is white beneath. The martins originally nested in hollow
trees but for centuries have been cared for by man. The Indians
were wont to put out empty gourds for them to nest in; and as
soon as America was settled by Europeans, martin boxes were built
extensively. But when the English sparrows came, they took possession
of the boxes, and the martins have to a large extent disappeared;
this is a pity since they are beneficial birds, feeding upon
insects which are injurious to our farms and gardens. They are also
delightful birds to have around, and we may possibly induce them to
come back to us by building houses for them and driving away the
sparrows.
THE CHIMNEY SWIFT
[Illustration: W]
When the old-fashioned fire-places went out of use and were walled
up, leaving the great old chimneys useless, these sociable birds took
possession of them. Here they built their nests and reared their
young, and twittered and scrambled about, awakening all sleepers in
the neighborhood at earliest dawn, and in many ways made themselves
a distinct part of family life. With the disappearance of these old
chimneys and the growing use of the smaller chimney, the swifts have
been more or less driven from their close association with people;
and now their nests are often found in hay barns or other secluded
buildings, although they still gather in chimneys when opportunity
offers.
The chimney swifts originally built nests in hollow trees and caves;
but with the coming of civilization they took possession of the
chimneys disused during the summer, and here is where we know them
best. The nests are shaped like little wall pockets; they are made
of small sticks of nearly uniform size which are glued together and
glued fast to the chimney wall by means of the saliva secreted in
the mouth of the bird. After the nesting season, the swifts often
gather in great flocks and live together in some large chimney;
toward night-fall they may be seen circling about in great numbers
and dropping into the mouth of the chimney, one by one, as if they
were being poured into a funnel. In the morning they leave in reverse
manner, each swift flying about in widening circles as it leaves
the chimney. The swifts are never seen to alight anywhere except in
hollow trees or chimneys or similar places; their tiny feet have
sharp claws for clinging to the slightest roughness of the upright
wall; the tail acts as a prop, each tail feather ending in a spine
which is pressed against the chimney side when the bird alights and
thus enables it to cling more firmly. In this fashion the swifts
roost, practically hung up against a wall.
The swift has a short beak and wide mouth which it opens broadly to
engulf insects as it darts through the air. Chimney swifts have been
known to travel at the rate of 110 miles an hour.
This bird should never be confused with the swallows, for when
flying, its tail seems simply a sharp point, making the whole body
cigar-shaped. This character alone distinguishes it from the long
tailed swallows. In color it is sooty brown, with a gray throat and
breast; the wings are long and narrow and apparently curved. The
manner of flight and appearance in the air make it resemble the bat
more than it does the swallow.
[Illustration: _Tree swallows._
Photo by A. A. Allen.]
LESSON XXVII
THE SWALLOWS AND SWIFTS
_Leading thought_--The swallows are very graceful birds and are
exceedingly swift fliers. They feed upon insects which they catch
upon the wing. There are five native swallows which are common--the
eave, or cliff, the barn, the bank, the tree swallow and the purple
martin. The chimney swift, although often called so, is not a
swallow; it is more nearly related to the hummingbird than to the
swallows.
_Method_--The questions should be given as an outline for
observation, and may be written on the blackboard or placed in the
field notebook. The pupils should answer them individually and from
field observation. We study the swifts and swallows together to teach
the pupils to distinguish them apart.
_Observations_--1. What is the general shape of the swallow? What is
the color of the forehead, throat, upper breast, neck, rump and tail?
2. Is the tail noticeably forked especially during flight?
3. Describe the flight of the swallow. What is the purpose of its
long, swift flight? How are the swallow’s wings fitted for carrying
the bird swiftly?
4. Describe the form of the beak of the swallow. How does it get its
food? What is its food?
5. In what particular locations do you see the swallows darting
about? At what time of day do they seem most active?
6. Describe the swallow’s legs and feet and explain why they look so
different from those of the robin and blackbird.
_The Eave, or Cliff Swallow_
7. Where do the eave swallows build their nests? Of what material is
the outside? The lining? Describe the shape of the nest and how it is
supported.
8. How early in the spring do the eave swallows begin to make their
nests? Where and by what means do they get the material for nest
building? Are there a number of nests usually grouped together?
9. Describe the eave swallow’s egg. Where do the parents sit when
feeding the young? What is the note of the eave swallow?
10. What are the differences between the barn and the eave swallow in
color and shape of tail?
_The Barn Swallow_
11. Where does the barn swallow place its nest? What is the shape of
the nest? Of what material is it made?
12. What is the color of the eggs? Describe the feeding of the young
and the sounds made by them and their parents. Do both parents work
together to build the nest and feed the young?
13. Is there usually more than one nest in the same locality? When
the young swallows are large enough to leave the nest, describe how
the parents continue to care for them.
14. Have you ever heard the barn swallows sing? Describe their
conversational notes.
15. When do the barn swallows migrate and where do they go during
the winter? How can you distinguish the barn swallow from the eave
swallow?
_The Bank Swallow_
16. Where do the bank swallows build? What sort of soil do they
choose?
17. How does a bank look which is tenanted by these birds?
18. How far do the bank swallows tunnel into the earth? What is the
diameter of one of these tunnels? Do they extend straight or do they
rise or deflect?
19. With what tools is the tunnel excavated? Where is the nest
situated in the tunnel and how is it lined?
20. How can you distinguish this species from the barn and eave
and tree swallows? At what time do the bank swallows leave us for
migration south?
_The Tree Swallow_
[Illustration: _A tree swallow._
Photo by Geo. Fiske, Jr.]
21. Where does the tree swallow make its nest? How does its nest
differ from that of the barn, eave, or bank swallow? When does it
begin to build?
22. How can we encourage the tree swallow to build near our houses?
Why is the tree swallow a much more desirable bird to have in bird
houses than the English sparrow?
23. Describe the peculiar migrating habits of the tree swallow.
How can you tell this species from the barn, the eave and the bank
swallows?
_The Purple Martin_
24. Compare the purple martin with the swallows and describe how it
differs, in size and color.
25. Where did the martins build their nests before America was
civilized? Where do they like to nest now? How do the purple martins
benefit us and how can we induce them to come to us?
_The Chimney Swift_
26. Where do the chimney swifts build their nests? Of what materials
is the nest made? What is its shape and how is it supported? Where
does the chimney swift get its glue for nest building?
27. Describe how the chimney swifts enter their nesting place at
night. Where and how do they perch? Describe the shape of the swift’s
tail and its use to the bird when roosting.
28. On what does the chimney swift feed and how does it procure this
food? Describe how its beak is especially fitted for this?
29. How can you distinguish the chimney swift from the swallows? In
what respect does the chimney swift resemble the swallows? In what
respects does it differ from them?
_Supplementary reading_--“Chimney Swifts,” Familiar Wild Animals,
Lottridge; The Chimney Swifts, Washington Irving; Nestlings of Forest
and Marsh, Wheelock, p. 191; “The Eave Swallow” and “The Purple
Martin” in The Bird Book, Eckstorm; The Second Bird Book, Miller;
True Bird Stories, Miller, p. 118; Our Birds and Their Nestlings, p.
155; A Watcher in the Woods, Sharp, p. 163.
[Illustration: _Nest of the ruby-throat hummingbird._
Photo by Geo. Fiske, Jr.]
[Illustration]
THE HUMMINGBIRD
_Teacher’s Story_
Formerly it was believed that this daintiest of birds found the
nectar of flowers ample support for its active life; but the later
methods of discovering what birds eat by examining the contents of
their stomachs, show that the hummingbird is an insect eater of most
ravenous appetite. Not only does it catch insects in mid air, but
undoubtedly takes them while they are feasting on the nectar of the
tubular flowers which the hummingbird loves to visit. Incidentally,
the hummingbird carries the pollen for these flowers and may be
counted as a friend in every respect, since usually the insects
in the nectaries of the flowers with long tubular corollas, are
stealing nectar without giving in return compensation to the flower
by carrying its pollen. Such insects may be the smaller beetles,
ants and flies. The adaptations of the hummingbird’s beak and long,
double-tubed tongue, are especially for securing this mingled diet
of insects and nectar. It is interesting to note that the young
hummingbirds have the beak much shorter than when mature. Its beak
is exactly fitted to probe those flowers where the hummingbird finds
its food. The tongue has the outer edges curved over making a tube on
each side. These tubes are provided with minute brushes at the tips
and thus are fitted both for sucking nectar and for sweeping up the
insects.
[Illustration: _A hummingbird taking sweetened water from a flower._
Photo by Mary Pierson Allen. Courtesy of _Bird Lore_.]
[Illustration: _Two young hummingbirds in nest._
Half natural size.]
The natural home of the hummingbird seems to have been in the
American tropics. Our one species east of the Rocky Mountains with
which we are all familiar has a ruby throat. This comes to us after
a very long journey each year. One species on the Pacific Coast is
known to travel three thousand miles to the north for the summer and
back again in winter.
Hummingbirds are not supposed to sing, but to use their voices for
squeaking when angry or frightened. However, I once had the privilege
of listening to a true song by a hummingbird on the Pacific Coast.
The midget was perched upon a twig and lifted up his voice with every
appearance of ecstasy in pouring forth his lay. To my uncultured ear
this song was a fine, shrill, erratic succession of squeaks, “as fine
as a cambric needle,” said my companion.
The nest of the hummingbird is a most exquisite structure; it is
about three-fourths of an inch in diameter on the inside and about
half an inch deep. It is, in shape, a symmetrical cup; the outside
is covered with lichens to make it exactly resemble the branch on
which it rests; the inside is lined with the down of plant seeds and
plant fibres. The lichens are often fastened to the outside with the
silk web of spiders or caterpillars. The nest is usually saddled on
a branch of a tree from 10 to 50 feet above the ground. The eggs are
two in number and white; they look like tiny beans. The young are
black and look, at first glance, more like insects than like birds.
LESSON XXVIII
THE HUMMINGBIRD
[Illustration]
_Leading thought_--The hummingbird in flight moves its wings so
rapidly that we cannot see them. It can hold itself poised above
flowers while it thrusts its long beak into them for nectar and
insects.
_Method_--Give the questions to the pupils and let them make the
observations when they have the opportunity.
_Observations_--1. Where do you find the hummingbird? What flowers
was it visiting? At what time of day? Can you tell whether it is a
hummingbird or a hawk-moth which is visiting the flowers? At what
time of day do the hawk-moths appear?
2. Does the hummingbird ever come to rest? Describe its actions while
resting.
3. What are the colors of the back, throat, breast and under parts?
How do you distinguish the mother hummingbird from her mate?
4. How does the hummingbird act when extracting the nectar? How
does it balance itself in front of a flower? Have you ever seen
hummingbirds catch insects in the air? If so, describe how they did
it.
5. Describe the hummingbird’s nest. How large is it in diameter? What
is the covering outside? With what is it lined?
[Illustration:
Photo by A. A. Allen. ]
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD
_Teacher’s Story_
The blackbirds are among our earliest visitors in the spring; they
come in flocks and beset our leafless trees like punctuation marks,
meanwhile squeaking like musical wheelbarrows. What they are, where
they come from, where they are going and what they are going to do,
are the questions that naturally arise at the sight of these sable
flocks. It is not easy to distinguish grackles, cowbirds and rusty
blackbirds at a glance, but the red-wing proclaims his identity from
afar. The bright red epaulets, margined behind with pale yellow, is
a uniform to catch the admiring eye. The bird’s glossy black plumage
brings into greater contrast his bright decorations. That he is fully
aware of his beauty, who can doubt who has seen him come sailing down
at the end of his strong, swift flight, and balancing himself on some
bending reed, drop his long tail as if it were the crank of his music
box, and holding both wings lifted to show his scarlet decorations,
sing his “quong quer ee-ee.” Little wonder that such a handsome,
military looking fellow should be able now and then to win more
than his share of feminine admiration. But what though he become an
entirely successful bigamist or even trigamist, he has proven himself
to be a good protector of each and all of his wives and nestlings;
however, he often has but one mate.
“The red-wing flutes his O-ka-lee” is Emerson’s graphic description
of the sweet song of the red-wing; he also has many other notes. He
clucks to his mates and clucks more sharply when suspicious, and
has one alarm note that is truly alarming. The male red-wings come
from the South in March; they appear in flocks, often three weeks
before their mates arrive. The female looks as though she belonged
to quite a different species. Although her head and back are black,
the black is decidedly rusty; it is quite impossible to describe
her, she is so inconspicuously speckled with brown, black, whitish
buff and orange. Most of us never recognize her unless we see her
with her spouse. As she probably does most of the nest building,
her suit of salt, pepper and mustard renders her invisible to the
keen eyes of birds of prey. Only when she is flying, does she show
her blackbird characteristics,--her tail being long and of obvious
use as a steering organ; and she walks with long, stiff strides. The
red-wings are ever to be found in and about swamps and marshes. The
nest is built usually in May; it is made of grasses, stalks of weeds
and is lined with finer grass or reeds. It is bulky and is placed in
low bushes or among the reeds. The eggs are pale blue, streaked and
spotted with purple or black. The young resemble the mother in color,
the males being obliged to wait a year for their epaulets. As to the
food of the red-wings here in the North, Mr. Forbush says:
[Illustration: _The mother red-wing, her nest and nestlings._
Photo by A. A. Allen.]
“Although the red-wings almost invariably breed in the swamp or
marsh, they have a partiality for open fields and plowed lands;
however, most of the blackbirds that nest in the smaller swamps
adjacent to farm lands get a large share of their food from the
farmer’s fields. They forage about the fields and meadows when they
first come north in the spring. Later, they follow the plow, picking
up grubs, worms and caterpillars; and should there be an outbreak of
canker-worms in the orchard, the blackbirds will fly at least half a
mile to get canker-worms for their young. Wilson estimated that the
red-wings of the United States would in four months destroy sixteen
thousand two hundred million larvæ. They eat the caterpillars of the
gypsy moth, the forest tent-caterpillar, and other hairy larvæ. They
are among the most destructive birds to weevils, click beetles, and
wireworms. Grasshoppers, ants, bugs, and flies form a portion of the
red-wing’s food. They eat comparatively little grain in Massachusetts
although they get some from newly sown fields in spring, as well as
from the autumn harvest; but they feed very largely on the seeds of
weeds and wild rice in the fall. In the South they join with the
bobolink in devastating the rice fields, and in the West they are
often so numerous as to destroy the grain in the fields; but here the
good they do far outweighs the injury, and for this reason they are
protected by law.”
LESSON XXIX
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD
[Illustration:
_The red-winged blackbird._
After Audubon Leaflet No. 25. ]
_Leading thought_--The red-winged blackbird lives in the marshes
where it builds its nest. However, it comes over to our plowed lands
and pastures and helps the farmer by destroying many insects which
injure the meadows, crops and trees.
_Method_--The observations should be made by the pupils individually
in the field. These birds may be looked for in flocks early in the
spring, but the study should be made in May or June when they will be
found in numbers in almost any swamp. The questions may be given to
the pupils a few at a time or written in their field notebooks and
the answers discussed when discovered.
_Observations_--1. How can you distinguish the red-winged blackbird
from all other blackbirds? Where is the red on his wings? Is there
any other color besides black on the wings? Where? What is the color
of the rest of the plumage?
2. What is there peculiar in the flight of the red-wing? Is its
tail long or short? How does it use its tail in flight? What is its
position when the bird alights on a reed?
3. What is the song of the red-wing? Describe the way he holds his
wings and tail when singing, balanced on a reed or some other swamp
grass. Does he show off his epaulets when singing? Why? What note
does he give when he is surprised or suspicious? When frightened?
4. When does the red-wing first appear in the spring? Does he come
alone or in flocks? Does his mate come with him? Where do the
red-wings winter? In what localities do the red-wing blackbirds live?
Why do they live there? What is the color of the mother red-wing?
Would you know by her looks that she was a blackbird? What advantage
is it to the pair that the female is so dull in color?
5. At what time do these birds nest? Where is the nest built? Of what
material? How is it concealed? What is the color of the eggs?
6. Do the young birds resemble in color their father or their mother?
Why is this an advantage?
7. Is the red-wing ever seen in fields adjoining the marshes? What
is he doing there? Does he walk or hop when looking for food? What
is the food of the red-wings? Do they ever damage grain? Do they not
protect grain more than they damage it?
8. What great good do the red-wings do for forest trees? For orchards?
9. At what time in the summer do the red-wings disappear from the
swamps? Where do they gather in flocks? Where is their special
feeding ground on the way south for the winter?
THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE
_Teacher’s Story_
“_I know his name, I know his note,
That so with rapture takes my soul;
Like flame the gold beneath his throat,
His glossy cope is black as coal.
O Oriole, it is the song
You sang me from the cottonwood,
Too young to feel that I was young,
Too glad to guess if life were good._”
--WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS.
[Illustration: D]
Dangling from the slender, drooping branches of the elm in winter,
these pocket nests look like some strange persistent fruit; and,
indeed, they are the fruit of much labor on the part of the oriole
weavers, those skilled artisans of the bird world. Sometimes the
oriole “For the summer voyage his hammock swings” in a sapling,
placing it near the main stem and near the top, otherwise it is
almost invariably hung at the end of branches and is rarely less
than twenty feet from the ground. The nest is pocket-shaped, and
usually about seven inches long, and four and a half inches wide at
the largest part, which is the bottom. The top is attached to forked
twigs at the Y so that the mouth or door will be kept open to allow
the bird to pass in and out; when within, the weight of the bird
causes the opening to contract somewhat and protects the inmate from
prying eyes. Often the pocket hangs free so that the breezes may rock
it, but in one case we found a nest with the bottom stayed to a twig
by guy lines. The bottom is much more closely woven than the upper
part for a very good reason, since the open meshes admit air to the
sitting bird. The nest is lined with hair or other soft material,
and although this is added last, the inside of the nest is woven
first. The orioles like to build the framework of twine, and it is
marvellous how they will loop this around a twig almost as evenly
knotted as if crocheted; in and out of this net the mother bird with
her long, sharp beak weaves bits of wood fibre, strong, fine grass
and scraps of weeds. The favorite lining is horse hair, which simply
cushions the bottom of the pocket. Dr. Detwiler had a pet oriole
which built her nest of his hair which she pulled from his head; is
it possible that orioles get their supply of horse hair in a similar
way? If we put in convenient places, bright colored twine or narrow
ribbons the orioles will weave them into the nest, but the strings
should not be long, lest the birds become entangled. If the nest is
strong the birds will use it a second year.
That Lord Baltimore found in new America a bird wearing his colors,
must have cheered him greatly; and it is well for us that this
brilliant bird brings to our minds kindly thoughts of that tolerant,
high-minded English nobleman. The oriole’s head, neck, throat and
part of the back are black; the wings are black but the feathers
are margined with white; the tail is black except that the ends of
the outer feathers are yellow; all the rest of the bird is golden
orange, a luminous color which makes him seem a splash of brilliant
sunshine. The female, although marked much the same, has the back so
dull and mottled that it looks olive-brown; the rump, breast, and
under parts are yellow but by no means showy. The advantage of these
quiet colors to the mother bird is obvious since it is she that makes
the nest and sits in it without attracting attention to its location.
In fact, when she is sitting, her brilliant mate places himself far
enough away to distract the attention of meddlers, yet near enough
for her to see the flash of his breast in the sunshine and to hear
his rich and cheering song. He is a good spouse and brings her the
materials for the nest which she weaves in, hanging head downward
from a twig and using her long sharp beak for a shuttle. And his
glorious song is for her alone; some hold that no two orioles have
the same song; I know of two individuals at least whose songs were
sung by no other birds; one gave a phrase from the Waldvogel’s song
in Sigfried; the other whistled over and over, “Sweet birdie, hello,
hello.” The orioles can chatter and scold as well as sing.
[Illustration: _The Baltimore oriole._]
The oriole is a brave defender of his nest and a most devoted father,
working hard to feed his ever hungry nestlings; we can hear these
hollow mites peeping for more food, “Tee dee dee, Tee dee dee”,
shrill and constant, if we stop for a moment under the nest in June.
The young birds dress in the safe colors of the mother, the males
not donning their bright plumage until the second year. A brilliant
colored fledgling would not live long in a world where sharp eyes are
in constant quest for little birds to fill empty stomachs.
The food of the oriole places it among our most beneficial birds,
since it is always ready to cope with the hairy caterpillars avoided
by most birds; it has learned to abstract the caterpillar from his
spines and is thus able to swallow him minus his “whiskers.” The
orioles are waging a great war against the terrible brown-tail and
gipsy moths in New England; they also eat click beetles and many
other noxious insects. Once when we were breeding big caterpillars in
the Cornell insectary, an oriole came in through the open windows of
the greenhouse, and thinking he had found a bonanza proceeded to work
it, carrying off our precious crawlers before we discovered what he
was at.
The orioles winter in Central America and give us scarcely four
months of their company. They do not usually appear before May and
leave in early September.
[Illustration: _An oriole nest. An anchor to the windward._
Photo by C. R. Crosby.]
LESSON XXX
THE ORIOLE
_Leading thought_--The oriole is the most skillful of all our bird
architects. It is also one of our prized song birds and is very
beneficial to the farmer and fruit grower because of the insect pests
which it destroys.
_Method_--Begin during winter or early spring with a study of the
nest, which may be obtained from the elms of the roadsides. During
the first week in May, give the questions concerning the birds and
their habits. Let the pupils keep the questions in their note-books
and answer them when they have opportunity. The observations should
be summed up once a week.
_Observations by pupils_--1. Where did you find the nest? On what
species of tree? Was it near the trunk of the tree or the tip of the
branch?
2. What is the shape of the nest? How long is it? How wide? Is the
opening as large as the bottom of the nest? How is it hung to the
twigs so that the opening remains open and does not pull together
with the weight of the bird at the bottom? Is the bottom of the nest
stayed to a twig or does it hang loose?
3. With what material and how is the nest fastened to the branches?
Of what material is the outside made? How is it woven together? Is it
more loosely woven at the top than at the bottom? How many kinds of
material can you find in the outside of the nest?
4. With what is the nest lined? How far up is it lined? With what
tool was the nest woven? If you put out bright colored bits of ribbon
and string do you think the orioles will use them? Why should you not
put out long strings?
5. At what date did you first see the Baltimore oriole? Why is it
called the Baltimore oriole? How many other names has it? Describe in
the following way the colors of the male oriole: top of head, back,
wings, tail, throat, breast, under parts. What are the colors of his
mate? How would it endanger the nest and nestlings if the mother bird
were as bright colored as the father bird?
6. Which weaves the nest, the father or the mother bird? Does the
former assist in any way in nest building?
7. Where does the father bird stay and what does he do while the
mother bird is sitting on the eggs?
8. What is the oriole’s song? Has he more than one song? What other
notes has he? After the young birds hatch does the father bird help
take care of them?
9. By the middle of June the young birds are usually hatched and if
you know where an oriole nest is hung, listen and describe the call
of the nestlings for food.
10. Which parent do the young birds resemble in their colors? Why is
this a benefit?
11. What is the oriole’s food? How is the oriole of benefit to us in
ways which other birds are not?
12. Do the orioles use the same nest two years in succession? How
long does the oriole stay in the North? Where does it spend its
winters?
* * * * *
“_Hush! ’tis he!
My oriole, my glance of summer fire,
Is come at last, and, ever on the watch,
Twitches the packthread I had lightly wound
About the bough to help his housekeeping,--
Twitches and scouts by turns, blessing his luck,
Yet fearing me who laid it in his way,
Nor, more than wiser we in our affairs.
Divines the Providence that hides and helps.
Heave, ho! Heave, ho! he whistles as the twine
Slackens its hold; once more, now! and a flash
Lightens across the sunlight to the elm
Where his mate dangles at her cup of felt._”
--“UNDER THE WILLOWS”, LOWELL.
THE CROW
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: T]
Thoreau says: “What a perfectly New England sound is this voice of
the crow! If you stand still anywhere in the outskirts of the town
and listen, this is perhaps the sound which you will be most sure
to hear, rising above all sounds of human industry and leading your
thoughts to some far-away bay in the woods. The bird sees the white
man come and the Indian withdraw, but it withdraws not. Its untamed
voice is still heard above the tinkling of the forge. It sees a
race pass away, but it passes not away. It remains to remind us of
aboriginal nature.”
[Illustration: _A pet crow._
Photo by S. A. Lottride.]
The crow is probably the most intelligent of all our native birds. It
is quick to learn and clever in action, as many a farmer will testify
who has tried to keep it out of corn fields with various devices, the
harmless character of which the crow soon understood perfectly. Of
all our birds, this one has the longest list of virtues and of sins,
as judged from our standpoint; but we should listen to both sides of
the case before we pass judgment. I find with crows, as with people,
I like some more than I do others. I do not like at all the cunning
old crow which steals the suet I put on the trees in winter for the
chickadees and nuthatches; and I have hired a boy with a shotgun to
protect the eggs and nestlings of the robins and other birds in my
neighborhood from the ravages of one or two cruel old crows that
have developed the nest-hunting habit. On the other hand, I became a
sincere admirer of a crow flock which worked in a field close to my
country home, and I have been the chosen friend of several tame crows
who were even more interesting than they were mischievous.
The crow is larger than any other of our common blackbirds; the
northern raven is still larger, but is very rarely seen. Although the
crow’s feathers are black, yet in the sunlight a beautiful purple
iridescence plays over the plumage, especially about the neck and
back; it has a compact but not ungraceful body, and long, powerful
wings; its tail is medium sized and is not notched at the end;
its feet are long and strong: the track shows three toes directed
forward and one long one directed backward. The crow does not sail
through the air as does the hawk, but progresses with an almost
constant flapping of the wings. Its beak is very strong and is used
for tearing the flesh of its prey and for defense, and in fact, for
almost anything that a beak could be used for; its eye is all black
and is very keen and intelligent. When hunting for food in the field,
it usually walks, but sometimes hops. The raven and the fish crows
are the nearest relatives of the American crow, and next to them
the jays. We should hardly think that the bluejay and the crow were
related to look at them, but when we come to study their habits, much
is to be found in common.
The crow’s nest is usually very large; it is made of sticks, of grape
vines and bark, sod, horse-hair, moss and grasses. It is placed
in trees or in tall bushes rarely less than twenty feet from the
ground. The eggs are pale bluish green or nearly white with brownish
markings. The young crows hatch in April or May. Both parents are
devoted to the care of the young, and remain with them during most of
the summer. I have often seen a mother crow feeding her young ones
which were following her with obstreperous caws, although they were
as large as she.
While the note of the crow is harsh when close at hand, it has a
musical quality in the distance. Mr. Mathews says: “The crow when he
sings is nothing short of a clown; he ruffles his feathers, stretches
his neck, like a cat with a fish bone in her throat, and with a most
tremendous effort delivers a series of hen-like squawks.” But aside
from his caw, the crow has some very seductive soft notes. I have
held long conversations with two pet crows, talking with them in a
high, soft tone and finding that they answered readily in a like
tone in a most responsive way. I have also heard these same tones
among the wild crows when they were talking together; one note is a
gutteral tremolo, most grotesque.
Crows gather in flocks for the winter; these flocks number from fifty
to several hundred individuals, all having a common roosting place,
usually in pine or hemlock forests or among other evergreens. They
go out from these roosts during the day to get food, often making
a journey of many miles. During the nesting season they scatter in
pairs and do not gather again in flocks until the young are fully
grown.
When crows are feeding in the fields there is usually, if not always,
a sentinel posted on some high point so that he can give warning
of danger. This sentinel is always an experienced bird and is keen
to detect a dangerous from a harmless intruder. I once made many
experiments with these sentinels; I finally became known to those of
a particular flock and I was allowed to approach within a few yards
of where the birds were feeding, a privilege not accorded to any
other person in the neighborhood.
The crow is a general feeder and will eat almost any food; generally,
however, it finds its food upon the ground. The food given to
nestlings is very largely insects, and many pests are thus destroyed.
The crows damage the farmer by pulling the sprouting corn and by
destroying the eggs and young of poultry. They also do much harm
by destroying the eggs and nestlings of our native birds which are
beneficial to the farmer; they also do some harm by distributing the
seeds of poison ivy and other noxious plants. All these must be set
down in the account against the crow, but on the credit side must be
placed the fact that it does a tremendous amount of good work for
the farmer by eating injurious insects, especially the grubs and
cut-worms which work in the ground, destroying the roots of grasses
and grains. It also kills many mice and other rodents which are
destructive to crops.
The best method of preventing crows from taking sprouting corn is to
tar the seed corn, which is planted around the edge of the field.
If any of the pupils in your school have had any experience with
tame crows they will relate interesting incidents of the love of the
crow for glittering objects. I once knew a tame crow which stole
all of the thimbles in the house and buried them in the garden; he
would watch to see when a thimble was laid aside when the sewing
was dropped, and would seize it almost immediately. This same crow
persisted in taking the clothes-pins off the line and burying them,
so that he was finally imprisoned on washdays. He was fond of playing
marbles with a little boy of the family. The boy would shoot a marble
into a hole and then Billy, the crow, would take a marble in his beak
and drop it into the hole. The bird understood the game perfectly and
was highly indignant if the boy took his turn and made shots twice in
succession.
_References_--The American Crow, Barrows & Schwartz, Bulletin No. 6,
Division of Ornithology, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Birds in
Relation to Man, Weed & Dearborn; Bird Neighbors, Blanchan; Birds of
Villages and Field, Merriam; Outdoor Studies, Needham.
LESSON XXXI
THE CROW
_Leading thought_--The crow has the keenest intelligence of any of
our common birds. It does good work for us and also does damage.
We should study its ways before we pronounce judgment, for in some
localities it may be a true friend and in others an enemy.
_Methods_--This work should begin in winter with an effort on the
part of the boys to discover the food of the crows while snow is
on the ground. This is a good time to study their habits and their
roosts. The nests are also often found in winter, although usually
built in evergreens. The nesting season is in early April, and
the questions about the nests should be given then. Let the other
questions be given when convenient. The flight, the notes, the
sentinels, the food, the benefit and damage may all be taken as
separate topics.
The following topics for essays should be given to correlate with
work in English: “What a pet crow of my acquaintance did;” “Evidences
of crow intelligence;” “A plea a crow might make in self-defence to
the farmer who wished to shoot him;” “The best methods of preventing
crows from stealing planted corn.”
_Observations_--1. How large is the crow compared with other
blackbirds?
2. Describe its colors when seen in the sunlight?
3. Describe the general shape of the crow.
4. Are its wings long and slender or short and stout?
5. Is the tail long or short? Is it notched or straight across the
end?
6. Describe the crow’s feet. Are they large and strong or slender?
How many toes does the track show in the snow or mud? How many are
directed forward and how many backward?
7. Describe a crow’s flight compared with that of the hawk.
8. Describe its beak and what it is used for.
9. What is the color of the crow’s eye?
10. When hunting for food does the crow hop or walk?
11. Which are the crow’s nearest relatives?
12. Where and of what material do the crows build their nests?
13. Describe the eggs. At what time of the year do the young crows
hatch? Do both parents take care of and feed the young? How long do
the parents care for the young after they leave the nest?
14. What are the notes of the crow? If you have heard one give any
note except “caw,” describe it.
15. Where and how do crows live in winter? Where do they live in
summer?
16. Do they post sentinels if they are feeding in the fields? If so,
describe the action of the sentinel on the approach of people.
17. Upon what do the crows feed? What is fed to the nestlings?
18. How do the crows work injury to the farmer? How do they benefit
the farmer? Do you think they do more benefit than harm to the farmer
and fruit-grower?
19. Have you known of instances of the crow’s fondness for shining or
glittering articles, like pieces of crockery or tin?
_Supplementary reading_--“The Story of Silver Spot” in Wild Animals
I have Known, Seton; Second Book of Birds, p. 117; “Jim’s Babies”
in Nestlings of Forest and Marsh; “How the Crow Baby was Punished,”
True Bird Stories; “The Children of a Crow,” and “The Scare Crow” by
Celia Thaxter; Our Birds and their Nestlings; “Crow Ways,” Ways of
Wood Folk, Long; “Not so Black as he is Painted,” Outdoor Studies,
Needham; The Crows, John Hay; “Jack Crow,” American Birds, Finley.
[Illustration]
THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: _The cardinal grosbeak._
After _Audubon Leaflet_ No. 18.]
There never lived a Lord Cardinal who possessed robes of state
more brilliant in color than the plumage of this bird. By the way,
I wonder how many of us ever think when we see the peculiar red,
called cardinal, that it gained its name from the dress of this
high functionary of the church? The cardinal grosbeak is the best
name for the redbird because that describes it exactly, both as to
its color and its chief characteristic, since its beak is thick and
large; the beak is also red, which is a rare color in beaks, and in
order to make its redness more emphatic it is set in a frame of black
feathers. The use of such a large beak is unmistakable, for it is
strong enough to crush the hardest of seed shells or to crack the
hardest and driest of grains.
“_What cheer! What cheer!
That is the grosbeak’s way,
With his sooty face and his coat of red_”
sings Maurice Thompson. But besides the name given above, this
bird has been called in different localities the redbird, Virginia
redbird, crested redbird, winter redbird, Virginia nightingale, the
red corn-cracker; but it remained for James Lane Allen to give it
another name in his masterpiece, “The Kentucky Cardinal.”
The cardinal is a trifle smaller than the robin and is by no means
slim and graceful, like the catbird or the scarlet tanager, but is
quite stout and is a veritable chunk of brilliant color and bird
dignity. The only other bird that rivals him in redness is the
scarlet tanager which has black wings; the summer tanager is also a
red bird, but is not so vermilion and is more slender and lacks the
crest. The cardinal surely finds his crest useful in expressing his
emotions; when all is serene, it lies back flat on the head, but with
any excitement, whether of joy or surprise or anger, it lifts until
it is as peaked as an old-fashioned nightcap. The cardinal’s mate is
of quiet color; her back is greenish gray and breast buffy, while her
crest, wings and tail reflect in faint ways the brilliancy of his
costume.
The redbird’s song is a stirring succession of syllables uttered in
a rich, ringing tone, and may be translated in a variety of ways.
I have heard him sing a thousand times “tor-re’-do, tor-re’-do,
tor-re’-do,” but Dr. Dawson has heard him sing “che’-pew, che’-pew,
we’-woo, we’-woo;” “bird-ie, bird-ie, bird-ie; tschew, tschew,
tschew;” and “chit-e-kew, chit-e-kew; he-weet, he-weet.” His mate
breaks the custom of other birds of her sex and sings a sweet song,
somewhat softer than his. Both birds utter a sharp note “tsip, tsip.”
The nest is built in bushes, vines or low trees, often in holly,
laurel or other low evergreens, and is rarely more than six or eight
feet above the ground. It is made of twigs, weed stems, tendrils,
the bark of the grape vine and coarse grass; it is lined with fine
grass and rootlets; it is rather loosely constructed but firm and
is well hidden, for it causes these birds great anguish to have
their nest discovered. Three or four eggs are laid, which are bluish
white or grayish, dully marked with brown. The father cardinal is
an exemplary husband and father; he cares for and feeds his mate
tenderly and sings to her gloriously while she is sitting; and he
works hard catching insects for the nestlings. He is also a brave
defender of his nest and will attack any intruder, however large,
with undaunted courage. The fledglings all have the dull color of the
mother and have dark-colored bills. Their dull color protects the
young birds from the keen eyes of their enemies while they are not
yet able to take care of themselves. If the male fledglings were the
color of their father, probably not one would escape a tragic death.
While the mother bird is hatching the second brood the father keeps
the first brood with him and cares for them; often the whole family
remains together during the winter, making a small flock. However,
the flocking habit is not characteristic of these birds, and we only
see them in considerable numbers when the exigencies of seeking food
in the winter naturally bring them together.
The cardinals are fond of the shrubbery and thickets of river
bottoms, near grain fields, or where there is plenty of wild grass,
and they only visit our premises when driven to us by winter hunger.
Their food consists of the seeds of rank weeds, corn, wheat, rye,
oats, beetles, grasshoppers, flies, and to some extent, wild and
garden berries; but they never occur in sufficient numbers to be a
menace to our crops. The cardinals may often be seen in the corn
fields after the harvest, and will husk an overlooked ear of corn and
crack the kernels with their beaks in a most dexterous manner. During
the winter we may coax them to our grounds by scattering corn in some
place not frequented by cats; thus, we may induce them to nest near
us, since the cardinal is not naturally a migrant but likes to stay
in one locality summer and winter. It has been known to come as far
north as Boston and southern New York, but it is found in greatest
numbers in our Southern States. Many nestlings were formerly taken,
to ship in cages to Europe, but the National Association for Bird
Protection has put a stop to this. In Ohio, no cardinal is allowed
to be caged, and this same law should protect this beautiful bird
in every Southern state, since it does not live long or happily in
confinement. The cardinal’s song is not at its best in a cage, but as
the poet Naylor says:
“_Along the dust-white river road,
The saucy redbird chirps and trills;
His liquid notes resound and rise
Until they meet the cloudless skies,
And echo o’er the distant hills._”
LESSON XXXII
THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK
_Leading thought_--The cardinal is the most brilliantly colored
of all our birds and because of its color and song, it has been
destroyed by thousands as cage birds. We should seek to preserve it
as a beautiful ornament to our groves and grounds.
_Methods_--This work must be done by personal observation in the
field. The field notes should be discussed in school. The effect of
the whole lesson should be to stimulate an interest in protecting
these beautiful birds. If possible, send for outline figures of the
cardinal for the children to color; these outlines may be had at
the cost of fifteen cents per dozen from the Audubon Society, 141
Broadway, New York City.
_Observations_--1. Do you know the cardinal? Why is it so called?
2. How many names do you know for this bird?
3. Is the cardinal as large as the robin? Is it graceful in shape or
stout?
4. Is there any color except red upon it? If so, where?
5. What other vividly red birds have we and how can we distinguish
them from the cardinal?
6. Describe the cardinal’s crest and how it looks when lifted. Why do
you think it lifts it?
7. Describe its beak as to color, shape and size. What work is such a
heavy beak made for?
8. Is the cardinal’s mate the same color as he? Describe the color of
her head, back, wings, tail, breast.
9. Can you imitate the cardinal’s song? What words do you think he
seems to sing? Does his mate sing also? Is it usual for mother birds
to sing? What other notes besides songs do you hear him utter?
10. Where does the cardinal usually build its nest? How high from the
ground? Of what materials? Is it compact or bulky? How many eggs and
what are their colors?
11. How does the father bird act while his mate is brooding? How does
he help take care of the young in the nest?
12. How do the fledglings differ in color from their father? From
their mother? Of what use to the young birds is their sober color?
13. What happens to the fledglings of the first brood while the
mother is hatching the eggs of the second brood?
14. In what localities do you most often see the cardinals? Do you
ever see them in flocks?
15. What is the food of the cardinals? What do they feed their
nestlings?
16. How can you induce the cardinals to build near your home?
17. What do you know about the laws protecting the redbirds?
_Supplementary reading_--The Second Book of Birds, Miller, p. 83;
True Bird Stories, Miller, p. 86; The Song of the Cardinal, Porter;
Audubon Educational Leaflet No. 18.
* * * * *
“_Upon the gray old forest’s rim
I snuffed the crab-tree’s sweet perfume;
And farther, where the light was dim, I saw the bloom
Of May apples, beneath the tent
Of umbrel leaves above them bent;
Where oft was shifting light and shade
The blue-eyed ivy wildly strayed;
The Solomon’s seal, in graceful play,
Swung where the straggling sunlight lay
The same as when I earliest heard
The Cardinal bird._”
--W. S. GALLAGHER.
GEESE
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: T]
To be called a goose should be considered most complimentary, for
of all the birds the goose is probably the most intelligent. An
observant lady who keeps geese on her farm assures me that no animal,
not even dog or horse, has the intelligence of the goose. She says
that these birds learn a lesson after a few repetitions, and surely
her geese were patterns of obedience. While I was watching them one
morning, they started for the brook via the corn field; she called
to them sharply, “No, no, you mustn’t go that way!” They stopped and
conferred; she spoke again and they waited, looking at her as if to
make up their minds to this exercise of self-sacrifice; but when she
spoke the third time they left the corn field and took the other path
to the brook. She could bring her geese into their house at any time
of day by calling to them, “Home, home!” As soon as they heard these
words, they would start and not stop until the last one was housed.
[Illustration]
In ancient Greece maidens made pets of geese; and often there was
such a devotion between the bird and girl that when the latter died
her statue with that of the goose was carved on her burial tablet.
The loyalty of a pet goose came under the observation of Miss Ada
Georgia. A lone gander was the special pet of a small boy in Elmira,
N. Y., who took sole care of him. The bird obeyed commands like a dog
but would never let his little master out of his sight if he could
avoid it; occasionally he would appear in the school yard, where
the pupils would tease him by pretending to attack his master at
the risk of being whipped with his wings so severely that it was a
test of bravery among the boys to so challenge him. His fidelity to
his master was extreme; once when the boy was ill in bed, the bird
wandered about the yard honking disconsolately and refused to eat; he
was driven to the side of the house where his master could look from
the window and he immediately cheered up, took his food and refused
to leave his post beneath the window while the illness lasted.
The goose is a stately bird whether on land or water; its long
legs give it good proportions when walking, and the neck being so
much longer than that of the duck gives an appearance of grace and
dignity. The duck on the other hand is beautiful only when on the
water or on the wing; its short legs, placed far back and far out at
the sides, make it a most ungraceful walker. The beak of the goose
is harder in texture and is not flat like the duck’s; no wonder the
bird was a favorite with the ancient Greeks for the high ridge from
the beak to the forehead resembles much the famous Grecian nose. The
plumage of geese is very beautiful and abundant and for this reason
they are profitable domestic birds. The “picking” occurs late in
summer when the feathers are nearly ready to be molted; at this time
the geese flap their wings often and set showers of loose feathers
flying. A stocking or a bag is slipped over the bird’s head and she
is turned breast side up, with her head firmly between the knees or
under the arm of the picker. The tips of the feathers are seized with
the fingers and come out easily; only the breast, the under parts
and the feathers beneath the wings are plucked. Geese do not seem to
suffer while being plucked except through the temporary inconvenience
and ignominy of having their heads thrust into a bag; it hurts their
dignity more than their bodies.
The wings of geese are very large and beautiful; although our
domestic geese have lost their powers of flight to a great extent,
yet they often stretch their wings and take little flying hops,
teetering along as if they can scarcely keep to earth; this must
surely be reminiscent of the old instinct for traveling in the skies.
The tail of the goose is a half circle and is spread when flying;
although it is short, it seems to be sufficiently long to act as
a rudder. The legs of the goose are much longer than those of the
duck; they are not set so far back toward the rear of the body,
and, therefore, the goose is the much better runner of the two. The
track made by the goose’s foot is a triangle with two scallops on
one side made by the webs between the three front toes; the hind toe
is placed high up; the foot and the unfeathered portion of the leg,
protected by scales, are used as oars when the bird is swimming. When
she swims forward rapidly, her feet extend out behind her and act on
the principle of a propeller; but when swimming around in the pond
she uses them at almost right angles to the body. Although they are
such excellent oars they are also efficient on land; although when
running, her body may waddle somewhat, her head and neck are held
aloft in stately dignity.
The Toulouse are our common gray geese; the Embdens are pure white
with orange bill and bright blue eyes. The African geese have a black
head with a large black knob on the base of the black bill; the neck
is long, snakelike, light gray, with a dark stripe down the back;
the wings and tail are dark gray; there is a dewlap at the throat.
The brown Chinese geese have also a black beak and a black knob at
the base of the bill. The neck is light brown with a dull yellowish
stripe down the neck. The back is dark brown, breast, wings and tail
grayish brown. The white Chinese are shaped like the brown Chinese
but the knob and bill are orange and the eyes light blue.
_The Habits of Geese_
Geese are monogamous and are loyal to their mates. Old-fashioned
people declare that they choose their mates on Saint Valentine’s Day,
but this is probably a pretty myth; when once mated, the pair live
together year after year until one dies; an interesting instance of
this is one of the traditions in my own family. A fine pair of geese
belonging to my pioneer grandfather had been mated for several years
and had reared handsome families; but one spring a conceited young
gander fell in love with the old goose, and as he was young and
lusty, he whipped her legitimate lord and master and triumphantly
carried her away, although she was manifestly disgusted with this
change in her domestic fortunes. The old gander sulked and refused to
be comforted by the blandishments of any young goose whatever. Later
the old pair disappeared from the farmyard and the upstart gander was
left wifeless. It was inferred that the old couple had run away with
each other into the encompassing wilderness and much sympathy was
felt for them because of this sacrifice of their lives for loyalty.
However, this was misplaced sentiment, for later in the summer the
happy pair was discovered in a distant “slashing” with a fine family
of goslings and were all brought home in triumph. The old gander,
while not able to cope with his rival, was still able to trounce any
of the animal marauders which approached his home and family.
The goose lines her nest with down and the soft feathers which she
plucks from her breast. The gander is very devoted to his goose while
she is sitting; he talks to her in gentle tones and is fierce in her
defence. The eggs are about twice as large as those of the hen and
have the ends more rounded. The period of incubation is four weeks.
The goslings are beautiful little creatures, covered with soft down,
and have large, bright eyes. The parents give them most careful
attention from the first. One family which I studied consisted of
the parents and eighteen goslings. The mother was a splendid African
bird; she walked with dignified step, her graceful neck assuming
serpentine curves; and she always carried her beak “lifted,” which
gave her an appearance of majestic haughtiness. The father was just a
plebeian white gander, probably of Embden descent but he was a most
efficient protector. The family always formed a procession in going
to the creek, the majestic mother at the head, the goslings following
her and the gander bringing up the rear to be sure there were no
stragglers; if a gosling strayed away or fell behind, the male went
after it, pushing it back into the family circle. When entering the
coop at night he pushed the little ones in gently with his bill; when
the goslings took their first swim both parents gently pushed them
into the water, “rooted them in,” as the farmer said. Any attempt
to take liberties with the brood was met with bristling anger and
defiance on the part of the gander; the mistress of the farm told me
that he had whipped her black and blue when she tried to interfere
with the goslings.
The gander and goose always show suspicion and resentment by opening
the mouth wide, making a hissing noise, showing the whole round
tongue in mocking defiance. When the gander attacks, he thrusts his
head forward, even with or below the level of his back, and seizes
his victim firmly with his hard, toothed bill so that it cannot get
away, and then with his strong wings beats the life out of it. I
remember vividly a whipping which a gander gave me when I was a
child, holding me fast by the blouse while he laid on the blows.
Geese feed much more largely upon land vegetation than do ducks; a
good growth of clover and grass make excellent pasture for them; in
the water, they feed upon water plants but do not eat insects and
animals to any extent.
Undoubtedly goose language is varied and expresses many things.
Geese talk to each other and call from afar; they shriek in warning
and in general make such a turmoil that people do not enjoy it. The
goslings, even when almost grown, keep up a constant “pee wee, pee
wee,” which is nerve-racking. There is a good opportunity for some
interesting investigations in studying out just what the different
notes of the geese mean.
The goose is very particular about her toilet; she cleans her breast
and back and beneath her wings with her bill, and she cleans her bill
with her foot; she also cleans the top of her head with her foot and
the under side of her wing with the foot of that side. When oiling
her feathers, she starts the oil gland flowing with her beak, then
rubs her head over the gland until it is well oiled; she then uses
her head as a “dauber” to apply the oil to the feathers of her back
and breast. When thus polishing her feathers, she twists the head
over and over and back and forth to add to its efficiency.
WILD GEESE
[Illustration: T]
There is a sound, that, to the weather-wise farmer, means cold and
snow, even though it is heard through the hazy atmosphere of an
Indian summer day; and that is the honking of wild geese as they
pass on their southward journey. And there is not a more interesting
sight anywhere in the autumn landscape than the wedge-shaped flock
of these long-necked birds with their leader at the front apex. “The
wild goose trails his harrow,” sings the poet; but only the aged can
remember the old-fashioned harrow which makes this simile graphic.
The honking which reveals to us the passing flock, before our eyes
can discern the birds against the sky, is the call of the wise old
gander who is the leader, to those following him, and their return
salute. He knows the way on this long thousand-mile journey, and
knows it by the topography of the country. If ever fog or storm hides
the earth from his view, he is likely to become confused, to the
dismay of his flock, which follows him to the earth with many lonely
and distressful cries.
The northern migration takes place in April and May, and the southern
from October to December. The journey is made with stops for rest and
refreshment at certain selected places, usually some secluded pond
or lake. The food of wild geese consists of water plants, seeds and
corn, and some of the smaller animals living in water. Although the
geese come to rest on the water, they go to the shore to feed. In
California, the wild geese are dreaded visitors of the cornfields,
and men with guns are employed regularly to keep them off.
The nests are made of sticks lined with down, usually along the
shores of streams, sometimes on tree stumps and sometimes in deserted
nests of the osprey. There are only four or five eggs laid and both
parents are devoted to the young, the gander bravely defending his
nest and family from the attacks of any enemies.
[Illustration: _Wild geese flying in even ranks._
Photographed directly underneath by A. R. Dugmore. Courtesy of
_Country Life in America_.]
Although there are several species of wild geese on the Atlantic
Coast, the one called by this name is usually the Canada goose.
This bird is a superb creature, brown above and gray beneath, with
head, neck, tail, bill and feet of black. These black trimmings
are highly ornamental and, as if to emphasize them, there is a
white crescent-shaped “bib” extending from just back of the eyes
underneath the head. This white patch is very striking, and gives
one the impression of a bandage for sore throat. It is regarded as a
call-color, and is supposed to help keep the flock together; the side
tail-coverts are also white and make another guide to follow.
Often some wounded or wearied bird of the migrating flock spends the
winter in farmyards with domestic geese. One morning a neighbor of
mine found that during the night a wild gander, injured in some way,
had joined his flock. The stranger was treated with much courtesy by
its new companions as well as by the farmer’s family and soon seemed
perfectly at home. The next spring he mated with one of the domestic
geese. In the late summer, my neighbor, mindful of wild geese habits,
clipped the wings of the gander so that he would be unable to join
any passing flock of his wild relatives. As the migrating season
approached, the gander became very uneasy; not only was he uneasy
and unhappy always but he insisted that his wife share his misery of
unrest. He spent days in earnest remonstrance with her and, lifting
himself by his cropped wings to the top of the barnyard fence, he
insisted that she keep him company on this, for web feet, uneasy
resting-place. Finally, after many days of tribulation, the two
valiantly started south on foot. News was received of their progress
for some distance and then they were lost to us. During the winter
our neighbor visited a friend living eighteen miles to the southward
and found in his barnyard the errant pair. They had become tired of
migrating by tramping and had joined the farmer’s flock; but we were
never able to determine the length of time required for this journey.
LESSON XXXIII
GEESE
_Leading thought_--Geese are the most intelligent of the domesticated
birds, and they have many interesting habits.
_Method_--This lesson should not be given unless there are geese
where the pupils may observe them. The questions should be given
a few at a time and answered individually by the pupils after the
observations are made.
_Observations_--1. What is the chief difference between the
appearance of a goose and a duck? How does the beak of the goose
differ from that of the duck in shape and in texture? Describe the
nostrils and their situation.
2. What is the difference in shape between the neck of the goose and
that of the duck?
3. What can you say about the plumage of geese? How are geese
“picked?” At what time of year? From what parts of the body are the
feathers plucked?
4. Are the wings of the goose large compared with the body? How do
geese exercise their wings? Describe the tail of the goose and how it
is used.
5. How do the legs and feet of the goose differ from those of the
duck? Describe the goose’s foot. How many toes are webbed? Where is
the other toe? What is the shape of the track made by the goose’s
foot? Which portions of the legs are used for oars? When the goose
is swimming forward where are her feet? When turning around how does
she use them? Does the goose waddle when walking or running as a duck
does? Why? Does a goose toe-in when walking? Why?
6. Describe the shape and color of the following breeds of domestic
geese: The Toulouse, the Embden, the African, and Chinese.
_Habits of Geese_
1. What is the chief food of geese? What do they find in the water to
eat? How does their food differ from that of ducks?
2. How do geese differ from hens in the matter of mating and nesting?
At what time of year do geese mate? Does a pair usually remain mated
for life?
3. Describe the nest and compare the eggs with those of hens.
Describe the young goslings in general appearance. With what are they
covered? What care do the parents give to their goslings? Describe
how the parents take their family afield. How do they induce their
goslings to go into the water for the first time? How do they protect
them from enemies?
4. How does the gander or goose fight? What are the chief weapons?
How is the head held when the attack is made?
5. How does the goose clean her feathers, wings and feet? How does
she oil her feathers? Where does she get the oil and with what does
she apply it?
6. How much of goose language do you understand? What is the note of
alarm? How is defiance and distrust expressed? How does a goose look
when hissing? What is the constant note of the gosling?
7. Give such instances as you may know illustrating the intelligence
of geese, their loyalty and bravery.
8. Write an English Theme on “The Canada Goose, its appearance,
nesting habits, and migrations.”
_Supplementary reading_--Birds that Hunt and are Hunted, Blanchan;
“Tn Quest of Waptonk The Wild,” Northern Trails, Long; “The
Homesickness of Kehonka,” Kindred of the Wild, Roberts; Wild Geese,
Celia Thaxter.
[Illustration: _A sea-gull._
Photo by G. K. Gilbert.]
[Illustration]
THE TURKEY
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: T]
That the turkey and not the eagle should have been chosen for our
national bird, was the conviction of Benjamin Franklin. It is a
native of our country, it is beautiful as to plumage, and like the
American Indian, it has never yielded entirely to the influences
of civilization. Through the hundreds of years of domestication it
still retains many of its wild habits. In fact, it has many qualities
in common with the red man. Take for instance its sun dance, which
any one can witness who is willing to get up early enough in the
morning and who has a flock of turkeys at hand. Miss Ada Georgia
made a pilgrimage to witness this dance and she describes it thus:
“While the dawn was still faint and gray, the long row of birds on
the ridge-pole stood up, stretched legs and wings and flew down into
the orchard beside the barnyard and began a curious, high-stepping,
‘flip-flop’ dance on the frosty grass. It consisted of little,
awkward, up-and-down jumps, varied by forward springs of about a
foot, with lifted wings. Both hens and males danced, the latter
alternately strutting and hopping and all ‘singing,’ the hens calling
‘Quit, quit,’ the males accompanying with a high-keyed rattle,
sounding like a hard wood stick drawn rapidly along a picket fence.
As the sun came up and the sky brightened, the exhibition ended
suddenly when ‘The Captain,’ a great thirty pound gobbler and leader
of the flock, made a rush at one of his younger brethren who had
dared to be spreading a tail too near to his majesty.”
The bronze breed resembles most closely our native wild turkey and
is therefore chosen for this lesson. The colors and markings of the
plumage form the bronze turkey’s chief beauty. From the skin of the
neck, reaching half way to the middle of the back is a collar of
glittering bronze with greenish and purple iridescence, each feather
tipped with a narrow jet band. The remainder of the back is black
except that each feather is edged with bronze. The breast is like the
collar and at its center is a tassel of black bristles called the
beard which hangs limply downward when the birds are feeding; but
when the gobbler stiffens his muscles to strut, this beard is thrust
proudly forth. Occasionally the hen turkeys have a beard. The long
quills, or primaries, of the wings are barred across with bands of
black and white; the secondaries are very dark, luminous brown, with
narrower bars of white. Each feather of the fan-shaped tail is banded
with black and brown and ends with a black bar tipped with white;
the tail coverts are lighter brown but also have the black margin
edged with white. The colors of the hen are like those of the gobbler
except that the bronze brilliance of breast, neck and wings is dimmed
by the faint line of white which tips each feather.
The heads of all are covered with a warty wrinkled skin, bluish white
on the crown, grayish blue about the eyes, and the other parts red.
Beneath the throat is a hanging fold called the wattle, and above the
beak a fleshy pointed knob called the caruncle, which on the gobbler
is prolonged so that it hangs over and below the beak. When the bird
is angry these carunculated parts swell and grow more vivid in color,
seeming to be gorged with blood. The color of the skin about the head
is more extensive and brilliant in the gobblers than in the hens. The
beak is slightly curved, short, stout, and sharp-pointed, yellowish
at the tip and dark at the base.
The eyes are bright, dark hazel with a thin red line of iris. Just
back of the eye is the ear, seemingly a mere hole, and yet it leads
to a very efficient ear, upon which every smallest sound impinges.
The legs of the young turkeys are nearly black, fading to a brownish
gray when mature. The legs and feet are large and stout, the middle
toe of the three front ones being nearly twice the length of the one
on either side; the hind toe is the shortest of the four. On the
inner side of the gobbler’s legs, about one-third the bare space
above the foot, is a wicked looking spur which is a most effective
weapon. The wings are large and powerful; the turkey flies well for
such a large bird and usually roosts high, choosing trees or the
ridge-pole of the barn for this purpose.
In many ways the turkeys are not more than half domesticated. They
insistently prefer to spend their nights out of doors instead of
under a roof. They are also great wanderers and thrive best when
allowed to forage in the fields and woods for a part of their food.
The gobbler is the most vainglorious bird known to us; when he struts
to show his flock of admiring hens how beautiful he is, he lowers his
wings and spreads the stiff primary quills until their tips scrape
the ground, lifting meanwhile into a semi-circular fan his beautiful
tail feathers; he protrudes his chest, raises the iridescent plumage
of his neck like a ruff to make a background against which he throws
back his red, white and blue decorated head. He moves forward
with slow and mincing steps and calls attention to his grandeur
by a series of most aggressive “gobbles.” But we must say for the
gobbler that although he is vain he is also a brave fighter. When
beginning a fight he advances with wings lowered and sidewise as
if guarding his body with the spread wing. The neck and the sharp
beak are outstretched and he makes the attack so suddenly, that it
is impossible to see whether he strikes with both wing and beak or
only with the latter, as with fury he pounces upon his adversary
apparently striving to rip his neck open with his spurs.
Turkey hens usually begin to lay in April in this latitude and much
earlier in more southern states. At nesting time each turkey hen
strays off alone, seeking the most secluded spot she can find to lay
the large, oval, brown-speckled eggs. Silent and sly, she slips away
to the place daily, by the most round-about ways, and never moving in
the direction of the nest when she thinks herself observed. Sometimes
the sight of any person near her nest will cause her to desert it.
The writer has spent many hours when a child, sneaking in fence
corners and behind stumps and tree trunks, stalking turkeys’ nests.
Incubation takes four weeks. The female is a most persistent sitter
and care should be taken to see that she gets a good supply of food
and water at this time. Good sound corn or wheat is the best food for
her at this period. When sitting she is very cross and will fight
most courageously when molested on her nest.
Turkey nestlings are rather large, with long, bare legs and scrawny
thin necks, and they are very delicate during the first six weeks
of their lives. Their call is a plaintive “peep, weep,” and when a
little turkey feels lost its cry is expressive of great fear and
misery. But if the mother is freely ranging she does not seem to be
much affected by the needs of her brood; she will fight savagely for
them if they are near her, but if they stray, and they usually do,
she does not seem to miss or hunt for them, but strides serenely
on her way, keeping up a constant crooning “kr-rit, kr-rit,” to
encourage them to follow. As a consequence, the chicks are lost or
get draggled and chilled by struggling through wet grass and leaves,
that are no obstacle to the mother’s strong legs, and thus many die.
If the mother is confined in a coop it should be so large and roomy
that she can move about without trampling on the chicks, and it
should have a dry floor since dampness is fatal to the little ones.
For the first week the chicks should be fed five times a day, and
for the next five weeks they should have three meals a day. They
should be given only just about enough to fill each little crop and
none left over to be trodden under their awkward little feet. Their
quarters should be kept clean and free from vermin.
LESSON XXXIV
TURKEYS
_Leading thought_--The turkey is a native of America. It was
introduced into Spain from Mexico in about 1518, and since then
has been domesticated. However, there are still in some parts of
the country flocks of wild turkeys. It is a beautiful bird and has
interesting habits.
_Method_--If the pupils could visit a flock of turkeys the lesson
would be given to a better advantage. If this is impossible, ask the
questions a few at a time and let those pupils who have opportunities
for observing the turkeys give their answers before the class.
_Observations_--1. Of what breed are the turkeys you are studying,
Bronze, Black, Buff, White Holland or Narragansett?
2. What is the general shape and size of the turkey? Describe its
plumage, noting every color which you can see in it. Does the plumage
of the hen turkey differ from that of the gobbler?
3. What is the covering of the head of the turkey, what is its color
and how far does it extend down the neck of the bird? Is it always
the same color, and if not, what causes the change? Is the head
covering alike in shape and size on the male and the female? What is
the part called that hangs from the front of the throat below the
beak? From above the beak?
4. What is the color of the beak? Is it short or long, straight or
curved? Where are the nostrils situated?
5. What is the color of the turkey’s eyes? Do you think it is a
keen-sighted bird?
6. Where are the ears? Do they show as plainly as a chicken’s ears
do? Are turkeys quick of hearing?
7. Do turkeys scratch like hens? Are they good runners? Describe the
feet and legs as to shape, size and color. Has the male a spur on his
legs, and if so, where is it situated? For what is it used?
8. Can turkeys fly well? Are the wings small or comparatively large
and strong for the weight of the body? Do turkeys prefer high or low
places for perching when they sleep? Is it well to house and confine
them in small buildings and parks as is done with other fowls?
9. Tell, as nearly as you can discover by close observation, how the
gobbler sets each part of his plumage when he is “showing off” or
strutting. What do you think is the bird’s purpose in thus exhibiting
his fine feathers? Does the “King of the flock” permit any such
action by other “gobblers” in his company?
10. Are turkeys timid and cowardly or independent and brave, ready
to meet and fight anything which they think is threatening to their
comfort and safety?
11. When turkeys fight, what parts of their bodies seem to be used
as weapons? Does the male “gobble” during a fight, or only as a
challenge or in triumph when victorious? Do the hen turkeys ever
fight, or only the males?
12. How early in the spring does the turkey hen begin to lay? Does
she nest about the poultry yard and the barns or is she likely to
seek some secret and distant spot where she may hide her eggs?
Describe the turkey’s egg, as well as you can, as to color, shape and
size. Can one tell it by the taste from an ordinary hen’s egg? About
how many eggs does the turkey hen lay in her nest before she begins
to “get broody” and want to sit?
13. How many days of incubation are required to hatch the turkey
chick? Is it as downy and pretty as other little chicks? How often
should the young chicks be fed, and what food do you think is best
for them? Are turkey chicks as hardy as other chicks?
14. Is the turkey hen generally a good mother? Is she cross or gentle
when sitting and when brooding her young? Is it possible to keep the
mother turkey as closely confined with her brood as it is with the
mother hen? What supplies should be given to her in the way of food,
grits, dust-baths, etc.?
_Supplementary reading_--Birds that Hunt and are Hunted, Blanchan.
LESSON XXXV
THE STUDY OF BIRDS’ NESTS IN WINTER
There are very good reasons for not studying birds’ nests in summer,
since too much familiarity on the part of eager children is something
the birds do not understand and are likely, in consequence, to
abandon both nest and locality. But after the birds have gone to
sunnier climes and the empty nests are the only mementos we have of
them, then we may study these habitations carefully and learn how to
properly appreciate the small architects which made them. I think
that every one of us who carefully examines the way that a nest is
made must have a feeling of respect for its clever little builder.
I know of certain schools where the children make large collections
of these winter nests, properly labelling each, and thus gaining
a new interest in the bird life of their locality. A nest when
collected should be labelled in the following manner:
Name of the bird which built the nest.
Where the nest was found.
If in a tree, what kind?
How high from the ground?
Bird Homes, by A. R. Dugmore is a book which affords practical help
in determining the species of birds which made the nests.
After a collection of nests has been made let the pupils study them
according to the following outline:
1. Where was the nest found?
a. If on the ground, describe the locality.
b. If on a plant, tree or shrub, tell the species, if possible.
c. If on a tree, tell where it was on a branch, in a fork, or
hanging by the end of the twigs.
d. How high from the ground, and what was the locality?
e. If on or in a building, how situated?
2. Did the nest have any arrangement to protect it from rain?
3. Give the size of the nest, the diameter of the inside and the
outside; also the depth of the inside.
4. What is the form of the nest? Are its sides flaring or straight?
Is the nest shaped like a cup, basket or pocket?
5. What materials compose the outside of the nest and how are they
arranged?
6. Of what materials is the lining made, and how are they arranged?
If hair or feathers are used, on what creature did they grow?
7. How are the materials of the nest held together, that is, are they
woven, plastered, or held in place by environment?
8. Had the nest anything peculiar about it either in situation,
construction or material that would tend to render it invisible to
the casual glance?
[Illustration: “_Noon time and June time down around the river._”]
II. FISH STUDY
“_It remains yet unresolved whether the happiness of a man
in this world doth consist more in contemplation or action.
Concerning which two opinions I shall forebear to add a third
by declaring my own, and rest myself contented in telling
you that both of these meet together, and do most properly
belong to the most honest, ingenious, quiet and harmless art
of angling. And first I tell you what some have observed, and
I have found to be a real truth, that the very sitting by
the riverside is not only the quietest and the fittest place
for contemplation, but will invite an angler to it._”
--ISAAK WALTON.
[Illustration: D]
Dear, human, old Isaak Walton discovered that nature-study, fishing,
and philosophy were akin and as inevitably related as the three
angles of a triangle. And yet it is surprising how little the fish
have been used as subjects for nature lessons. Every brook and pond
is a treasure to the teacher who will find what there is in it and
who knows what may be gotten out of it.
Luckily there are some very good books on fishes which will assist
materially in making the fish lessons interesting: Fishes, by David
Starr Jordan, is a magnificent popular work in two volumes; American
Food and Game Fishes, by Jordan and Evermann, is one of the volumes
of the valuable Nature Library. While for supplementary reading the
following will prove instructive and entertaining: The Story of the
Fishes, Baskett; Fish Stories, by Holder and Jordan; “The Story of
a Salmon,” in Science Sketches, by Jordan; Neighbors with Wings and
Fins, Johonnot; Half Hours with Fishes, Reptiles and Birds, Holder.
Almost any of the fishes found in brook or pond may be kept in an
aquarium for a few days of observation in the schoolroom. A water
pail or bucket does very well if there is no glass aquarium. The
water should be changed every day and at least once a day it should
be aerated by dipping it up and pouring it back from some distance
above. The practice should be established, once for all, of putting
these finny prisoners back into the brook after they have been
studied.
THE GOLDFISH
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: O]
Once upon a time, if stories are true, there lived a king called
Midas, whose touch turned everything to gold. Whenever I see
goldfish, I wonder if, perhaps, King Midas were not a Chinese and
if he perchance did not handle some of the little fish in Orient
streams. But common man has learned a magic as wonderful as that
of King Midas, although it does not act so immediately, for it is
through his agency in selecting and breeding that we have gained
these exquisite fish for our aquaria. In the streams of China the
goldfish, which were the ancestors of these effulgent creatures, wore
safe green colors like the shiners in our brooks; and if any goldfish
escape from our fountains and run wild, their progeny return to their
native olive-green color. There are many such dull-colored goldfish
in the Delaware and Potomac and other eastern rivers. It is almost
inconceivable that one of the brilliant colored fishes, if it chanced
to escape into our ponds, should escape the fate of being eaten by
some larger fish attracted by such glittering bait.
The goldfish, as we see it in the aquarium, is brilliant orange
above and pale lemon-yellow below; there are many specimens that
are adorned with black patches. And as if this fish were bound to
imitate the precious metals, there are individuals which are silver
instead of gold: they are oxydized silver above and polished silver
below. The goldfish are closely related to the carp and can live in
waters that are stale. However, the water in the aquarium should be
changed at least twice a week to keep it clear. Goldfish should not
be fed too lavishly. An inch square of one of the sheets of prepared
fish food, we have found a fair daily ration for five medium sized
fish; these fish are more likely to die from overfeeding than from
starving. Goldfish are naturally long-lived; Miss Ada Georgia has
kept them until seven years old in a school aquarium; and there is on
record one goldfish that lived nine years.
Too often the wonderful common things are never noticed because of
their commonness; and there is no better instance of this than the
form and movements of a fish. It is an animal in many ways similar to
animals that live on land; but its form and structure are such that
it is perfectly adapted to live in water all its life; there are none
of the true fishes which live portions of their lives on land as do
the frogs. The first peculiarity of the fish is its shape. Looked
at from above, the broader part of the body is near the front end
which is rounded or pointed so as to cut the water readily. The long,
narrow, hind portion of the body with the tail acts as a propeller.
Seen from the side, the body is a smooth, graceful oval and this form
is especially adapted to move through the water swiftly, as can be
demonstrated to the pupil by cutting a model of the fish from wood
and trying to move it through the water sidewise.
[Illustration:
_Goldfish with the parts named._
This figure should be copied on the blackboard for reference.]
Normally, the fish has seven fins, one along the back called the
dorsal, one at the end of the tail called the tail or caudal fin,
one beneath the rear end of the body called the anal, a pair on the
lower side of the body called the ventrals, and a pair just back of
the gill openings called the pectorals. All these fins play their
own parts in the movements of the fish. The dorsal fin is usually
higher in front than behind and can be lifted or shut down like a
fan. This fin when it is lifted gives the fish greater height and it
can be twisted to one side or the other and thus be made a factor in
steering. The anal fin on the lower side acts in a similar manner.
The tail fin is the propeller and sends the body forward by pressing
backward on the water, first on one side and then on the other,
being used like a scull. The tail fin varies in shape very much in
different species. In the goldfish it is fanlike, with a deeply
notched hind edge, but in some it is rounded or square.
The paired fins correspond anatomically to our arms and legs, the
pectorals representing the arms, the ventrals the legs. Fins are made
up of rays, as the bony rods are called which support the membrane;
these rays are of two kinds, those which are soft, flexible, many
jointed and usually branched at the tip; and those which are bony,
not jointed and which are usually stiff spines. When the spines are
present in a fin they precede the soft rays.
Fishes’ eyes have no eyelid but the eyeball is movable, and
this often gives the impression that the fish winks. Fishes are
necessarily near-sighted since the lens of the eye has to be
spherical in order to see in the water. The sense of smell is located
in a little sac to which the nostril leads; the nostrils are small
and often partitioned and may be seen on either side of the snout.
The nostrils have no connection whatever with breathing, in the fish.
The tongue of the fish is very bony or bristly and immovable. There
is very little sense of taste developed in it. The shape, number
and position of the teeth vary according to the food habits of the
fish. The commonest type of teeth are fine, sharp and short and are
arranged in pads, as seen in the bullhead. Some fish have blunt teeth
suitable for crushing shells. Herbivorous fishes have sharp teeth
with serrated edges, while those living upon crabs and snails have
incisor-like teeth. In some specimens we find several types of teeth,
in others the teeth may be entirely absent. The teeth are borne not
only on the jaws but also in the roof of the mouth, on the tongue and
in the throat.
The ear of the fish has neither outside form nor opening and is very
imperfect in comparison with that of man. Extending along the sides
of the body from head to tail is a line of modified scales containing
small tubes connecting with nerves; this is called the lateral line
and it is believed that it is in some way connected with the fish’s
senses, perhaps with the sense of hearing.
Since fishes must push through water, which is more difficult than
moving through air, they need to have the body well protected. This
protection is, in most fishes, in the form of an armor of scales
which are smooth and allow the body to pass through the water with
little friction. These scales overlap like shingles in a roof and
are all directed backward. The study of the fish scale shows that it
grows in layers.
In order to understand how the fish breathes we must examine its
gills. In front, just above the entrance to the gullet are several
bony ridges which bear two rows of pinkish fringes; these are the
gill arches and the fringes are the gills. The gills are filled with
tiny blood vessels, and as the water passes over them, the impurities
of the blood pass out through the thin skin of the gills and the
life-giving oxygen passes in. Since fish cannot make use of air
unless it is dissolved in water, it is very important that the water
in the aquarium jar should often be replenished. The gill arches also
bear a series of bony processes called gill-rakers. Their function
is to prevent the escape of food through the gills while it is being
swallowed, and they vary in size according to the food habits of the
fish. We note that the fish in the aquarium constantly opens and
closes the mouth; this action draws the water into the throat and
forces it out over the gills and through the gill openings; this
then, is the act of breathing.
LESSON XXXVI
A STUDY OF THE FISH
_Leading thought_--A fish lives in the water where it must breathe,
move and find its food. The water world is quite different from the
air world and the fish have developed forms, senses and habits which
fit them for life in the water.
_Method_--The goldfish is used as a subject for this lesson because
it is so conveniently kept where the children may see it. However, a
shiner or minnow would do as well.
Before the pupils begin the study, place the diagram shown on p. 150
on the blackboard, with all the parts labelled; thus the pupils will
be able to learn the parts of the fish by consulting it, and not be
compelled to commit them to memory arbitrarily. It would be well to
associate the goldfish with a geography lesson on China.
_Observations_--1. Where do fishes live? Do any fishes ever live any
part of their lives on land like the frogs? Could a salt-water fish
live in fresh water, or vice versa?
2. What is the shape of a fish when seen from above? Where is the
widest part? What is its shape seen from the side? Think if you can
in how many ways the shape of the fish is adapted for moving swiftly
through the water.
3. How many fins has the fish? Make a sketch of the goldfish with all
its fins and name them from the diagram on the blackboard.
4. How many fins are there in all? Four of these fins are in pairs;
where are they situated? What are they called? Which pair corresponds
to our arms? Which to our legs?
5. Describe the pectoral fins. How are they used? Are they kept
constantly moving? Do they move together or alternately? How are they
used when the fish swims backwards?
6. How are the ventral fins used? How do they assist the fish when
swimming?
7. Sketch a dorsal fin. How many spines has it? How many soft rays
are there in it? What is the difference in structure between the
stiff spines in the front of the dorsal fin and the rays in the hind
portion? Of what use to the fish are these two different kinds of fin
supports?
8. Sketch the anal fin. Has it any spines in front? How many rays has
it? How is this fin used when the fish is swimming?
9. With what fin does the fish push itself through the water? Make a
sketch of the tail. Note if it is square, rounded, or notched at the
end. Are the rays of the tail fin spiny or soft in character?
10. Watch the goldfish swim and describe the action of all the fins
while it is in motion. In what position are the fins when the fish is
at rest?
11. What is the nature of the covering of the fish? Are the scales
large or small? In which direction do they seem to overlap? Of what
use to the fish is this scaly covering?
12. Can you see a line which extends from the upper part of the gill
opening, along the side to the tail? This is called the lateral line.
Do you think it is of any use to the fish?
13. Note carefully the eyes of the fish. Describe the pupil and the
iris. Are the eyes placed so that the fish can see in all directions?
Can they be moved so as to see better in any direction? Does the fish
wink? Has it any eyelids? Do you know why fish are near-sighted?
14. Can you see the nostrils? Is there a little wartlike projection
connected with the nostril? Do you think fishes breathe through their
nostrils?
15. Describe the mouth of the fish. Does it open upward, downward, or
directly in front? What sort of teeth have fish? How does the fish
catch its prey? Does the lower or upper jaw move in the process of
eating?
16. Is the mouth kept always in motion? Do you think the fish is
swallowing water all the time? Do you know why it does this? Can you
see a wide opening along the sides of the head behind the gill cover?
Does the gill cover move with the movement of the mouth? How does a
fish breathe?
17. What are the colors of the goldfish above and below? What would
happen to our beautiful goldfish if they were put in a brook with
other fish? Why could they not hide? Do you know what happens to the
colors of the goldfish when they run wild in our streams and ponds?
18. Can you find in books or cyclopedias where the goldfish came
from? Are they gold and silver in color in the streams where they
are native? Do you think that they had originally the long, slender,
swallow tails which we see sometimes in goldfish? How have the
beautiful colors and graceful forms of the gold and silver fishes
been developed?
* * * * *
“_I have my world, and so have you,
A tiny universe for two,
A bubble by the artist blown,
Scarcely more fragile than our own,
Where you have all a whale could wish,
Happy as Eden’s primal fish.
Manna is dropt you thrice a day
From some kind heaven not far away,
And still you snatch its softening crumbs,
Nor, more than we, think whence it comes.
No toil seems yours but to explore
Your cloistered realm from shore to shore;
Sometimes you trace its limits round,
Sometimes its limpid depths you sound,
Or hover motionless midway,
Like gold-red clouds at set of day;
Erelong you whirl with sudden whim
Off to your globe’s most distant rim,
Where, greatened by the watery lens,
Methinks no dragon of the fens
Flashed huger scales against the sky,
Roused by Sir Bevis or Sir Guy;
And the one eye that meets my view,
Lidless and strangely largening, too,
Like that of conscience in the dark,
Seems to make me its single mark.
What a benignant lot is yours
That have an own All-out-of-doors,
No words to spell, no sums to do,
No Nepos and no parlyvoo!
How happy you, without a thought
Of such cross things as Must and Ought--
I too the happiest of boys
To see and share your golden joys!_”
--“THE ORACLE OF THE GOLDFISHES,” LOWELL.
[Illustration: _Bullhead at bottom of a pond._
Photo by Verne Morton.]
THE BULLHEAD
_Teacher’s Story_
“_The bull-head does usually dwell and hide himself in holes
or amongst stones in clear water; and in very hot days will
lie a long time very still and sun himself and will be easy
to be seen on any flat stone or gravel; at which time he will
suffer an angler to put a hook baited with a small worm very
near into his mouth; and he never refuses to bite, nor indeed,
to be caught with the worst of anglers._”--ISAAK WALTON.
[Illustration: W]
When one looks a bullhead in the face one is glad that it is not a
real bull for its barbels give it an appearance quite fit for the
making of a nightmare; and yet from the standpoint of the bullhead,
how truly beautiful those fleshy feelers are! For without them how
could it feel its way about searching for food in the mud where it
lives? Two of these barbels stand straight up; the two largest ones
stand out on each side of the mouth, and two pairs of short ones
adorn the lower lip, the smallest pair at the middle.
As the fish moves about, it is easy to see that the large barbels at
the side of the mouth are of the greatest use; it keeps them in a
constantly advancing movement, feeling of everything it meets. The
upper ones stand straight up, keeping watch for whatever news there
may be from above; the two lower ones spread apart and follow rather
than precede the fish, seeming to test what lies below. The upper
and lower pairs seem to test things as they are, while the large
side pair deal with what is going to be. The broad mouth seems to be
formed for taking in all things eatable, for the bullhead lives on
almost anything alive or dead that it discovers as it noses about
in the mud. Nevertheless, it has its notions about its food for I
have repeatedly seen one draw material into its mouth through its
breathing motion and then spew it out with a vehemence one would
hardly expect from such a phlegmatic fish.
Although it has feelers which are very efficient, it also has
perfectly good eyes which it uses to excellent purpose; note how
promptly it moves to the other side of the aquarium when we are
trying to study it. The eyes are not large; the pupils are black
and oval and are rimmed with a narrow band of shiny pale yellow.
The eyes are prominent so that when moved backward and forward they
gain a view of the enemy in the rear or at the front while the head
is motionless. It seems strange to see such a pair of pale yellow,
almost white eyes in such a dark body.
The general shape of the front part of the body is flat, in fact, it
is decidedly polywogy; this shape is especially fitted for groping
about muddy bottoms. The flat effect of the body is emphasized by the
gill covers opening below rather than at the sides, every pulsation
widening the broad neck. The pectoral fins also open out on the
same plane as the body although they can be turned at an angle if
necessary; they are thick and fleshy and the sharp tips of their
spines offer punishment to whomsoever touches them. The dorsal fin
is far forward and not large; it is usually raised at a threatening
angle.
There is a little fleshy dorsal fin near the tail which stands in
line with the body and one wonders what is its special use. The
ventral fins are small. The anal fin is far back and rather strong,
and this with the long, strong tail gives the fish good motor power
and it can swim very rapidly if occasion requires.
[Illustration: _Bullhead guarding his nest._
After Gill.]
The bullhead is mud-colored and has no scales; and since it lives
in the mud, it does not need scales to protect it; but because of
its scaleless condition it is a constant victim of the lampreys, and
it would do well, indeed, if it could develop an armor of scales
against this parasite. The skin is very thick and leathery so that
it is always removed before the fish is cooked. The bullhead is the
earliest fish of the spring. This is probably because it burrows
deep into the mud in the fall and remains there all winter; when the
spring freshets come, it emerges and is hungry for fresh meat.
The family life of the bullheads and other catfishes seems to be
quite ideal. Dr. Theodore Gill tells us that bullheads make their
nests by removing stones and gravel from a more or less irregularly
circular area in shallow water, and on sandy or gravelly ground. The
nest is somewhat excavated, both parents removing the pebbles by
sucking them into the mouth and carrying them off for some distance.
After the eggs are laid, the male watches over and guards the nest
and seems to have great family responsibilities. He is the more
active of the two in stirring and mixing the young fry after they
are hatched. Smith and Harron describe the process thus: “With their
chins on the bottom, the old fish brush the corners where the fry
were banked, and with the barbels all directed forward, and flexed
where they touch the bottom, thoroughly agitate the mass of fry,
bringing the deepest individuals to the surface. This act is usually
repeated several times in quick succession.”
“The nests are usually made beneath logs or other protecting objects
and in shallow water. The paternal care is continued for many days
after the birth of the young. At first these may be crowded together
in a dense mass, but as time passes they disperse more and more and
spread around the father. Frequently, especially when the old one is
feeding, some--one or more--of the young are taken into the mouth,
but they are instinctively separated from the food and spit out.
At last the young swarm venture farther from their birthplace, or
perhaps they are led away by their parents.”
LESSON XXXVII
THE BULLHEAD, OR HORNED POUT
_Leading thought_--The bullhead lives in mud bottoms of streams and
ponds and is particularly adapted for life in such locations.
_Method_--A small bullhead may be placed in a small aquarium jar.
At first let the water be clear and add a little pond weed so as to
observe the natural tendency of the fish to hide. Later add mud and
gravel to the aquarium and note the behavior of the fish.
_Observations_--1. What at the first glance distinguishes the
bullhead from other fish? Describe these strange “whiskers” growing
about the mouth; how many are there and where are they situated?
Which are the longest pair? Can the fish move them in any direction
at will?
2. Where do we find bullheads? On what do they feed? Would their eyes
help them to find their food in the mud? How do they find it?
3. Explain, if you can, why the bullhead has barbels, or feelers,
while the trout and bass have none.
4. What is the shape of the bullhead’s mouth?
5. What is the general shape of the body? What is its color? Has it
any scales?
6. Why should the bullhead be so flat horizontally while the sunfish
is so flat in the opposite direction?
7. Describe the bullhead’s eyes. Are they large? What is their color?
Where are they placed?
8. Describe the dorsal fin, giving its comparative size and position.
Do you see another dorsal fin? Where is this peculiar fin and how
does it differ from the others?
9. Describe the tail fin. Does it seem long and strong? Is the
bullhead a good swimmer?
10. Is the anal fin large or small as compared with that of the
goldfish?
11. How do the pectoral fins move as compared with those of the
sunfish? Why is the position of the pectoral and dorsal fins of
benefit to this fish?
12. How does the bullhead inflict wounds when it is handled? Tell how
these spines protect it from its natural enemies.
13. When is the best season for fishing for bullheads? Does the place
where they are found affect the flavor of their flesh? Why?
14. What is the spawning season? Do you know about the nests the
bullheads build and the care they give their young?
15. Write an essay on the nest-making habits of the bullheads and the
care given the young by the parents.
* * * * *
“_And what fish will the natural boy naturally take? In
America, there is but one fish which enters fully into the
spirit of the occasion. It is a fish of many species according
to the part of the country, and of as many sizes as there
are sizes of boys. This fish is the horned pout, and all the
rest of the species of Ameiurus. Horned pout is its Boston
name. Bullhead is good enough for New York; and for the rest
of the country, big and little, all the fishes of this tribe
are called catfish. A catfish is a jolly blundering sort of
a fish, a regular Falstaff of the ponds. It has a fat jowl,
and a fat belly, which it is always trying to fill. Smooth
and sleek, its skin is almost human in its delicacy. It wears
a long mustache, with scattering whiskers of other sort.
Meanwhile it always goes armed with a sword, three swords, and
these it has always on hand, always ready for a struggle on
land as well as in the water. The small boy often gets badly
stuck on these poisoned daggers, but, as the fish knows how to
set them by a muscular twist, the small boy learns how, by a
like untwist, he may unset and leave them harmless._”
“_The catfish lives in sluggish waters. It loves the millpond
best of all, and it has no foolish dread of hooks when it
goes forth to bite. Its mouth is wide. It swallows the hook,
and very soon it is in the air, its white throat gasping in
the untried element. Soon it joins its fellows on the forked
stick, and even then, uncomfortable as it may find its new
relations, it never loses sight of the humor of the occasion.
Its large head and expansive forehead betoken a large mind.
It is the only fish whose brain contains a Sylvian fissure,
a piling up of tissue consequent on the abundance of gray
matter. So it understands and makes no complaint. After it has
dried in the sun for an hour, pour a little water over its
gills, and it will wag its tail, and squeak with gratitude.
And the best of all is, there are horned pouts enough to go
around._”
“_The female horned pout lays thousands of eggs, and when
these hatch, she goes about near the shore with her school of
little fishes, like a hen with myriad chicks. She should be
respected and let alone, for on her success in rearing this
breed of “bullying little rangers” depends the sport of the
small boy of the future._”
--DAVID STARR JORDAN, IN FISH STORIES.
[Illustration: _Fishing for suckers._
Photo by Verne Morton.]
THE COMMON SUCKER
_Teacher’s Story_
[Illustration: H]
He who loves to peer down into the depths of still waters, often sees
upon the sandy, muddy or rocky bottom several long, wedge-shaped
sticks lying at various angles one to another. But if he thrust down
a real stick, behold, these inert, water-logged sticks move off
deftly! And then he knows that they are suckers. He may drop a hook
baited with a worm in front of the nose of one, and if he waits long
enough before he pulls up he may catch this fish, not by its gills
but by the pit of its stomach; for it not only swallows the hook
completely but tries to digest it along with the worm. Its food is
made up of soft-bodied insects and other small water creatures; it
is also a mud eater and manages to make a digestive selection from
the organic material of silt. For this latter reason, it is not a
desirable food fish although its flesh varies in flavor with the
locality where it is found. The suckers taken along the rocky shores
of Cayuga Lake are fairly palatable, while those taken in the mud of
the Cayuga Inlet are very inferior in flavor and often uneatable.
Seen from above, the sucker is wedge-shaped, being widest at
the eyes; seen from the side it has a flat lower surface and an
ungracefully rounded contour above which tapers only slightly toward
the tail. The profile of the face gives the impression of a Roman
nose. The young specimens have an irregular scale-mosaic pattern of
olive-green blotches on a paler ground color, while the old ones are
quite brown above and on the sides. The suckers differ from most
other fishes in having the markings of the back extend down the sides
almost to the belly. This is a help in concealing the fish, since its
sides show from above quite as distinctly as its back because of its
peculiar form. The scales are rather large and are noticeably larger
behind than in the region of the head. Like other fish it is white
below.
The dorsal fin is placed about midway the length of the fish as
measured from nose to tail. It is not large and appears to have
twelve rays; but there is a short spine in front and a delicate soft
ray behind so that it really has fourteen. The tail is long and
strong and deeply notched: the anal fin extends back to where the
tail begins. The ventral fins are small and are directly opposite
the hind half of the dorsal fin. The pectorals are not large but are
strong and are placed low down. The sucker has not a lavish equipment
of fins but its tail is strong and it can swim swiftly; it is also a
tremendous jumper; it will jump from the aquarium more successfully
than any other fish. When resting on the bottom, it is supported by
its extended pectoral and ventral fins, which are strong although not
large.
The eyes are fairly large but the iris is not shiny; they are placed
so that the fish can easily see above it as well as at the sides; the
eyes move so as to look up or down and are very well adapted to serve
a fish that lives upon the bottom. The nostrils are divided, the
partition projecting until it seems a tubercle on the face. The mouth
opens below and looks like the puckered opening of a bag. The lips
are thick but are very sensitive; it is by projecting these lips, in
a way that reminds one of a very short elephant’s trunk, that it is
enabled to reach and find its food in the mud or gravel; so although
the sucker’s mouth is not a beautiful feature, it is doubly useful.
The sucker has the habit of remaining motionless for long periods of
time. It breathes very slowly and appears sluggish; it never seizes
its food with any spirit but simply slowly engulfs it; and for this
reason it is considered poor game. It is only in the spring when they
may be speared through the ice that there is any fun in catching
suckers; it is at this season of the year that they move to shallow
water to spawn; those in the lakes move to the rivers, those in the
rivers to the creeks, those in the creeks to the brooks. Even so
lowly a creature as the sucker seems to respond to influences of the
springtime, for at that period the male has a faint rosy stripe along
his sides. In the winter these fish burrow in the mud of the river or
pond bottoms; they may be frozen and thawed without harming them.
There are many species of suckers and they vary in size from six
inches to three feet in length. They inhabit all sorts of waters, but
they do not like a strong current and are, therefore, found in still
pools. The common sucker (_Catostomus commersoni_), which is the
subject of this lesson, sometimes attains the length of twenty-two
inches and the weight of five pounds. The ones under observation
were about eight inches long, and proved to be the acrobats of the
aquarium, since they were likely at any moment to jump out; several
times I found one languishing on the floor.
LESSON XXXVIII
THE COMMON SUCKER
_Leading thought_--The sucker is especially adapted by shape for
lying on the bottom of ponds under still water where its food is
abundant.
_Method_--If still water pools along river or lakesides are
accessible, it is far more interesting to study a sucker in its
native haunts, as an introduction to the study of its form and colors
when it is in the aquarium.
_Observations_--1. Where do you find suckers? How do you catch them?
Do they take the hook quickly? What is the natural food of the sucker?
2. What is the shape of this fish’s body when seen from above? From
the side? What is the color above? On the sides? Below? Does the
sucker differ from most other fishes in the coloring along its sides?
What is the reason for this? What do suckers look like on the bottom
of the pond? Are they easily seen?