putrid Kind, and must be treated as such.
In all Countries, and in all Climates, great Care ought to be taken in
chusing the Ground on which Men are to encamp. Dry high Grounds,
exposed to the Winds, where there is a free Current of Air, and which
lie at a Distance from Marshes, stagnating Water, and large Woods, are
generally healthful in very different Climates[134]. But Places
situated low, where, on digging two or three Feet below the Surface of
the Earth, you come to Water[135], and marshy Grounds, and Places
surrounded with corrupt stagnating Water, are almost always the
contrary, and very unhealthful; as are often those Grounds which are
subject to be overflowed by large Rivers, and low Places covered with
Wood, where there is no free Circulation of Air. However, it ought to
be observed, that it is not the Neighbourhood of Water alone which is
prejudicial, but the watery Vapours which keep the Air perpetually
moist, and the Exhalations of corrupt Effluvia, which render such
Places unwholesome; for the Neighbourhood of Rivers, and of the Sea,
where the Tide ebbs and flows freely, has no such Effect, where the
Situation is dry and airy; and those very unhealthy marshy Grounds
often continue healthy in cold Weather, when their Waters are
refreshed with Rains[136], and little or no moist putrid Exhalations
rise from them; though, as Dr. _Pringle_ observes, in Summer and
Autumn, when their Waters begin to corrupt, and the Exhalation is
strong, they are always exposed to Diseases; and it is for this
Reason that such Places are always very unhealthy in warm Climates.
[134] Mr. _du Hamel_ says, that the Air of the Island of _St.
Domingo_ is very fatal to _Europeans_; but it is observed
that those People who inhabit the rising Grounds are much
less exposed to Diseases than those who live in the Vallies.
_Sur la santé des Equipages_, art. i. p. 16.
[135] Ground may seem very dry and healthful, and yet be
quite the contrary, as Dr. _Pringle_ remarks is the Case in
the Neighbourhood of _Bois le Duc_, in _Flanders_, where
Water is found every where at the Depth of two or three Feet
from the Surface.
[136] Mr. _du Hamel_ remarks, that Places which were formerly
very subject to Diseases have become healthful when the Water
which surrounded them was refreshed by opening a
Communication with the Sea. _Ibid._ art. i. p. 18.
Hence, where the military Operations will permit, Commanders, if
possible, ought to chuse a dry Ground, whose Situation is high, and
which admits a free Current of Air, such as on the Banks of Rivers,
where there is generally a Stream of fresh Air, and Plenty of fresh
Water to supply the Camp[137]; taking Care to avoid the Neighbourhood
of low marshy Grounds, and corrupt stagnating Waters, especially in
Summer, and in hot Climates.
[137] Dr. _Pringle_ observes, that where Grounds are equally
dry, that the Camps are always most healthful on the Banks of
large Rivers; because in the hot Season Situations of this
Kind have a Stream of fresh Air from the Water, tending to
carry off both the moist and putrid Exhalations.--And in
Cantonments we are not only to seek Villages removed from
marshy Grounds, but such as are least choaked with
Plantations, and stand highest above subterraneous Water. See
his _Observat. on Diseases of the Army_, 3d edit. p. 99.
When Necessity obliges Commanders to take Post, or encamp in a wet or
marshy Ground, they should endeavour to make it as dry as possible, by
ordering Trenches to be cut for Drains across the Field and round the
Mens Tents; to see that the Ground within the Tents be well covered
with Straw; to order the Tents to be struck at Mid-Day, in dry warm
Weather, and the Men to dry and air the Straw, and change it
frequently; to have a proper Supply of Blankets for the Men, and to
take Care that they be well cloathed, especially those who go upon
Duty in the Nights; and, in the northern Climates, to have Fires in
proper Places for warming the Men and drying their Cloaths, and for
correcting the Dampness of the Air[138].
[138] The Negroes on the Coast of _Guinea_, and some of the
_Indians_, both of whom sleep on the Ground, have constantly
a Fire producing a little Smoak burning in the Hutts where
they sleep, which corrects the Moisture of the Night, and
renders the Damp of the Earth less noxious; and during the
Time of the very unwholesome Fogs on the Coast of _Guinea_,
called Harmattans, which lay waste whole Negroe Towns, the
Smoak of Wood, of pitched Staves, and such Things, are found
to be the best Correctors of this thick Air. See Dr. _Lind's
Means of preserving the Health of Seamen_.
In Countries lying under the Torrid Zone, the Parts near the Sea Shore
are often marshy, or close and covered with Wood, or have swampy
Beaches, and are very unwholesome; and therefore where Soldiers aboard
of Transports keep their Health, Commanders ought to be very careful
not to allow them to land, till they come to the Place of their
Destination. Dr. _Lind_ observes, that Men commonly live more healthy
in warm Climates at Sea, where the Air is dry and serene, and the Heat
moderated by refreshing Breezes, than when they arrive in Harbours, or
get within Reach of the noxious Vapours which arise from many Parts of
the Land[139].
[139] Dr. _Lind_ says, that it is constantly observed in
unhealthy Harbours, that the Boats Crews employed in wooding
and watering the Ships, who are obliged to lie on Shore,
suffer most. _Ibid._ p. 72.
When Necessity requires Parties to be landed for Wood or Water, or on
other Duties, they should always be obliged to return and lie aboard
at Night; and if that cannot be done, they should be cautioned to
avoid lying down to sleep on the Grass, where the Air is fresh, or
they are exposed to the Dews; and to pitch their Tents on a rising
Ground, covered with Straw or dried Reeds, and a Blanket; and to use
the other Precautions necessary for encamping in these warm Climates;
for where this Care has been neglected, the Consequences have
frequently proved fatal[140].
[140] A very remarkable Instance of this we have related by
Dr. _Lind_. In the Year 1739, in _Mahon_ Harbour, a Party of
Men were sent with the Coopers from Admiral _Haddock_'s Fleet
to refit and fill the Water Casks, who, finding an artificial
Cave dug out of a soft sandy Stone, put their bedding into
it; every one who slept in this damp Place was infected with
the Tertian Fever, then epidemic in _Minorca_, and not one in
eight recovered. At the same Time the Men aboard the Ships
continued healthy; and others, who were afterwards sent on
the same Duty, enjoyed perfect Health by being obliged to
sleep in their respective Ships. He says, he has known a
whole Boat's Crew seized next Morning with bad Fevers by
sleeping near the Mangroves, with which the Sides of the
Rivers are frequently planted in the Torrid Zone. _Ibid._ p.
74, 75.
On unhealthful Coasts, the noxious Land Vapours often affect the Crews
of Ships that run up into Rivers or Harbours, and cause great
Sickness; and therefore in such Places Ships should anchor at as great
a Distance from the Shore as can well be done, that they may be
exposed to the Sea Breezes, and as much to the Windward of the Woods
and Marshes as possible; and if the Anchorage is safe, one should
prefer the open Sea to running up into Rivers or Creeks[141].
[141] The higher that Ships sail up the Rivers upon the Coast
of _Guinea_, the more sickly they become: Such, however, as
keep at Sea beyond the Reach of the Land Breezes (that is,
two or three Leagues at Sea), are for the most part healthy.
_Lind_, _ibid._ p. 65. The Malignity of these Land Vapours
often does not extend itself to any considerable Distance, as
we know by manifold Experience. The Troops in _Zealand_ were
very unhealthy when Admiral _Mitchel_'s Squadron, which lay
but a little Way from the Shore, enjoyed perfect Health.--Dr.
_Pringle's Observat. on the Diseases of the Army_, p. 1.
chap. vii.--In _July_ and _August_ 1744, two Ships, belonging
to Admiral _Long_'s Squadron in the _Mediterranean_, lying
near the Mouth of the River _Tyber_, began to be affected,
while others, though at a very small Distance, but further
out at Sea, had not a Man sick. _Lind_, _ibid._ p. 66.
Cleanness and Neatness in the Camp is another Article that ought to be
particularly regarded. _Portius_, _Ramazini_, and most other Authors
who treat of Camp Diseases, attribute those of the putrid Kind in a
great Measure to the Stench and putrid Effluvia arising from the
Excrements of Men and Beasts, and from the dead Bodies of Men, Horses,
and other Animals, lying unburied in the Neighbourhood of Camps, and
have in a particular Manner mentioned the Necessity of burying such
putrid Substances. Dr. _Pringle_ has very justly recommended the
Digging of Deep Pits for Privies in Camp, and covering the Excrements
with Earth daily[142] till the Pits are near full, and then to fill
them up with Earth, and dig new ones; and to punish every Person who
shall ease himself any where in Camp but in the Privies: And he
remarks, that when the Camp begins to turn unhealthy, that often the
only Means that will preserve the Health of the Men, is to change the
Ground, and to leave behind all the Filth and Nastiness which gave
Rise to those putrid Disorders.
[142] The divine Lawgiver _Moses_ has enjoined Cleanliness in
the Camp to the _Jews_ in a particular Manner, when he says,
"Thou shalt have a Place also without the Camp, whither thou
shalt go forth abroad; and thou shalt have a Paddle upon thy
Weapon, and it shall be when thou wilt ease thyself abroad
thou shalt dig therewith, and shalt turn back and cover that
which cometh from thee. For the Lord thy God walketh in the
Midst of thy Camp; therefore shall thy Camp be holy, that he
see no unclean Thing in thee, and turn away from thee."
_Deuteronomy_, chap. xxiii. verses 12, 13, 14.
In fixed Camps, the striking the Tents at Mid-Day in fair Weather,
and turning and airing the Straw, and changing it often, as
recommended by Dr. _Pringle_, will contribute much to preserve the
Health of the Men; and making the Men wash themselves daily, and
change their Linen often, and keep themselves otherwise clean, ought
never to be omitted by the Officers.
All military Authors have recommended to Commanders always to have
Straw for their Men when they come to their Ground, if possible; and
to have the Army well supplied with Provisions; giving proper
Encouragement to the Country People, and to Suttlers and Merchants of
all Sorts, to bring in every Kind of Provisions and other Necessaries
to Camp; and preventing, as much as possible, the Soldiers from
moroding. And the Commanders of every Corps ought to take Care that
their Men form themselves into Messes, and that Stoppages be made for
buying them Provisions.
In _Germany_ every Regiment of the _British_ Troops contracted with a
Butcher, who was obliged to carry along with them, at all Times, a
certain Number of live Sheep and Oxen to kill when wanted, and to sell
the Meat at a fixed Price. Every Soldier was obliged to take a certain
Quantity, which was paid for by Stoppages made in his Pay; and this
Meat was boiled in the Camp Kettles, with such Roots and Greens as
could be got; by which Means the Men, whenever they could use their
Kettles, had always a good warm Soop, as well as Meat, to refresh them
after their Fatigues, which, along with their Ammunition Bread, made a
good wholesome Food.
In Countries where Fruit is plentiful, a certain Quantity of what is
fully ripe, distributed to the Men in warm Weather, and in hot
Climates, will contribute to preserve their Health, though the Abuse
of it will prove prejudicial; but unripe and acrid Fruits are always
hurtful[143].
[143] The _British_ Soldiers in _Germany_ used sometimes to
hurt their Health by eating great Quantities of raw unripe
Apples, Plumbs, and other unripe Fruits; but the foreign
Troops had a much better Method of using such Fruits: They
commonly boiled or stewed them, and eat them with Bread, or
with their Meat, which in a great Measure corrected their bad
Qualities.
The Orders in the _French_ Camp, prohibiting the Men from
eating unripe Fruit, were strictly complied with every-where
in _Germany_ during the late War.
Water is another Article which Commanders endeavour to have their Camp
well supplied with, and therefore they generally encamp near Rivers or
Rivulets. Where the Stream is small, Care ought to be taken that its
Course be not interrupted, and that no Filth or Nastiness, or any
Thing that will spoil or corrupt the Water, be thrown into it.
When there are no Rivers or Rivulets near a Camp, and the Men are
supplied from Wells, if the Water is not pure, very often the digging
of deep Pits, and covering the Bottom and Sides with large Stones, and
over these a Lay of Sand, Gravel, or Chalk, will make the Water pure
in a few Hours.
In fixed Camps, where the Water is bad, _Portius_[144] proposes
straining it thro' Sand, and has given Figures of Machines to be used
for that Purpose; but the Method proposed by Dr. _Lind_ is still more
simple, which is, to get a broad Cask with one End struck out; then
put a longer Cask, with both Ends struck out, in the Middle of it;
fill the short Cask one-third with Sand, and the inner longer Cask
above one-half; fill the Rest of the inner Cask with the Water, which
will filter through the Sand, and rise above the Sand in the outer
Cask, where it may be allowed to run off into Vessels placed to
receive it, by Means of a Cock, put into the Side of the outer Cask,
fifteen or twenty Inches above the Level of the Sand.
[144] See the Treatise published by Dr. _Luc. Anton. Portius_
in 1686, _de Militis in castris sanitate tuenda_, _part._ ii.
_cap._ vi. In this Book we have many useful Things mentioned
relative to the Health of Soldiers.
Where there are no such Conveniences for purifying the Water, what is
used for Drink ought to be mixed with a small Proportion of Spirits,
or Wine, or with Vinegar, or Cream of Tartar, when neither of the
other two can be got; and if the Water be previously boiled, it will
be so much the better.
In Expeditions into warm Countries, where fresh Water is difficult to
be had, a few Stills, with a proper Apparatus, ought to be carried
out; and after a Landing is made, the Stills ought to be set to work
for distilling fresh Water from Sea Water in the Manner mentioned by
Dr. _Lind_[145]; and although a sufficient Quantity cannot be
distilled for serving the whole Army, yet enough may be got in this
Way for the Use of the Sick.
[145] Dr. _Lind_ relates a Number of Experiments of his
having distilled Sea Water in different Manners, as
recommended by others; and concludes, that the best Way of
getting fresh Water from Salt, is to distil the Sea Water by
itself, without any Mixture; and he proposes having a Still
Head to the Coppers or Iron Pots in which the Meat is dressed
aboard a Ship. _Ibid. note to p. 84_, &c.
When Men are very warm, after long Marches, and other hard Duties, in
Summer; Officers should endeavour to prevent their swallowing
immediately great Quantities of cold Water, and persuade them to wait
a little till they cool; and at such Times, if Spirits can be got
easily, to order a small Quantity to be mixed with the Water in each
Man's Canteen.
Though the Abuse of vinous and spirituous Liquors is very destructive
to the Constitution, yet these same Liquors, given in Moderation to
Soldiers on Service, during the Times of great Fatigues, are some of
the best Preservatives of Health. Spirits, for common Use, ought to
be mixed with Water; and in the hot Climates made into Punch; though
in very cold and wet Weather, and in damp Nights, a Glass of pure
Spirits, given to the Men going on Duty, is of great Service; for it
is always observed, that Men are much less apt to catch Diseases from
being wet when they are upon a March, or at hard Work, than when they
stand Centinels, or are upon Out-Posts where they move but little, or
when they lie down in their wet Cloaths; and that they are less liable
to be affected by the Weather after a hearty Meal, or drinking a Glass
of Spirits, or some generous Liquor, than when their Stomachs are
empty.
An Infusion of Bark or other Bitters, and of Garlick, in Spirits, has
been found to encrease their Efficacy as Preservatives both against
the Effects of Cold and malignant Distempers. Dr. _Lind_ has
recommended an Infusion of Garlick in Spirits as one of the best
Stomachics and Diaphoretics he knows in cold wet Weather. And many
have recommended a Tincture of the Bark[146]: Towards the End of the
Year 1743, Mr. _Tough_, one of the Apothecaries to the _British_
military Hospital in the late War, then a Mate to a marching Regiment,
was ordered to go down the _Rhine_ with a Party of Sick, who had the
Seeds of the Hospital Fever among them, and were to go in Bilanders,
from _Germany_ to _Flanders_. Having had a Cask or two of Brandy put
aboard as Part of the Stores for the Sick, he was afraid lest the Men
should make too free with the Spirits; to prevent which he threw in a
Quantity of Bark into each Cask, and gave the Men regularly, Morning
and Evening, a Glass of this bitter Tincture. At the same Time, the
Men were kept extremely clean. By these Means most of the Sick mended
upon the Passage, without the Malignant Fever appearing again amongst
them; whereas, Dr. _Pringle_, who takes Notice of the other Parties
who came from the same Hospitals in _Germany_, tells us, that the
Malignant Fever broke out in a violent Degree, and Half the Number
died by the Way, and federal others soon after their Arrival[147].
[146] During the Campaign in _Hungary_, in the Year 1717,
Count _Boneval_ preserved both himself and Family from
Disorders, by taking himself, and making all his Domesticks
take, two or three Times a Day, a small Quantity of Brandy,
in which Bark had been infused, at a Time when all the Rest
of the Army were infected with malignant Disorders. A
Regiment in _Italy_ continued healthy by the Use of the Bark,
when the Rest of the _Austrian_ Army, who did not pursue the
same Method, were greatly annoyed with Sickness. See
_Kramer._ quoted by Dr. _Lind_.
[147] _Observat._ part. i. chap. iii.
Commanding Officers ought always to endeavour to proportion the Time
the Men are to be upon Duty to the Weather and the Nature of the
Climate. The Time of standing Centinel in very hard Frost, and in cold
wet Weather, or in the Heat of the Day in Summer, when the Weather is
very warm, and in hot Climates, ought to be shorter than when the
Weather is dry and more temperate.
The Marches of Troops ought, if possible, during the Time of very hot
Weather, to be made either very early in the Morning, in the Evening,
or at Night; and Officers, during the Course of an active Campaign,
ought to spare their Men as much as possible.
And when they are in Quarters, and have nothing to do, they should
narrowly inspect into their Manner of living; and have them out daily,
when the Weather will permit, and exercise them, or march them two or
three _English_ Miles a-Day, in order to prevent their falling sick
for want of Exercise; for Soldiers left to themselves are very subject
to Diseases when they come into Quarters after an active Campaign, by
leading too indolent a Life, if Officers do not take Care to prevent
it. However, at such Times, the Exercise ought to be moderate, and the
Men should not be brought out in wet Weather.
OF MILITARY HOSPITALS.
Whenever Men are seized with Distempers, they ought immediately to be
separated from those in Health, and either sent to the Regimental[148]
or General Hospital.
[148] Some of the regimental Surgeons in _Germany_, when they
took the Field, had always some spare Tents carried along
with their Medicine Chests; and when any of their Men fell
sick in Camp, and they could get no House for a regimental
Hospital in Villages, they ordered these Tents to be pitched,
and had the Ground within well covered with Straw and
Blankets, and then put the Sick into them, and there took
Care of them till they found an Opportunity of sending them
to the Flying Hospital.
There is no Part of the Service that requires more to be regarded than
the Choice of proper Places for Hospitals, and the right Management
of them, on which the Health and Strength of an Army often depends;
for in wet unwholesome Seasons, if infectious Disorders get into the
Hospitals, which possibly might have been prevented by proper Care,
they often weaken an Army in a very short Time far more than the Sword
of the Enemy.
We have no Account of the particular Manner in which the Antients took
Care of their Sick and Wounded in Times of War; for although we read
in _Homer_[149] of Surgeons or Physicians attending the _Grecian_
Camp, and in _Xenophon_[150] of _Cyrus_'s having appointed Physicians
to his Army; and we learn from _Tacitus_[151] and _Livy_[152], that
the wounded _Romans_ were received into the Houses of the Nobility,
and had Physicians to attend them, and were furnished with
Fomentations and other proper Remedies; and from _Justin_[153], that
the _Lacedemonians_ followed the same Method: yet these Authors make
no Mention of the particular Oeconomy or Manner in which these
Hospitals were conducted.
[149] _Homer_ mentions _Podalirius_ and _Machaon_, sons of
_Æsculapius_, as two excellent Physicians or Surgeons in the
_Grecian_ Army. Vid. _Iliad_, lib. ii. Physic and Surgery
were antiently exercised by the same Persons.
[150] Vid. _Xenophon. de Institut. Cyri._ lib. i. et viii.
[151] _Tacitus_, after giving an Account of 50,000 People
being killed by the Fall of an Amphitheatre at _Fidena_,
during the Time of a Shew of Gladiators, has these Words:
"Ceterum post recentem cladem, patuere procerum domus,
fomenta & medici passim præbiti; suit urbs per illos dies,
quanquam mæsta facie veterum institutis similis, qui magna
post prælia saucios largitione & cura sustentabant." _Vid.
lib._ iv. _Annal._ § 63.
[152] In _Livy_ we find the following Passage: "Neque immemor
ejus quod initio consulatus imbiberat, conciliandi animos
plebis, saucios milites curandos dividit patribus. Fabiis
plurimi dati, nec alibi majore cura habiti." _Vid. lib._ ii.
cap. xlvii.
[153] _Justin_ mentions the same Thing of the _Spartans_
after their Defeat at _Sellasia_--"Patentibus omnes domibus
saucios excipiebant, vulnera curabant, lapsos reficiebant."
_Vid. lib._ xxviii. cap. iv.
The Hospitals commonly wanted for an Army acting on the Continent,
are,
1. One in the Rear, to follow their Motions, so as to be always ready
to receive the Sick from Camp, which is called the Moveable or Flying
Hospital. 2. One or more, at some Distance, in Towns, to receive such
of the Sick as can be moved from the Flying Hospital, when they are
obliged to go from one Place to another; or when a greater Number of
Sick is sent to them than they can easily take Care of[154].
[154] When Parties of Sick or Wounded are to be sent from
Camp, or from one Hospital to another, Care ought to be taken
that they are placed properly in the Waggons; that they have
proper physical People, Nurses, &c. to attend them; as well
as Provisions, and other Necessaries, so as to be in no
Danger of wanting any Thing while they are on their Journey.
Each of the Hospitals ought to be provided with Physicians, Surgeons
Mates, Purveyors, or Commissaries, and others, to attend and take Care
of the Sick.
Besides the physical People who attend the Hospital, one or two
Physicians ought to go along with the Army to attend the Commander in
Chief, and the General and Staff Officers, in Case of Sickness; and an
Apothecary, provided with a small Chest of Medicines, ought to attend
at Head Quarters to make up the Prescriptions of the Physicians.
A Number of Hospital Surgeons also, with Mates, ought to attend the
Army, to be ready in Case of an Action. These ought to be attached to
the Suite of the Commanders of the different Corps or Brigades, and to
be quartered or encamped with them. And each Surgeon should be
provided with a Waggon or some Horses loaded with a proper chirurgical
Apparatus, as Instruments, Bandages, Lint, and other Things necessary
for taking Care of the Wounded.