Sixtus IV. was a man of the most violent temper, which led him into

some curious scenes which have become historical. When one of the

unfortunate proprietors of a house which stood in the way of his

improvements resisted the workmen, Sixtus had him cast into prison on

the moment, and savagely stood by to see the house pulled down before

he would leave the spot. He delighted, the chroniclers say, in the

ruins he made. A more tragic instance of his rage was the judicial

murder of the Protonotary Colonna, who paid with his life for crossing

the will of the Pope. But this masterful will and impetuous temper

secured an incredible swiftness in the execution of his work.

The prudent suggestion of Ferdinand resulted in the clearance of those

straight streets which led from the Flaminian Gate--now called the

Porta del Popolo, which Sixtus built or restored, as well as the

church of Sta. Maria del Popolo, which stands close by--to all the

principal places in the city; the Corso being the way to the Capitol,

the Ripetta to St. Angelo and the Borgo. He repaired once more the

church and ancient palace of the Lateran, which had so long been the

home of the Popes, and was still formally their diocesan church to

which they went in state after their election. It is unnecessary,

however, to give here a list of the many churches which he repaired or

rebuilt. His work was Rome itself, and pervaded every part, from St.

Peter's and the Vatican to the furthest corners of the city. The

latter were, above all, the chief objects of his care, and he seems to

have taken up with even a warmer ardour, if perhaps with a less

cultivated intelligence, the plan of Nicolas V. in respect to the

Palace at least. Like him he gathered a crowd of painters, chiefly

strangers, around him, so that there is scarcely a great name of the

time that does not appear in his lists; but he managed these great

craftsmen personally like a slave-driver, pushing them on to a

breathless speed of execution, so that the works produced for him are

more memorable for their extent than for their perfection.

The fame of a sanitary reformer before his time seems an unlikely one

for Pope Sixtus, yet he seems to have had no inconsiderable right to

it. _Nettare_ and _purgare_ are two words in constant use in the

record of his life. He restored to efficient order the Cloaca Maxima.

He brought in, a more beautiful office, the Acqua Vergine, a name of

itself enough to glorify any master-builder, "remaking," says the

chronicler, "the aqueducts, which were in ruins, from Monte Pincio to

the fountain of Trevi." Here is perhaps a better reason for blessing

Pope Sixtus than even his bridge, for those splendid and abundant

waters which convey coolness and freshness and pleasant sound into the

very heart of Rome were brought hither by his hand, a gift which may

be received without criticism, for not upon his name lies the guilt of

the prodigious construction, a creation of the eighteenth century,

through which they now flow. The traveller from the ends of the earth

who takes his draught of this wonderful unfailing fountain, rejoicing

in the sparkle and the flow of water so crystal-clear and cold even in

the height of summer, and hoping to secure as he does so his return to

Rome, may well pour a libation to Papa Sisto, who, half pagan as they

all were in those days, would probably have liked that form of

recollection quite as much as the prayers he invokes according to the

formal requirements of piety and the custom of the Church. However,

they found it quite easy to combine the two during that strange age.

The chief thing of all, however, which perpetuates the name of Sixtus

is the famous Sistine chapel, although its chief attraction is not

derived from anything ordained by him. Some of the greatest names in

art were concerned in its earlier decorations--Perugino, Botticelli,

Ghirlandajo, along with many others. Michael Angelo was not yet,

neither had Raphael appeared from the Umbrian _bottega_ with his charm

of grace and youth. But the Pope collected the greatest he could find,

and set them to work upon his newly-built walls with a magnificence

and liberality which deserved a more lasting issue. The reader will

shiver, yet almost laugh with consternation and wonder, to hear that

several great pictures of Perugino were destroyed on these walls by

the orders of another Pope in order to make room for Michael Angelo.

There could not be a more characteristic token of the course of events

in the Papal succession, and of the wanton waste and destruction by

one of the most cherished work of another.

Sixtus was none the less a warlike prince, struggling in perpetual

conflict with the princes of the other states, perhaps with even a

fiercer strain of ambition, fighting for wealth and position with

which to endow the young men who were as his sons--as worldly in his

aims as any Malatesta or Sforza, as little scrupulous about his means

of carrying them out, shedding blood or at least permitting it to be

shed in his name, extorting money, selling offices, trampling upon the

rights of other men. Yet amid all these distractions he pursued his

nobler work, not without a wish for the good of his people as well as

for his own ends, making his city more habitable, providing a lordly

habitation for the sick, pouring floods of life-giving water into the

hot and thirsty place. The glory of building may have many elements of

vanity in it as well as the formation of galleries of art, and the

employment of all the greatest art-workmen of their time. But ours is

the advantage in these latter respects, so that we may well judge

charitably a man who, in devising great works for his own honour and

pleasure, has at the same time endowed us, and especially his country

and people, with a lasting inheritance. Perhaps, even in competition

with these, it is most to his credit that he fulfilled offices which

did not so much recommend themselves to his generation, and cleansed

and cleared out and let in air and light like any modern sanitary

reformer. The Acqua Vergine and the Santo Spirito Hospital are as fine

things as even a Botticelli for a great prince's fame. He may even be

forgiven the destruction of the balconies and all the picturesque

irregularities which form the charm of ancient streets, in

consideration of the sewerage and the cleaning out. The pictures, the

libraries, and all the more beautiful things of life, in which we of

the distant lands and centuries have our share of benefit, are good

deeds which are not likely to be forgotten.

It is however naturally the beautiful things of which it is most

pleasant to think. The chroniclers, whom we love to follow, curiously

enough, have nothing to say about the pictures, perhaps because it was

not an art favoured by the Romans, or which they themselves pursued,

except in its lower branches. Infessura mentions a certain Antonazzo

Pintore, who was the author of a Madonna, painted on the wall near the

church of Sta. Maria, below the Capitol at the foot of the hill, which

on the 26th of June, in the year 1470, began to do miracles, and was

afterwards enshrined in a church dedicated to our Lady of

Consolations. Antonazzo was a humble Roman artist, whose name is to be

found among the workmen in the service of Pope Paul II., who was not

much given to pictures. Perhaps he is mentioned because he was a

Roman, more likely because he had the good luck to produce a

miraculous Madonna. The same writer makes passing mention of I

Fiorentini, under which generic name all the _bottegas_ were included.

"He renewed the Palace of the Vatican, drawing it forth under great

colonnades," says, picturesquely, the chronicler Panvinio, working

probably from Platina's notes, "and making under his chapel a

library": which was the finest thing of all, for he there reinstated

Platina, who had been kept under so profound a shadow in the time of

Paul II., and called back the learned men whom his predecessor had

discouraged, sending far and near through all Europe for books, and

thus enlarging the library begun by Pope Nicolas which is one of the

most celebrated which the world possesses, and to which he secured a

revenue, "enough to enable those who had the care of it to live, and

even to buy more books." This provision still exists, though it is no

longer sufficient for the purpose for which it was dedicated. The

Cardinals emulated the Pope both in palace and church, each doing his

best to leave behind him some building worthy of his name. Ornament

abounded everywhere; sometimes rather of a showy than of a refined

kind. There is a story in Vasari of how one of the painters employed

on the Sistine, competing for a prize which the Pope had offered,

piled on his colours beyond all laws of taste or harmony, and was

laughed at by his fellows; but proved the correctness of his judgment

by winning the prize, having gauged the knowledge and taste of Sixtus

better than the others whose attempt had been to do their best--a

height entirely beyond his grasp.

All these buildings, however, were fatal to the remnants still

existing of ancient Rome. The Colosseum and the other great relics of

antiquity were still the quarries out of which the new erections were

built. The Sistine Bridge was founded upon huge blocks of travertine

brought directly from the ruins of the Colosseum. The buildings of the

Imperial architects thus melted away as we are told now everything in

the world does, our own bodies among the rest, into new combinations,

under a law which if just and universal in nature is not willingly

adopted in art. The wonder is how they should have supplied so many

successive generations, and still remain even to the extent they still

do. Every building in Rome owes something to the Colosseum--its stones

were sold freely in earlier ages, and carried off to the ends of the

earth; but it has remained like the widow's cruse, inexhaustible:

which is almost more wonderful than the fact of its constant use.

There is a picture in the Vatican gallery, which though not one of the

highest merit is very interesting from a historical point of view. We

quote the description of it from Bishop Creighton.

"It represents Sixtus IV. founding the Vatican library. The

Pope with a face characterised by mingled strength and

coarseness, his hands grasping the arms of his chair, sits

looking at Platina, who kneels before him, a man whose face

is that of a scholar, with square jaw, thin lips, finely

cut mouth, and keen glancing eye. Cardinal Giuliano stands

like an official who is about to give a message to the

Pope, by whose side is Pietro Riario with aquiline nose and

sensual chin, red-cheeked and supercilious. Behind Platina

is Count Girolamo with a shock of black hair falling over

large black eyes, his look contemptuous and his mien

imperious."

These were the three men for whom the Pontiff fought and struggled and

soiled his hands with blood, and sold his favour to the highest

bidder. Giuliano della Rovere and Pietro Riario were Cardinals: Count

Girolamo or Jeronimo was worse--he was of the rudest type of the

predatory baron, working out a fortune for himself with the sword, the

last man in the world to be the henchman of a Pope. They were but one

step from the peasant race, without distinction or merit which had

given them birth, and all three built upon that rude stock the

dissolute character and grasping greed for money, acquired by every

injustice, and expended on every folly, which was so common in their

time. They were all young, intoxicated with their wonderful success

and with every kind of extravagance to be provided for. They made Rome

glitter and glow with pageants, always so congenial to the taste of

the people, seizing every opportunity of display and magnificence.

Infessura tells the story of one of these wonderful shows, with a

mixture of admiration and horror. The Cardinal of San Sisto, he tells

us, who was Pietro Riario, covered the whole of the Piazza of the

Santi Apostoli, and hung it with cloth of arras, and above the portico

of the church erected a fine _loggia_ with panels painted by the

Florentines for the festa of San ... (the good Infessura forgets the

name with a certain contempt one cannot but feel for the foreign

painters and their works), and in front made two fountains which threw

water very high, as high as the roof of the church. This wonderful

arrangement was intended for the delectation of the royal guest

Madonna Leonora, daughter of King Ferrante for whom he and his cousin

Girolamo made a great feast.

"After the above banquet was seen one of the finest things

that were ever seen in Rome or out of Rome: for between the

banquet and the festa, several thousands of ducats were

spent. There was erected a buffet with so much silver upon

it as you would never have believed the Church of God had

so much, in addition to that which was used at table: and

even the things to eat were gilt, and the sugar used to

make them was without measure, more than could be believed.

And the said Madonna Leonora was in the aforesaid house

with many demoiselles and baronesses. And every one of

these ladies had a washing basin of gold given her by the

Cardinal. Oh guarda! in such things as these to spend the

treasure of the Church!"

Next year the Cardinal Riario died at twenty-eight, "poisoned,"

Infessura says: "and this was the end of all our fine festas." Another

day it was the layman among the nephews who stirred all Rome, and the

world beyond, with an immeasurable holiday.

"On St. Mark's Day, 1746, the Count Jeronimo, son, or

nephew of Pope Sixtus, held a solemn tournament in Navona,

where were many valiant knights of Italy and much people,

Catalans and Burgundians and other nations; and it was

believed that at this festivity there were more than a

hundred thousand people, and it lasted over Friday,

Saturday, and Sunday. And there were three prizes, one of

which was won by Juliano Matatino, and another by Lucio

Poncello, and the third by a man of arms of the Kingdom

(Naples, so called until very recent days), and they were

of great value."

The Piazza Navona, the scene of this tournament, was made by Pope

Sixtus the market-place of Rome, where markets were held once a month,

an institution which still continues. The noble Pantheon occupies the

end of this great square, as when Count Jeronimo with his black brows,

marshalled his knights within the long enclosure, so fit for such a

sight. We have now come to a period of history in which all the

localities are familiar, and where we can identify every house and

church and tower.

"Sixtus," says the chronicler, "left nothing undone which he saw to be

for the ornament or comfort of the city. He defended intrepidly the

cause of the Romans and the dignity of the Holy See." The first of

these statements is more true perhaps than the last; and we may

forgive him his shortcomings and his nephews on that great score. He

ended his reign in August 1484, having held the Pontificate thirteen

years.

[Illustration: FOUNTAIN OF TREVI.]

CHAPTER III.

JULIUS II.--LEO X.

It is happily possible to pass over the succeeding pontificates of

Innocent VIII. and Alexander VI. These Popes did little for Rome

except, especially the last of them, to associate the name of the

central city of Christendom with every depravity. The charitable

opinion of later historians who take that pleasure in upsetting all

previous notions, which is one of the features of our time, has begun

to whisper that even the Borgias were not so black as they were

painted. But it will take a great deal of persuasion and of eloquence

to convince the world that there is anything to be said for that name.

Pope Innocent VIII. continued the embellishment of the Vatican, which

was his own palace, and completed the Belvedere, and set Andrea

Mantegna to paint its chambers; but this was not more than any Roman

nobleman might have done for his palace if he had had money enough for

decorations, which were by no means so costly in those days as they

would be now, and probably indeed were much cheaper than the more

magnificent kinds of arras or other decorative stuffs fit for a Pope's

palace. Alexander, too, added a splendid apartment for himself, still

known by his name; and provided for possible danger (which did not

occur however in his day) by making and decorating another apartment

in the castle of St. Angelo, whither he might have retired and still

managed to enjoy himself, had Rome risen against him. But Rome, which

often before had hunted its best Popes into the strait confinement of

that stronghold, left the Borgia at peace. We are glad to pass on to

the next Pope, whose footsteps, almost more than those of any other of

her monarchs, are still to be seen and recognised through Rome. He

gave more to the city than any one who had preceded him, and he

destroyed more than any Pope before had permitted himself to do.

Julius II., della Rovere, the nephew of Pope Sixtus, for whom and for

his brother and cousin that Pope occupied so much of his busy life,

was a violent man of war, whose whole life was occupied in fighting,

and who neither had nor pretended to have any reputation for sanctity

or devotion. But passionate and unsparing as he was, and fiercely bent

on his own way, the aim of his perpetual conflicts was at all events a

higher one than that of his uncle, in so far that it was to enrich the

Church and not his own family that he toiled and fought. He was the

centre of warlike combinations all his life--League of Cambrai, holy

League, every kind of concerted fighting to crush those who opposed

him and to divide their goods; but the portion of the goods which fell

to the share of Pope Julius was for the Church and not for the

endowment of a sister's son. He was not insensible altogether to the

claims of sister's sons; but he preferred on the whole the patrimony

of St. Peter, and fought for that with unfailing energy all round.

There are many books in which the history of those wars and of the

Renaissance Popes in general may be read in full, but the Julius II.

in whom we are here interested is not one who ever led an army or

signed an offensive league: it is the employer of Bramante and Michael

Angelo and Raphael, the choleric patron who threatened to throw the

painter of the Sistine chapel from his scaffolding, the dreadful

iconoclast who pulled down St. Peter's and destroyed the tombs of the

Popes, the magnificent prince who bound the greatest artists then

existing in Italy, which was to say in the world, to his chariot

wheels, and drove them about at his will. Most of these things were

good things, and give a favourable conception of him; though not that

which was the most important of all.

How it was that he came to pull down St. Peter's nobody can say. He

had of course the contempt which a man, carried on the highest tide of

a new movement, has by nature for all previous waves of impulse. He

thought of the ancient building so often restored, the object of so

much loving care, with all the anxious expedients employed by past

Popes to glorify and embellish the beloved interior, giving it the

warmest and most varied historical interest--with much the same

feeling as the respectable churchwarden in the eighteenth century

looked upon the piece of old Gothic which had fallen into his hands. A

church of the fourteenth century built for eternity has always looked

to the churchwarden as if it would tumble about his ears--and his

Herculean efforts to pull down an arch that without him would have

stood till the end of time have always been interpreted as meaning

that the ancient erection was about to fall. Julius II. in the same

way announced St. Peter's to be in a bad way and greatly in need of

repair, so as scarcely to be safe for the faithful; and Bramante was

there all ready with the most beautiful plans, and the Pope was not a

patient man who would wait, but one who insisted upon results at once.

This church had been for many hundreds of years the most famous of

Christian shrines; from the ends of the world pilgrims had sought its

altars. The tomb of the Apostles was its central point, and many

another saint and martyr inhabited its sacred places. It had seen the

consecration of Emperors, it had held false Popes and true, and had

witnessed the highest climax of triumph for some, and for some the

last solemnity of death.[10] But Bramante saw in that venerable temple

only the foundations for a new cathedral after the fashion of the

great Duomo which was the pride of Florence; and his master beheld in

imagination the columns rising, and the vast arches growing, of such

an edifice as would be the brag of Christendom, and carry the glory of

his own name to the furthest ends of the earth: a temple all-glorious

in pagan pride, more classical than the classics, adorned with great

statues and blank magnificence of pilasters and tombs rising up to the

roof--one tomb at least, that of the della Roveres, of Sixtus IV. and

Julius II., which should live as long as history, and which, if that

proud and petulant fellow Buonarotti would but complete his work,

would be one of the glories of the Eternal City.

[Illustration: OLD ST. PETER'S.

_To face page 584._]

The ancient St. Peter's would not seem to have had anything of the

poetic splendour and mystery of a Gothic building as understood in

northern countries: the rounded arches of its façade did not spring

upwards with the lofty lightness and soaring grace of the great

cathedrals of France and Germany. But the irregular front was full of

interest and life, picturesque if not splendid. It had character and

meaning in every line, it was a series of erections, carrying the

method of one century into another, with that art which makes one

great building into an animated and varied history of the times and

ages through which it has passed, taking something from each, and

giving shelter and the sense of continuance to all. There is no such

charm as this in the most perfect of architectural triumphs executed

by a single impulse. But this was the last quality in the world likely

to deter a magnificent Pope of the fifteenth century, to whom unity of

conception and correctness of form were of much more concern than any

such imaginative interest. However Julius II. must not have greater

guilt laid upon him than was his due. His operations concerned only

the eastern part of the great church: the façade, and the external

effect of the building remained unchanged for more than a hundred

years; while the plan as now believed, was that of Pope Nicolas V.,

only carried out by instalments by his successors, of whom Julius was

one of the boldest.

It is, however, in the fame of his three servants, sublime slaves,

whose names are more potent still than those of any Pontiff, that this

Pope has become chiefly illustrious. His triumphs of fighting are lost

from memory in the pages of the historians, where we read and forget,

the struggle he maintained in Italy, and the transformations through

which that much troubled country passed under his sway--to change

again the morrow after, as it had changed the day before the beginning

of his career. To be sure it was he who finally identified and secured

the Patrimony of St. Peter--so that the States of the Church were not

henceforward lost and won by a natural succession of events once at

least in the life of every Pope. But we forget that fact, and all

that secured it, the tumultuous chaos of European affairs being as yet

too dark to be penetrated by any certainty of consolidation. The

course of events was in large what the history of the fortunes of St.

John Lateran, for example, was in small. From the days of Pope Martin

V. until those of Sixtus IV. a change of the clergy there was made in

almost each pontificate. Eugenius IV. restored the canons regular, or

monks: who were driven forth by Calixtus III., again restored by Paul

II., and so forth, until at length Sixtus, bringing back the secular

priests for the third time, satisfied the monks by the gift of his new

church of Sta. Maria della Pace. The revolution of affairs in Italy

was almost as regular, and it is only with an effort of the mind that

the reader can follow the endless shifting of the scenes, the

combinations that disperse and reassemble, the whirl of events for

ever coming round again to the point from which they started. But when

we put aside the Popes and the Princes and the stamping and tumult of

mail-clad warriors--and the crowd opening on every side gives us to

see a patient, yet high-tempered artisan mounting day by day his lofty

platform, swung up close to the roof, where sometimes lying on his

back, sometimes crouched upon his knees, he made roof and architrave

eloquent with a vision which centuries cannot fade, nor any

revolution, either of external affairs or of modes of thought, lessen

in interest, a very different feeling fills the mind, and the

thoughts, which were sick and weary with the purposeless and dizzy

whirl of fact, come back relieved to the consoling permanence of art.

The Pope who mounted imperious, a master of the world, on to those

dizzy planks, admired, and blasphemed and threatened in a breath; but

with no power to move the sturdy painter, who, it was well known, was

a man impossible to replace. "When will you have done?" said the Pope.

"When I can," replied the other. The Pontiff might rage and threaten,

but the Florentine painted on steadily; and Pope Julius, on the

tremulous scaffolding up against the roof of his uncle's chapel, is

better known to the world by that scene than by all his victories.

Uncle and nephew, both men of might, warlike souls and strong, that

room in the Vatican has more share in their fame than anything else

which they achieved in the world.

Another and a gentler spirit comes in at the same time to glorify this

fortunate Pope. His predecessors for some time back had each done

something for the splendour of the dwelling which was their chief

residence, even the least interested adding at least a _loggia_, a

corridor, a villa in the garden, as has been seen, to make the Vatican

glorious. Alexander VI. had been the last to embellish and extend the

more than regal lodging of the Pontiffs; but Julius II. had a hatred

of his predecessor which all honest men have a right to share, and

would not live in the rooms upon which the Borgias had left the horror

of their name. He went back to the cleaner if simpler apartments which

Nicolas V. had built and decorated by the hands of the elder painters.

Upon one of these he set young Raphael to work, a young man with whom

there was likely to be no such trouble as that he had with the gnarled

and crabbed Florentine, who was as wilful as himself. Almost as soon

as the young painter had begun his gracious work the delighted Pope

perceived what a treasury of glory he had got in this new servant.

What matter that the new painter's master, Perugino, had been there

before him with other men of the highest claims? The only thing to do

was to break up these old-fashioned masters, to clear them away from

the walls, to leave it all to Raphael. We shiver and wonder at such a

proof of enthusiasm. Was the young man willing to get space for his

smooth ethereal pictures with all their heavenly grace, at such a

price? But if he made any remonstrance--which probably he did, for we

see him afterwards in much trouble over St. Peter's, and the

destruction carried on there--his imperious master took little notice.

Julius was one of the men who had to be obeyed, and he was always as

ready to pull down as to build up. The destruction of St. Peter's on

one hand, and all those pictures on the other, prove the reckless and

masterful nature of the man, standing at nothing in a matter on which

he had set his heart. In later days the pictures of Perugino on the

wall of the Sistine chapel were demolished, as has been said, to make

place for the Last Judgment of Michael Angelo; but Pope Julius by that

time had passed into another sphere.

Most people will remember the famous portrait of this Pope by Raphael,

one of the best known pictures in the world. He sits in his chair, an

old man, his head slightly bowed, musing, in a pause of the endless

occupations and energy which made his life so full. The portrait is

quite simple, but full of dignity and a brooding power. We feel that

it would not be well to rouse the old lion, though at the moment his

repose is perfect. Raphael was at his ease in the peacefulness of his

own soul to observe and to record the powerful master whose fame he

was to have so great a share in making. It would have been curious to

have had also the Julius whom Michael Angelo knew.

He died in the midst of all this great work, while yet the dust of the

downfall of St. Peter's was in the air. Had it been possible that he

could have lived to see the new and splendid temple risen in its

place, we could better understand the wonderful hardihood of the act;

but it would be almost inconceivable how even the most impious of men

could have executed such an impulse, leaving nothing but a partial

ruin behind him of the great Shrine of Christendom, did we not know

that a whole line of able rulers had carried on the plan to gradual

completion. It was not till a hundred and fifty years later that the

new St. Peter's in its present form, vast and splendid, but

apparently framed to look, to the first glance, as little so as

possible, stood complete, to the admiration of the world. In the

violence of destruction a great number of the tombs of the Popes

perished, by means of that cynical carelessness and profanity which is

more cruel than any hostile impulse. Julius preserved the grave of his

uncle Sixtus, where he was himself afterwards laid, not in his own

splendid tomb which had been in the making for many years, and which

is now to be seen in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli from which he

took his Cardinal's title. He had therefore little good of that work

of art as he well deserved, and it was itself sadly diminished, cut

down, and completed by various secondary hands; but it is kept within

the ken of the spectator by Michael Angelo's Moses and some other

portions of his original work, though it neither enshrines the body

nor marks the resting place of its imperious master. Julius died in

1513, "more illustrious in military glory than a Pope ought to be."

Panvinio says: "He was of great soul and constancy, and a powerful

defender of all ecclesiastical things: he would not suffer any

offence, and was implacable with rebels and contumacious persons. He

was such a one as could not but be praised for having with so much

strength and fidelity preserved and increased the possessions of the

Church, although there are a few to whom it appears that he was more

given to arms than was becoming a holy Pope." "On the 21st of February

1513, died Pope Julius, at nine hours of the night," says another

chronicler, Sebastiano Branca; "he held the papacy nine years, three

months, and twenty-five days. He was from Savona: he acquired many

lands for the Church: no Pope had ever done what Pope Julius did. The

first was Faenza, the others Forli, Cervia, Ravenna, Rimini, Parma,

Piacenza, and Arezzo. He gained them all for the Church, nor ever

thought of giving them to his own family. Pesaro he gave to the Duke

of Urbino, his nephew, but no other. Thirty-three cardinals died in

his time. And he caused the death in war of more than a hundred

thousand people." There could not be a more grim summary.

It is curious to remark that the men who originated the splendour of

modern Rome, who built its noblest churches and palaces, and

emblazoned its walls with the noblest works of art, and filled its

libraries with the highest luxury of books, were men of the humblest

race, of peasant origin, born to poverty and toil. Thomas of Sarzana,

Pope Nicolas V., Francesco and Giuliano of Savona, Popes Sixtus IV.

and Julius II.: these men were born without even the distinction of a

surname, in the huts where poor men lie, or more humbly still in some

room hung high against the rocky foundations of a village, perched

upon a cliff, after the fashion of Italy. It was they who set the

fashion of a magnificence beyond the dreams of the greatest princes of

their time.

It was not so, however, with the successor of Julius II., the Pope in

whose name all the grandeur and magnificence of Rome is concentrated,

and of whom we think most immediately when the golden age of

ecclesiastical luxury and the splendour of art is named. Leo X. was as

true a son of luxury as they were of the soil. The race of Medici has

always been fortunate in its records. The greatest painters of the

world have been at its feet, encouraged and cherished and tyrannised

over. Literature such as was in the highest esteem in those days

flattered and caressed and fawned upon them. Lorenzo, somewhat

foolishly styled in history the Magnificent,--in forgetfulness of the

fact that il Magnifico was the common title of a Florentine

official,--is by many supposed to be the most conspicuous and splendid

character in the history of Florence. And Leo X. bears the same renown

in the records of Papal Rome. We will not say that he was a modern

Nero fiddling while Rome was burning, for he showed himself in many

ways an unusually astute politician, and as little disposed to let

slip any temporal advantage as his fighting predecessors--but the

spectacle is still a curious one of a man expending his life and his

wealth (or that of other people) in what was even the most exquisite

and splendid of decorations, such wonders of ornamentation as

Raphael's frescoes--while the Papacy itself was being assailed by the

greatest rebellion ever raised against it. To go on painting the walls

while the foundations of the building are being ruined under your feet

and at any moment may fall about your ears, reducing your splendid

ornaments to powder, is a thing which gives the most curious sensation

to the looker on. The world did not know in those days that even to an

institution so corrupt superficially as the Church of Rome the ancient

promise stood fast, and not only the gates of hell, but those more

like of heaven, should not prevail against her. Out of Italy it was

believed that the Church which had but lately been ruled over by a

Borgia, and which was admittedly full of wickedness in high places,

must go down altogether under the tremendous blow. A great part of the

world indeed went on believing so for a century or two. But in the

midst of that almost universal conviction nothing can be more curious

than to see the life of Papal Rome going on as if nothing had

happened, and young Raphael and all his disciples coming and going,

cheerful as the day, about the great empty chambers which they were

making into a wonder of the earth. Michael Angelo, it is true, in grim

discontent hewed at those huge slaves of his in Florence, working

wonderful thoughts into their great limbs; but all that Roman world

flowed on in brightness and in glory under skies untouched by any

threatening of catastrophe.

[Illustration: MODERN ROME: THE GRAVE OF KEATS.

_To face page 592._]

The Italian chroniclers scarcely so much as mention the beginnings of

the Reformation. "At that time in the furthest part of Germany the

abominable and infamous name of Martin Luther began to be heard," says

one. The elephant which Emmanuel of Portugal sent to his Holiness,

and which was supposed to be a thousand years old, takes up as much

space. The sun shone on in Rome. The painters sang and whistled at

their work, and their sublime patron went and came, and capped verses

with Venetian Bembo, and the unique Aretino. They were not, it would

seem, in the least afraid of Luther, nor even cognisant of him except

in a faint and far-off way. He was so absurd as to object to the sale

of indulgences. Now the sale of indulgences was not to be defended in

theory, as all these philosophers knew. But to buy off the penances

which otherwise they would at all events have been obliged to pretend

to do, was a relief grateful to many persons who were not bad

Christians, besides being good Catholics. Perhaps, indeed, in the

gross popular imagination these indulgences might have come to look

like permissions to sin, as that monster in Germany asserted them to

be; but this did not really alter their true character, any more than

other popular mistakes affected doctrine generally. And how to get on

with that huge building of St. Peter's, at which innumerable workmen

were labouring year after year, and which was the most terrible burden

upon the Papal funds, without that method of wringing stone and mortar

and gilding and mosaic out of the common people? Pope Leo took it very

easily. Notwithstanding the acquisitions of Pope Julius, and the

certainty with which the historians assure us that from his time the

Patrimony of St. Peter was well established in the possession of Rome,

some portion of it had been lost again, and had again to be recovered

in the days of his successor. That was doubtless more important than

the name, _nefando_, _execrabile_ of the German monk. And so the wars

went on, though not with the spirit and relish which Julius II. had

brought into them. Leo X. had no desire to kill anybody. When he was

compelled to do it he did it quite calmly and inexorably as became a

Medici; but he took no pleasure in the act. If Luther had fallen into

his hands the Curia would no doubt have found some means of letting

the pestilent fellow off. A walk round the _loggie_ or the _stanze_

where the painters were so busy, and where Raphael, a born gentleman,

would not grumble as that savage Buonarotti did, at being interrupted,

but would pause and smile and explain, put the thought of all

troublesome Germans easily out of the genial potentate's head. It was

the Golden Age; and Rome was the centre of the world as was meet, and

genius toiled untiringly for the embellishment of everything; and such

clever remarks had never been made in any court, such witty

suggestions, such fine language used and subtle arguments held, as

those of all the scholars and all the wits who vied with each other

for the ear and the glance of Pope Leo. The calm enjoyment of life

over a volcano was never exhibited in such perfection before.

We need not pause here to enumerate or describe those works which

every visitor to Rome hastens to see, in which the benign and lovely

art of Raphael has lighted up the splendid rooms of the Vatican with

something of the light that never was on sea or shore. We confess that

for ourselves one little picture from the same hand, to be met with

here and there, and often far from the spot where it was painted,

outvalues all those works of art; but no one can dispute their beauty

or importance. Pope Leo did not by so much as the touch of a pencil

contribute to their perfection, yet they are the chief glory of his

time, and the chief element in his fame. He made them in so far that

he provided the means, the noble situation as well as the more vulgar

provision which was quite as necessary, and he has therefore a right

to his share of the applause--by which he is well rewarded for all he

did; for doubtless the payment of the moment, the pleasure which he

sincerely took in them, and the pride of so nobly taking his share in

the lasting illumination of Rome were a very great recompense in

themselves, without the harvest he has since reaped in the applause of

posterity. Nowadays we do not perhaps so honour the patron of art as

people were apt to do in the last century. And there are, no doubt,

many now who worship Raphael in the Vatican without a thought of Leo.

Still he is worthy to be honoured. He gave the young painter a free

hand, believing in his genius and probably attracted by his more

genial nature, while holding Michael Angelo, for whom he seems always

to have felt a certain repugnance, at arm's length.

We will not attempt to point out in Raphael's great mural paintings

the flattering allusions to Leo's history and triumph which critics

find there, nor yet the high purpose with which others hold the

painter to have been moved in those great works. Bishop Creighton

finds a lesson in them, which is highly edifying, but rather beyond

what we should be disposed to look for. "The life of Raphael," he

says, "expresses the best quality of the spirit of the Italian

Renaissance, its belief in the power of culture to restore unity to

life and implant serenity in the soul. It is clear that Raphael did

not live for mere enjoyment, but that his time was spent in ceaseless

activity animated by high hopes for the future." How this may be we do

not know: but lean rather to the opinion that Raphael, like other men

of great and spontaneous genius, did what was in him and did his best,

with little ulterior purpose and small thought about the power of

culture. It was his, we think, to show how art might best illustrate

and with the most perfect effect the space given him to beautify, with

a meaning not unworthy of the gracious work, but no didactic impulse.

It was his to make these fine rooms, and the airy lightness of the

brilliant _loggie_ beautiful, with triumphant exposition of a theme

full of pictorial possibilities. But what it should have to do with

Luther, or how the one should counterbalance the other, it is

difficult to perceive. Goethe on the other hand declares that going

to Raphael's _loggie_ from the Sistine chapel "we could scarcely bear

to look at them. The eye was so educated and enlarged by those grand

forms and the glorious completeness of all the parts that it could

take no pleasure" in works so much less important. Such are the

differences of opinion in all ages. It is the glory of this period of

Roman history that at a time when the Apostolic See had lost so much,

and when all its great purposes, its noble ideals, its reign of

holiness and inspired wisdom had perished like the flower of the

fields--when all that Gregory and Innocent had struggled their lives

long to attain had dissolved like a bubble: when the Popes were no

longer holy men, nor distinguished by any great and universal aim, but

Italian princes like others, worse rather than better in some cases:

there should have arisen, with a mantle of glory to hide the failure

and the horror and the scorn, these two great brethren of Art--the one

rugged, mournful, self-conscious, bowed down by the evil of the time,

the other all sweetness and gladness, an angel of light, divining in

his gracious simplicity the secrets of the skies.

Leo the Pope was no such noble soul. He was only an urbane and skilful

Medici, great to take every advantage of the divine slaves that were

ready for his service--using them not badly, encouraging them to do

their best, if not for higher motives yet to please him, the Sommo

Pontefice, surely the best thing that they could hope for; and to win

such share of the ducats which came to him from the sale of the

offices of the Vatican, the cardinals' hats, the papal knighthoods,

and other trumpery, as might suffice for all their wants. He sold

these and other things, indulgences for instance, sown broadcast over

the face of the earth and raising crops of a quite different kind. But

on the other hand he never sold a benefice. He remitted the tax on

salt; and he gave liberally to whoever asked him, and enjoyed life

with all his heart, in itself no bad quality.

[Illustration: A BRIC-A-BRAC SHOP.]

"The pontificate of Leo was the most gay and the most happy

that Rome ever saw," says the chronicler. "Being much

enamoured of building he took up with a great soul the

making of San Pietro, which Julius, with marvellous art,

had begun. He ennobled the palace of the Vatican with

triple porticoes, ample and long, of the most beautiful

fabrication, with gilded roofs and ornamented by excellent

pictures. He rebuilt almost from the foundations the church

of our Lady of the Monte Coelio, from which he had his

title as cardinal, and adorned it with mosaics. Finally

there was nothing which during all his life he had more at

heart or more ardently desired than the excellent name of

liberal, although it was the wont ordinarily of all the

others to turn their backs upon that virtue of liberality,

and to keep far from it. He judged those unworthy of high

station who did not with large and benign hand disperse the

gifts of fortune, and above all those which were acquired

by little or no fatigue. But while he in this guise

governed Rome, and all Italy enjoyed a gladsome peace, he

was by a too early death taken from this world although

still in the flower and height of his years."

He died forty-five years old on December 1, 1521.

The great works which one and another of the Popes thus left half done

were completed--St. Peter's by Sixtus V. 1590, and Paul V. 1615. The

Last Judgment completing the Sistine chapel was finished by Michael

Angelo in 1541 under Clement VII. and Paul III. And thus the Rome of

our days--the Rome which not as pilgrims, but as persons living

according to the fashion of our own times, which compels us to go to

and fro over all the earth and see whatever is to be seen, we visit

every year in large numbers--was left more or less as it is now, for

the admiration of the world. Much has been done since, and is doing

still every day to make more intelligible and more evident the

memorials of an inexhaustible antiquity--but in the Rome of the Popes,

the Rome of Christendom, History has had but little and Art not

another word to say.

FOOTNOTE:

[10] See the death of Pope Leo IX., p. 199.

THE END.

INDEX.

INDEX.

Adelaide of Susa, 262, 269.

Agnes, Empress, 217, 233, 237, 279;

Hildebrand becomes adviser to, 202;

alienated from Hildebrand, 214;

renounces the world, 219.

Alaric, 108, 119, 121.

Albigenses, many sects among, 355;

Pope Innocent's attitude towards, 357;

missionaries sent to, _ib._;

crusade against them, 359-361.

Albina, 17, 18, 89.

Albornoz, Cardinal, 480, 488.

Alexander II., 205, 215, 224.

Alexander VI., 581, 582, 589.

Allegories, Rienzi's painted, 413-416, 419.

Ambrose, 48.

Angelico, Fra, 546, 549.

Angelo, Michael, 588, 595, 598.

Apollinaris, the heresy of, 47, 48.

Aqueducts restored by Sixtus IV., 574.

Arimbaldo, 500;

joins Rienzi in his enterprise, 489.

Aristocracy, Roman, its position at the end of the 4th century,

3, 4, 5;

luxuriousness of the nobles, 5, 6, 7;

and of the women, 7, 8;

its characteristics in the 14th century, 396, 397.

_See_ Nobles.

Art, the Popes as patrons of, 515;

that of Rome imported from abroad, 516;

art workshops in Rome, 546.

Artists, Roman, 412, 413, 420;

employed upon the Sistine chapel, 575;

Julius II. as a patron of, 482, 583, 589.

Asella, 18, 21, 89;

Jerome's letters to, 72, 75, 76.

Athanasius, his life of St. Antony of the desert, 15;

his reception at Rome, 16;

and in the household of Albina, 17;

Melania's visit to, 33.

Attila, 120.

Augsburg, Council of, 261;

German nobles impatient to open, 274, 275.

Augustine, Gregory's instructions to, for the making of converts,

156;

and for pastoral work, _ib._, 157, 158;

sent on his mission to England, 161, 162.

Bäle, Council of, 525, 531.

Bavaria, Duke of, 260.

Beatrice of Tuscany, 204, 216, 234, 256.

Benedict, Pope, and Fra Monozello, 395.

Benedict, order of, 126, 131.

Benedict I., 138.

Benedict X.

_See_ Mincio, Bishop.

Berengarius of Tours, his heresy, 279, 290.

Bethlehem, convents founded at, by Jerome and Paula, 82.

Bible, Innocent III., on the interpretation of, by sectaries, 357.

Blæsilla, 23, 55, 67;

her conversion, 58;

her death and funeral, 63.

Bollandists, 131.

Book collector, Thomas (Nicolas V.) as, 529, 534.

Borgias, 515, 581.

Borgo, 538;

sanctity of the spot, 539, 540;

wall built to enclose, 541;

buildings erected afterwards within the enclosure, _ib._

Botticelli, 575.

Bowden, Mr., his life of Gregory VII., 515.

Bramante, 584.

Browning, Robert, 420, 421.

Brunhild, Queen, 169.

Bruno, Bishop, appointed Pope, 190;

acts on Hildebrand's advice, 191, 192;

his triumphant election at Rome, 193.

_See_ Leo IX.

Buildings, ancient, Gregory accused of destroying, 176, 177;

regarded as stone-quarries, 242, 517, 577;

restoration of, Book IV., _passim_.

Buono Stato, secret society formed for the establishment of, 423,

424;

demonstration by the conspirators, 425, 426;

its rules, 426, 427.

_See_ Rienzi.

Cadalous, anti-Pope, 216-218.

Cæsarea, Melania arrested at, 35.

Calixtus III., 552, 553.

Cammora (City Council), Rienzi protests against the rapacity of,

411.

Canossa, Pope Gregory sheltered in the castle of, 264.

Carinthia, Duke of, 260.

Castracani, 390.

Celestine, Pope, 316.

Celibacy, Jerome and the controversy regarding, 59-62;

of the clergy, _see_ Marriage of priests.

Cencius, the Roman bandit, 243, 244;

abducts Pope Gregory, 245.

Cerealis, 19.

Charities of the Roman ladies, 55, 56.

Charles IV. and Rienzi, 476.

Christianity, its conjunction with Paganism in Roman society,

7-10;

nominally embraced by the common people, 57;

again conjoined with Paganism during the Renaissance, 529.

Church, the, corruption of, 10, 11;

Jerome on the daily life of a Roman priest, 11, 12;

fierceness of controversy in, 105;

her position during the barbarian conquests of Rome, 120, 121;

beginning of her sovereignty, 121, 122;

best of the Roman youth absorbed by, 123;

made no claim to universal authority in the 6th century, 121,

132, 168;

wealth of, used for public purposes, 147;

almsgiving a principle of, 151;

Gregory's achievements for, 170;

pretensions to supremacy made by John of Constantinople, 170,

173;

Gregory's tolerant supervision of, 174;

state of, in Germany, 188;

reforms urgently necessary in, 195;

effort of Leo IX. for reform in, 196-199;

a new law for the election of the Popes, 208;

Hildebrand's ambition of making her a great arbitrating power,

211, 212;

how she secured independence in the election of the Popes, 214,

215;

first conflict between the Empire and, 215-219;

decrees of the Lateran Council against simony and marriage of

priests, 235-239;

decree against lay investiture, 239;

real opening of her struggle with the Empire, 259;

her position in Gregory's time, and that of the Scottish Church

before the Disruption, compared, 302;

her conflict with the Empire inevitable, 304, 305;

period of her greatest power, 308;

her relations with the Empire in the time of Innocent III., 311,

312.

_See_ Gregory the Great, Hildebrand _and_ Innocent III.

Cities, Italian, hostility between, 311.

Clement III., appointed by the Emperor, 290;

calls a council in Rome, 294;

his coronation, 297.

_See_ Guibert of Ravenna.

Clement VI., Rienzi's mission to, 404, 405;

confirms Rienzi's authority, 434.

Cluny, the monastery of, 186, 190.

Colonna family, patronise Petrarch, 397-400;

Petrarch's estimate of, 398, 467;

character of, 423;

rebels against Rienzi, 453;

their expedition against Rome, 453-457, 469.

Colonna, Agapito, 425, 448.

Colonna, Giordano, 430.

Colonna, Giovanni, 397, 466;

his dealings with Rienzi, 405, 409, 411.

Colonna, Giacomo, his friendship with Petrarch, 397.

Colonna, Janni, 419, 421, 422, 430, 448, 455, 456.

Colonna, Sciarra, 384, 393;

drives out the Papal troops from Rome, 384-389;

crowns Louis of Bavaria, 391.

Colonna, Stefano della, 393, 397, 425, 448, 449;

Petrarch's description of, 428;

forced to leave Rome, 429;

swears loyalty to the Buono Stato, 430;

Petrarch's account of his talk with, 467, 468.

Colonna, Stefanello, 430, 448;

and his son, 494, 495.

Colosseum, as the stone-quarry of the ages, 577.

Como, Bishop of, 219, 233.

Constantinople, downfall of, 549.

Corsignano, buildings erected in, by Pius II., 556.

Council of Constantinople, 28, 47.

Council of Rome, Jerome and, 27, 28, 43, 47.

Creighton, Bishop, quoted, 556, 578;

on Raphael's artistic aims, 598.

Crown, the imperial, 249, 289, 298.

Crusade, Gregory VII.'s dream of a, 265, 351, 352;

encouraged by successive Popes, 352;

an expedition organised, _ib._;

how it was diverted from its purpose, 353-356;

against the Albigenses, 298-301;

Innocent rouses the Italian towns to aid in, 373;

against the Turks, 553, 557, 558.

Crusaders, Innocent's instructions to his, 353;

their bargain with Venice, _ib._;

capture Constantinople, _ib._, 354.

Curzon, Robert, 310.

Damasus, Bishop, 27, 48, 70;

Jerome becomes a counsellor of, 54.

Damian, Peter, 200, 218, 219, 223.

Dante, 211, 263.

Desiderius, 301.

Dinner-parties, Roman, 6.

Dominic, 358.

Eberhard, Count, 255.

Election of the Popes, interference of Tuscany in, 203, 204, 208;

the rival authorities in, 206-208;

Hildebrand's new law for, 207;

first election under the new law, 214, 215;

Rome secures complete freedom in, 215.

Emperors, the rival, Henry IV. and Rudolf, Gregory's letters

regarding their claims, 275, 276;

treated by the Pope with severe impartiality, 278;

attitude of the Roman populace towards their envoys, _ib._;

Gregory insists upon holding a council to choose between, 281;

this plan abandoned, _ib._, 282;

Rudolf's case stated before the Lateran Council, 282;

Gregory pronounces his decision, 283-285.

_See_ Henry IV. _and_ Rudolf.

Emperors, the rival, Philip and Otho, nothing to choose between

them, 331, 332;

Innocent's attitude towards, 332, 333;

end of their ten years' struggle, 335.

_See_ Philip _and_ Otho.

Empire and Church, first conflict between, 214-218;

real opening of the struggle, 259;

inevitableness of the struggle, 304, 305;

in the time of Innocent III., 311, 312.

_See_ Henry IV., Emperor, _and_ Gregory VII.

England, the Pope's interdict upon, disregarded, 345.

Epiphanius, Bishop, 52, 79.

Eugenius IV., 514, 516; his aspect and character, 523-525;

Council of Ferrara called by, 531.

Eulogius, Gregory's letter to, 173.

Europe, state of, in the time of Innocent III., 310-312.

Eustochium, 23, 55, 78, 83, 87;

plot against, 24.

Eutychius, 155.

Excommunication often ineffectual, 289, 290, 334.

Ezekiel, Gregory's exposition of, 144, 177, 178.

Fabiola, 22, 37, 55;

her matrimonial troubles, 93;

her visit to the convent at Bethlehem, _ib._, 94;

does public penance in Rome, 95-99;

founds the first public hospital in Rome, 99.

Fabriano, Gentile da, 523.

Ferdinand of Naples, his advice regarding the streets and

balconies of Rome, 570, 571.

Ferrara, Council of, 531.

France, interdict pronounced upon, 341, 343;

alarmed by the revival of Rome, 436.

Francis of Assisi, 326.

Fraticelli, Rienzi takes refuge among, 474, 475.

Frederic II., Emperor, Innocent acts as guardian of, 326, 327.

Frederick, Abbot, elected Pope, 201.

Funeral feast, a Roman, 102-104.

Gebehard, Bishop, chosen as Pope Victor II., 200.

Genseric, 120.

German prelates, almost independent of the Pope, 334.

Germany, state of the Church in, 188;

an anti-Pope chosen by the Church in, 216.

Ghirlandajo, 575.

Gibbon quoted, 132.

Goethe quoted on Raphael's _loggie_, 599.

Gordianus, 125.

Gottfried the Hunchback, 244, 260.

Gottfried of Lorraine, 204.

Gratiano.

_See_ Gregory VI.

Greek Church, 354.

Gregorio, Count, 203.

Gregory the Great, his home and early life, 124, 125;

enters public life, 125;

first result of his religious impulse, 126;

becomes a monk, 127;

describes his doubts and his intentions, _ib._;

legends regarding his monastic life, 128;

his musings in his garden, 129, 130;

had no ecclesiastical ambitions, 131;

receives the first orders of the Church, _ib._;

appointed a cardinal deacon, _ib._;

Gibbon's description of him as a nuncio, _ib._;

his position in the Court at Constantinople, 132;

in the society of his monks, 132-138;

his commentary on Job, 134, 135;

its moral discursiveness, 136, 137;

how he was assisted in it by the monks, 137;

his liberality, 139, 147;

promotion, and popularity as a preacher, 139;

his encounter with the English slave-children, _ib._, 140;

sets out on his mission to Britain, 141;

compelled to return, 142;

effect upon him of the story of Trajan and the widow, _ib._,

143;

organises processions of penitents during the plague, 144, 145;

his vision of the angel, 146, 147;

elected Bishop of Rome, 148;

attempts to escape from this responsibility, _ib._;

his repugnance to the cares of office, 149;

his conviction that the end of the world was near, _ib._, 150;

feeds the starving poor of Rome, 151;

preserves Rome from attacks by the barbarians, 152;

was not a learned man, _ib._, 153;

his instructions to missionaries for the making of converts,

156, 157;

and for pastoral work, _ib._;

his intercessions and negotiations for the safety of Rome, 158,

159;

amount of his work and responsibility, 159, 160;

welcomes the usurping Emperor Phocas, 160;

sends forth Augustine on his mission to England, 161-163;

no reason for attributing to him a great scheme of papal

supremacy, 163, 164, 175, 176;

his reformation in music, 165, 166;

introduces changes in the ritual, 166;

his daily surroundings and occupations, 167, 168;

his rules of religious discipline, 168;

not a faultless character, 169;

his achievements for Rome and for the Church, _ib._;

his indignation at the assumption of supremacy by John of

Constantinople, 170;

his letters on this subject to the Emperor and to the Eastern

Bishop, _ib._, 173;

his letter to Eulogius, 173;

tolerant in the supervision of his bishops, 175;

had no desire for political independence, _ib._;

accused of causing the destruction of ancient buildings, 176,

177;

his last illness, 177;

his commentaries on Ezekiel and Job, _ib._;

his death, _ib._;

spots connected with his memory, 179.

Gregory VI., 186, 188;

how he secured his election, 183;

deposition of, _ib._, 189.

Gregory, VII., (_see_ Hildebrand), his dream of elevating the

Church, 231;

hopelessness of his instruments, _ib._;

his reforms, and the enemies they raised up against him, _ib._,

232;

sufferings of his later years, 232;

council for the discussion of questions between Henry IV. and,

233;

reconciliation between Henry and, 235;

his letter summoning the first Lateran Council, _ib._;

his decree against lay investiture, 239, 240;

unbosoms himself in a letter to Hugo, 240;

his care for the cause of justice and public honesty, 240-242;

abduction of, by Cencius, 245;

rescued by the populace, 249, 250;

summons Henry to appear before the papal court, 251;

his letter of remonstrance to the Emperor, 252;

council convoked by Henry for the overthrow of, 253, 254;

acts and addresses against, issued by this council, 254, 255;

his reception of the Emperor's letters, 257-259;

excommunicates the Emperor, 259;

effect of this step, 259-261;

agrees to preside over the Council of Augsburg, 261;

sets out for Augsburg, _ib._;

takes refuge in the Castle of Canossa, 264-266;

German bishops make their submission to, 266;

accepts Henry's promises of amendment, 270;

receives him again into the church, _ib._, 271;

his attitude towards Henry, 273;

his letter to the German princes, 274;

shut up in Canossa Castle, _ib._;

anxious to take part in the settlement of the Empire, 275;

his letters on the rivalry of the two kings, _ib._, 276;

sends legates to both kings demanding a safe-conduct, 276;

his authority disregarded by the rival parties, _ib._, 277;

treats both impartially, 278;

and the heresy of Berengarius, 279;

and the Norwegian king's request for missionaries, _ib._, 280;

insists upon a council to choose between the rival kings, 281;

his reception of the statement of Rudolf's envoys, 283;

appeals to St. Peter to judge of his dealings with Henry, 284,

285;

asserts his claim to universal authority, 286;

sends the imperial crown to Rudolf, 289;

Henry's council for the deposition of, _ib._;

his reconciliation with Guiscard, 291, 292;

council convoked by the anti-Pope to reverse his anathemas, 293;

Henry submits his cause to a council convoked by, 295;

refuses to make peace with Henry, 296;

confined to the Castle of St. Angelo, 297;

his faith in his mission, 298;

brings down the Normans upon Rome, 299;

his spirit broken by the sack of Rome, 300;

his journey to Salerno, _ib._, 301;

revival of his former energy, 302;

the abuses he opposed, and those in the Church of Scotland

before the Disruption, compared, _ib._, 303;

a martyr to his hatred of simony, 303, 304;

his death, 305;

his life and achievements, 306, 308, 363, 514.

Guelf and Ghibelline, when these titles were first used, 326.

Guglielmo, Fra, 447.

Guibert of Ravenna, 232, 244, 292;

elected Pope by the Emperor's supporters, 290.

_See_ Clement III.

Guiscard, Robert, 232, 244;

Gregory's reconciliation with, 291;

leaves the Pope to his fate, 293;

rescues the Pope and sacks Rome, 299;

conducts Gregory to Salerno, 300, 301.

Helena, Empress, 40.

Heliodorus, Jerome's epistle to, 46.

Helvidius, 60.

Henry III., Emperor, 183;

patronises Hildebrand, 187;

appoints three successive Popes, 189.

Henry IV., Emperor, his vicious character, 223, 224;

summoned before the Papal court, 224;

council for the discussion of questions between Gregory and,

233;

reconciliation between Gregory and, 235;

rebels against the decrees of the Lateran Council, 251;

Gregory's letter of remonstrance to, 252;

summons a council for the overthrow of the Pope, 253, 254;

acts and addresses issued by the council, 254, 255;

excommunication of, 259;

abandoned by his friends and supporters, 260, 261;

his princes threaten to elect a king in his place, 261;

determines to make his submission to Gregory, _ib._;

his fortunes begin to revive, 266;

his arrival at the Castle of Canossa, _ib._, 269;

his penances, 270;

his bond of repentance accepted by Gregory, _ib._;

received again into the Church, _ib._, 271;

his attitude towards Gregory, 272;

refuses his consent to the council of arbitration, 281;

Gregory appeals to St. Peter to judge of his dealings with,

282-285;

again excommunicated and dethroned, 285;

his council for the deposition of Gregory, 289, 290;

chooses an anti-Pope, 290;

success of his enterprises, _ib._;

crowned Emperor by his anti-Pope, 292;

seizes the Leonine city, 293;

submits his cause to a council convoked by Gregory, 295;

this council proves fruitless, 296;

becomes master of Rome, _ib._, 297;

evacuates the city, 299-300.

_See_ Emperors, the rival.

Henry VI., Emperor, 327, 328.

Henry VII., 402.

Heresy, the, of the Albigenses, 355,356;

Innocent's letter on, 356;

ordinances against, 370.

Hermits, Egyptian desert peopled by, 34;

Melania supports and protects fugitive, 35;

self-chastisements of, 43, 44.

_See_ Monks.

Hildebrand, his wanderings about the world, 184;

surroundings of his early life, _ib._, 185;

at the monastery of Cluny, 186;

patronised by the Emperor, Henry III., _ib._, 187;

influence of his experience of the Church in Germany upon, 188;

beginning of his public life, _ib._;

follows the deposed Gregory VI. into exile, 189;

in Germany again, 190;

becomes a counsellor of Bruno, 191;

his plan for Bruno's conduct successful, 193;

offices conferred upon, by Leo IX., _ib._;

sets in order the monastery of St. Paul, 195;

his work in Rome under Leo, 200;

selects a German prelate as Pope, _ib._;

becomes adviser to the Empress Agnes, 202;

solicits the intervention of Tuscany in the election of the

Popes, 204, 207;

the actual possessor of the power of two weak Popes, 205, 206;

holds a council in Rome, 206;

his new law for the election of the Popes, 207, 208;

his aims and purposes, 208, 211;

his dream of the Church as disinterested arbitrator in all

quarrels, 211, 212;

did he desire universal authority? 212;

begins his reign under Nicolas II., _ib._;

his letter to a powerful archbishop, 213;

secures for Rome complete independence in the choice of Popes,

215;

his sanction of the invasion of England by the Normans, 221;

supports the Conqueror's spoliation of Saxon abbeys, _ib._;

summons Henry IV. to appear before the papal court, 224;

development of his ideal of the Church's sovereignty, _ib._,

225;

chosen and elected Pope, 225-227;

his abstemious habits, 297.

_See_ Gregory VII.

Historian of Rienzi, 382, 383.

Hospital founded by Fabiola, 99.

Hospital Santo Spirito rebuilt by Innocent, 376;

and again by Sixtus IV., 572, 573.

Hugo of Cluny, 234, 265, 269;

Gregory's letter to, 240.

Humanists, school of, 560, 561.

Ingelburga, 340, 343.

Innocent III., his wide-spread activity, 308;

his family, _ib._, 309;

his education, 309;

becomes a canon of St. Peter's, 310;

appointed Cardinal, 313;

his book on the vanity of life, 313-315;

elected Pope, 316;

his address to the assembly after his consecration, 319-322;

endeavours to strengthen his hold upon Rome, 322-324;

changes the constitution of the city, 323;

regains possession of the Papal States, 325, 326;

acts as guardian to Frederic of Sicily, 326;

profits by the inactivity of the Empire, _ib._;

sides against Philip, 332, 333;

supports Otho, 333;

unable to enforce his authority over the German prelates, 334;

excommunicates Philip, _ib._;

his part in the ten years' struggle between Philip and Otho,

335;

crowns Otho as Emperor, 338;

Otho breaks faith with, 339, 340;

his dealings with Philip Augustus, 340-343;

pronounces interdict upon France, 341, 342;

his activity, 344;

pronounces interdict upon England, 345;

excommunicates King John, _ib._;

his acceptance of John's oath, 349;

his dealings with John unworthy of his character, _ib._, 350;

his instructions to the Crusaders, 353;

protests against the use made of the expedition, 354;

his letter on heresy, 356;

on the interpretation of the Bible by sectarians, _ib._;

his attitude towards the Albigenses, 357, 358;

sends missionaries to them, 358;

proclaims a crusade against them, 359;

his career a failure, 361-363;

strengthened Papal authority over the Church, 364;

his address to the fourth Lateran Council, 365-369;

and the appeal of the Provençal nobles, 371;

befriends Raymond of Toulouse, 372;

rouses the Italian towns to aid in a crusade, 373;

his death, 374;

small result of his activities, _ib._;

Roman populace at enmity with, 375;

his gifts to his brother Richard, _ib._;

buildings erected by, 376;

his character, _ib._;

the greatness of his ideals, 514.

Innocent VI., 484.

Innocent VIII., 581, 582.

Jerome, 28, 37, 42, 43, 66, 77;

quoted, 7, 19, 57, 58, 63, 69, 70, 110, 114;

on the daily life of a Roman priest, 11, 12;

accused of being concerned in Melania's disappearance, 33;

his life in the desert, 44, 45;

his Epistle to Heliodorus, 45, 46;

enters into religious controversy, 46, 47;

his usefulness recognised by the Church in Rome, 48;

lodged in Marcella's palace, 49;

his friendship with Paula, _ib._, 69;

his life among the Roman ladies, 50-54;

his position in Roman society, 54;

begins his translation of Scripture, _ib._;

popular resentment against, 59, 62, 63, 69, 70;

engages in the controversy regarding celibacy, 60;

his letter on virginity quoted, _ib._, 61;

his letter to Paula on her daughter's death, 68, 69;

forced to retire from Rome, 72;

his letters to Asella, 72-76;

joins Paula's caravanserai, 79;

founds a convent at Bethlehem, 82;

how his translation of the Scriptures was finished, 84-88;

entreats Marcella to abandon the world, 91;

puzzled by Fabiola's curiosity, 95;

his judgment in the case of a divorced woman, 96;

his controversy with Rufinus, 100, 101.

Jeronimo, Count, 580.

Jerusalem, 40, 41.

Jews, 370.

Job, Gregory undertakes a commentary on, at the request of his

monks, 134-138.

John XXII., 384;

deposed by the Emperor Louis, 392;

his supporters regain possession of Rome, 393.

John of Constantinople, his pretensions to supremacy over the

Church, 170, 174;

Gregory's letter to, 173.

John, King of England, and the Pope's interdict, 344, 345;

excommunicated and deposed, 345;

swears fealty as a vassal of the Pope, _ib._, 346.

Jovinian, 60.

Jubilee, papal, 429, 480, 483, 536.

Julian, Emperor, 8.

Julius II., a fighting Pope, 582;

a patron of artists, 583, 589;

pulls down the ancient St. Peter's, _ib._, 587, 591;

secures the States of the Church, 587;

employs Raphael, 589, 590;

his portrait by Raphael, 590;

his death and career, 590-592.

Ladies. _See_ Women.

Lanciani, Professor, 242, 539, 540.

Langton, Stephen, 287.

Lateran Council, the first, Gregory's letter convoking, 235;

its decrees against simony and marriage of priests, 236-238;

lay investiture prohibited by the second Council, 239;

reception of the Emperor's letters by Gregory in, 256-259;

demands the excommunication of Henry, 259;

decides the case of the rival emperors, 281-285;

the fourth, Pope Innocent's address to, 365-369;

ordinances passed by, 370, 371;

gives judgment for de Montfort against the Provençal nobles,

371, 372.

Lay investiture, decree against, 239.

Leander, 133;

Gregory's letter to, 127, 149.

Learning, how pursued during the Renaissance, 529;

Nicolas V. as a patron of, 537.

Legacies to priests declared illegal, 12.

Leo IV., the Leonine city enclosed by, 541-543.

Leo IX., confers offices upon Hildebrand, 193;

his tour of reformation, 195-199;

at the Council of Rheims, 198;

his use of the power of excommunication, 199;

his last enterprise and his death, _ib._, 200.

_See_ Bruno, Bishop.

Leo X., 515, 516;

little troubled by the rebellion against the Papacy, 592, 595;

his attitude towards Luther, 596, 597;

obliged to fight for the Patrimony, _ib._;

amuses himself with his painters and his court, _ib._, 598;

his patronage of Raphael the chief element in his fame, 598;

his career, 599.

Leo XIII., as Papa Angelico, 212 _n._

Leonine city. _See_ Borgo.

Leopold of Mainz, 334.

Lombard League, 325.

Lorenzo, Cola's son, his baptism of blood, 461.

Louis of Bavaria, 384;

his reception in Rome, 320, 321;

his coronation, 390, 391;

declares Pope John deposed, 392;

elects a new Pope, _ib._;

recrowned by his anti-Pope, _ib._, 393;

his departure from Rome, 393.

Luther, Martin, 595;

Pope Leo's attitude towards, 596.

Lytton, Lord, his novel _Rienzi_, 420.

Maddalena, Rienzi's mother, 402.

Manno, Giovanni, 386.

Mantegna, Andrea, 582.

Marcella, early life and marriage of, 17, 18;

becomes a widow, 18;

her reputation for eccentricity, _ib._, 19;

forms her community of Christian women, 20;

her zeal for knowledge, 26;

entreated by Paula and Jerome to abandon the world, 89-91;

prefers her useful life in Rome, 92, 93;

saves Principia from the Goths, 110;

tortured by them, _ib._;

her death, 113.

_See_ Marcella, the Society of.

Marcella, the Society of, founded, 20;

character and position of the members, 21;

some associates of, 22-24;

a religious and intellectual meeting-place, 25;

daily life of the members, 26;

Thierry quoted on their occupations, _ib._;

Jerome becomes the guest of, 49, 54;

wealth and liberality of, 55, 56;

unrestricted life of, 57;

shares in the popular resentment against Jerome, 77;

last days of, 108-110.

Marcellinus, Ammianus, quoted, 5, 6, 11.

Marriage of priests, decree of the first Lateran Council against,

235, 238;

priests rebel against this measure, 237;

effects of the decree on the minds of the laity, 238, 239.

Martin V., 516, 517, 525;

begins the reconstruction and adornment of Rome, 523;

administers justice _ib._

Martino, F. di, 544.

Matilda of Tuscany, 204, 217, 233, 256, 262, 269, 270, 292, 325;

her character, etc., 263.

Maurice, Emperor, 148, 152, 160

Maximianus, 139.

Medici, Cosimo dei, 534.

Melania, her bereavement, 30;

abandons her son, _ib._, 31;

sensation caused in Rome by her disappearance, 32;

in the Egyptian deserts, 33;

provides for and protects hunted monks, 35;

her encounter with the proconsul in Palestine, _ib._;

accompanied by Rufinus, 36, 39;

founds a monastery at Jerusalem, 41;

the nature of her self-sacrifice, _ib._;

her quarrel with Paula, 81.

Mercenaries. _See_ Soldiers of Fortune.

Milman, Dean, 363.

Mincio, Bishop, how he was elected Pope, 203;

his abdication, 204.

Missionaries, Gregory's instructions to, for the making of

converts, 156;

and for pastoral work, _ib._, 157.

Monks, wandering, 36, 37, 184;

resentment of the Roman populace against, 63;

Gregory's following of, 132-138.

Monozello, Fra, and Pope Benedict, 395.

Montefiascone, the wine of, 485 _n._

Montfort, Simon de, 360, 361, 371, 372.

Monuments, ancient, restored by Paul II., 562.

Moreale, Fra, 487;

agrees to assist in Rienzi's undertaking, 489, 490;

arrives in Rome, 496;

his arrest and execution, 497-500.

Muntz, M., quoted, 562.

Music, Gregory's reformation in, 165, 166;

a commentary on his system, as adopted by the Germans and

Gauls, 166.

Nicolas II., 205, 213.

Nicolas V., 392, 516, 562, 567;

as a lover of literature, 530;

unconscious of the coming revolution, _ib._;

his origin, 531;

his learning, _ib._;

makes his reputation, 532;

as a book collector, 534;

his character, 535;

a lover of peace, _ib._;

his dealings with his literary men, 537;

churches rebuilt by, 544;

his additions to the Vatican and to St. Peter's, 545;

founds the Vatican library, 546;

his work as a builder-Pope, 549;

his death-bed counsel to his cardinals, 550, 551.

Nobles, Roman, strongholds of, in Rome, 382;

use made of, by Rienzi, 447, 448;

arrested at Rienzi's banquet, and afterwards discharged, 449;

effect of this treatment upon, 450;

rebellion of the Orsini, 451;

and of the Colonnas, 453-456;

their return to the city, 472, 473.

_See_ Aristocracy.

Normans of Southern Italy, 199, 200, 213, 225;

Rome sacked by, 299.

Nuncio, Gregory as a, 132, 138.

Oceanus, 37, 101.

Odilon of Cluny, 186.

Olaf, King of Norway, 280.

Origen, 100.

Orsini family, 424, 436, 448, 454, 467;

rebel against Rienzi, 451.

Orsini, Bartoldo, 393.

Orsini, Ranello, 430.

Orsini, Robert, 425.

Otho, Philip's rival in the Empire, 331;

supported by the Pope, 333;

becomes Emperor, 336;

his coronation in Rome, 336-338;

breaks faith with the Pope, 339, 340.

_See_ Emperors, the rival.

Paganism, its conjunction with the Christian religion in Roman

society, 8, 9;

this conjunction occurs again at the Renaissance, 530.

Palazzo Venezia, 559.

Pammachius, 55, 77, 99, 101, 114.

Papencordt quoted, 450.

Pastoral work, Gregory's instructions regarding, 156-158.

Paul II. builds the Palazzo Venezia, 559;

Platina's strictures upon, _ib._, 560;

dismisses the learned men patronised by Pius, 560, 561;

imprisons Platina, 561;

his liberality, 562;

restores ancient monuments, _ib._;

his magnificent tastes, _ib._, 563;

Platina on his private life, 563;

his humours and vanities, 564;

his death, 568.

Paula, 37, 63;

and her family, 22-25, 26;

her friendship with Jerome, 49, 69;

her character and position, 65, 66;

how she was attracted to the Marcellan Society, 66;

Jerome's letter to, on Blæsilla's death, 68, 69;

her abandonment of her home and children, 77, 78;

her journey to Jerusalem, 79, 80;

her quarrel with Melania, 81;

travels through Syria, _ib._;

builds convents and a hospice, 82, 83;

assists Jerome in the translation of the Scriptures, 83-88;

entreats Marcella to join her in Bethlehem, 90, 91.

Paulina, 23, 55, 77;

her death, 101;

the funeral feast, 102-104.

Paulinian, 101.

Paulinus, Bishop, quoted, 105.

Peacemakers, 431.

Pelagius II., 141, 147;

his letter on the defenceless state of Rome, 138.

Pen, silver, used by Rienzi, 411.

Pepino, Count, 471.

Perugino, 575, 590.

Petrarch, 390, 411, 437;

his friendship with the Colonna family, 397;

crowned Altissimo Poeta, 398, 399;

quoted, 433, 435, 450, 465, 466, 522;

his letters to Rienzi, 361, 369, 386;

his faith in Rienzi shaken, 387;

his letter describing his talk with Stefano, 467, 468;

letter on Rienzi's career and downfall, 478, 479;

describes how Rienzi's condemnation was reversed, 479, 480.

Philip Augustus of France and his wives, 340-343;

his threatened invasion of England, 345.

Philip of Swabia elected Emperor, 330;

Innocent's denunciation of, 333;

his success, 335;

his death, 336.

Phocas, Emperor, 160, 169.

Pintore, Antonazzo, 576.

Pius II., 562, 567;

his early career, 553, 554;

his character, 554;

his writings, 555;

as a builder, 556;

his enthusiasm for the crusade against the Turk, 557, 558.

Plague in Rome, and the processions of penitents, 144-146.

Platina, his biased account of Paul II., 559, 560;

protests against Paul's dismissal of the learned men, 560;

imprisoned, 561;

reinstated, 577.

Poor, the destitute, Gregory feeds and cares for, 151.

Popes, three rival, in Rome, 183;

how their conflict was ended, _ib._;

three successive, appointed by the Emperor Henry III., 189,190;

become fighting princes, 513, 514;

ideals of the greatest, 514;

art-patrons among, 515;

how treated by English writers, _ib._;

success of the builder-Popes, 516, 517;

their power and influence in the times of Pius II. and Paul

II., 564, 567.

_See_ Gregory the Great, Hildebrand, Innocent III., Election

of the Popes, _et passim_.

Populace, Roman, degraded state of, in the 4th century, 4, 5;

all nominally Christian, 57;

their resentment against the monks, 63;

compel Gregory to abandon his mission to Britain, 141, 142;

Gregory feeds the destitute poor, 151;

fight between Papal troops and, 385-389;

their reception of Louis of Bavaria, 389-391;

reception of Fra Venturino by, 394, 395;

unruliness and recklessness of, 395;

enthusiastic over the crowning of Petrarch, 399, 400;

Rienzi as an ambassador of, to Clement VI., 404-409;

give absolute power to Rienzi, 427;

begin to criticise Rienzi, 438;

their conflict with the Colonna, 454-457;

resent Rienzi's baptism of his son, 461, 462;

had no active share in Rienzi's downfall, 472;

invite him to reassume the government of the city, 489;

their reception of Rienzi, 494;

their rising against him, 502-508.

_See_ Rome.

Prætextata, 23, 24.

Priests, Roman, Jerome quoted on, 11, 12.

Principia, 100, 110.

Provence, Innocent's missionaries in, 358, 359;

appeal of the forfeited lords of, against de Montfort, 371.

Raphael, 595, 597;

employed by Julius II., 589, 590;

his portrait of Julius, 590;

Pope Leo's patronage of, 598;

Bishop Creighton on his artistic aims, _ib._;

had no didactic purposes, _ib._

Raymond, Bishop, the Pope's Vicar, 416, 424, 427, 429;

protests against Rienzi's pretensions, 442;

reconciled to Rienzi, 471.

Raymond of Toulouse, 371, 372.

"Religious adventures," 36, 37.

Renaissance, 526, 529;

conjunction of Christianity and Paganism during, 530.

Rheims, Council of, the Pope's opening address, 197;

speeches of the bishops, 198.

Riario, Pietro, 578, 579.

Riccardo Imprennante, 500.

Richard, brother of Pope Innocent, 575.

Rienzi, Cola di, his historian, 382, 384;

his parentage, 403, 404;

his love for the ancient writers, 403;

his early life, _ib._, 404;

sent on a mission to Clement VI., 404;

appointed notary to the City Council of Rome, 405;

success of the mission, 406;

letter announcing his success, _ib._;

disgrace and return to favour, 410, 411;

protests against the rapacity of the City Council, 412;

his painted allegories, 413, 415, 419;

attitude of the patricians towards, 416, 419, 423;

his address to the Roman notables, 417, 418;

his power and privileges, 418;

and the secret society, 423,424;

the conspiracy carried out, 425;

addresses the people on the Capitol, 426;

absolute power given to, by the people, 427;

drives all the nobles out of Rome, 429;

compels the nobles to swear loyalty to the Buono Stato, _ib._,

430;

his character, 431;

justice and public safety in Rome secured by, 431-434;

his braggadocio, 432;

secures the safety of travellers on the roads, _ib._, 433;

his authority confirmed by the Pope, 434;

his procession to St. Peter's, _ib._, 435;

his love of magnificence, 435;

Petrarch's letters to, 436;

success of his warlike expeditions, _ib._, 437;

beginning of his indiscretions, 437, 438;

makes himself a knight, 438;

claims to hold his authority from God and from the people, 440;

friendly messages from European monarchs to, 441;

ceremonials of his knighthood, _ib._, 442;

the Pope's Vicar protests against his pretensions, 443;

claims universal dominion in the name of the Roman people,

_ib._, 444;

sincerity of his claim, 444, 445;

crowning of, 445, 446;

Fra Guglielmo's grief for, 447;

makes use of the nobles, _ib._, 448;

gives a banquet to the nobles, 448;

arrests and discharges them, 449;

his expedition against the Orsini, 451;

his meeting with the Pope's legate, 452;

a powerful party organised against, 453;

apprehensive of danger, _ib._;

celebrates his victory over the Colonna, 457;

fails to take advantage of his success, 460;

his son's baptism of blood, 461;

his friends begin to desert him, 462;

Petrarch's letter of reproof to, 465;

Petrarch's faith in him shaken, 466;

moderates his magnificence and his arrogance, 470;

sees visions of disaster, 471;

his downfall, 471-473;

develops the character of a conspirator, 473, 474;

takes refuge among the Fraticelli, 474, 475;

his correspondence with Charles IV., 476;

handed over to the Pope, _ib._;

condemned to death, 477;

how he was saved, _ib._, 479;

his career and downfall, Petrarch's letter on, 478;

returns with the Pope's legate to Rome, 484, 485;

welcomed in the towns of the Patrimony, 488;

his enterprise assisted by Moreale and his mercenaries, 490;

obtains the countenance of the Pope's legate, _ib._, 491;

his expedition sets out, 491;

his hopes and aims, 492;

his reception by the Roman populace, 493, 494;

change in his outward man, 494;

his expedition against Stefanello, _ib._, 495;

his motives for executing Moreale, 496;

imprisons and executes Moreale, 497-500;

this act generally approved, 500;

but questioned by his councillors, _ib._;

how he raised money to pay the mercenaries, 501;

becomes irresolute, 502;

his final downfall and death, 502-509;

estimate of his career, 508, 509.

Roads made safe for travellers, 434.

Robert, King of Naples, 399.

Roland of Parma presents Henry's letters to Pope Gregory, 257.

Roman society, state of, at the end of the 4th century, 3 _et

seq._;

irresponsible wealth of the patrician class, 3, 4;

debased state of the populace, 4, 5;

luxurious habits of the nobles, 5, 6;

and of the women, 7;

conjunction of the old and new religions in, 8-10;

relations of the Church with, 10-12;

Jerome's picture of, quoted, 60, 61;

undermined by the ascetic ideals, 106-108.

_See_ Aristocracy _and_ Populace.

Rome, her two conquests of the world, 1, 2;

transitional period in her history, 2;

her position at the end of the 4th century, 3;

believed in the 4th century to be the Scarlet Woman of

Revelation, 105;

sacked by the Goths, 108, 109;

successive sieges of, 119, 120;

no patriot aroused to the defence of, 123;

defenceless state of, 138;

distress and pestilence in, 144-147, 150, 151;

preserved by Gregory from barbarian attacks, 151;

heartened by Gregory's energy, 159;

Gregory's achievements for, 169, 182;

Gregory accused of destroying ancient buildings in, 176;

state of, in the 11th century, 182, 183;

its outward aspect in the time of Gregory VII., 242, 243;

a portion of, seized by Emperor Henry IV., 293;

Henry withdraws his troops from, 295;

and again occupies the city, 296, 297;

sacked by Guiscard and the Normans, 299;

Innocent III. endeavours to strengthen his hold upon, 322, 323;

her constitution changed by Gregory, 323;

populace of, at enmity with Innocent III., 375;

buildings erected in, by Innocent, 376;

disorderly state of, in the 14th century, 381-383;

strongholds of the great nobles in, 382;

fight between Papal troops and the people of, 384-386;

reception of Louis of Bavaria in, 389;

as arbiter of the world, 390;

how Fra Venturino was received in, 394, 395;

public safety and justice unknown in, 401, 424, 425;

establishment of the Buono Stato in, 425-427;

public safety secured in, by Rienzi, 432, 434;

apprehensions aroused in foreign countries by the revival of,

435, 436;

her claim to universal dominion, 439;

assertion of the claim by Rienzi, 442-444;

expedition of the Colonna against, 453-457;

dream of a double reign of universal dominion in, 475;

celebration of the Jubilee in, 480, 481;

anarchy in, after Rienzi's fall, 483, 484;

possessed no native art, 516;

external state of, at Pope Martin's entry, 517-522;

restoration and adornment of, begun, 522, 523, 525;

restoration and adornment of buildings in, by Nicolas V., 544,

549;

art workshops in, 545, 546;

ancient monuments restored by Paul II., 562;

still disorderly, 569;

King Ferdinand's advice regarding the balconies and tortuous

streets, 570;

his suggestion adopted by Sixtus, 571.

_See_ Borgo.

Rudolf, Duke of Suabia, 233, 290;

elected king, 275;

anxious for the council of arbitration, 281;

his case stated before the Lateran Council, 282;

declared King of Germany by the Pope, 285;

Gregory sends the imperial crown to, 289;

his death, 290.

_See_ Emperors, the two rival.

Rufinus travels with Melania, 36, 37;

arrives in Rome, 100;

his controversy with Jerome, _ib._

St. Benedict. _See_ Benedict, order of.

St. Jerome. _See_ Jerome.

St. John Lateran, the church of, 521, 573;

internal revolution in, 588.

St. Mary, the monastery of, 186.

St. Paul, the monastery of, Hildebrand's reforms in, 194.

St. Peter, evidence for his presence and execution in Rome, 540.

St. Peter's, the old and the modern church, 539, 541;

additions made to, by Nicolas, 545;

pulled down by Julius II., 583, 584;

architecture of the ancient church, 584;

completion of the present church, 600.

St. Remy, consecration of the church of, 196.

St. Stefano Rotondo, church of, rebuilt, 544.

St. Teodoro, church of, rebuilt, 544.

Salerno, Gregory's arrival at, 301.

San Lorenzo, chapel of, 546.

Savelli, Francesco, 430.

Savelli, Luca de, 448.

Saviello, Jacopo di, 384, 385.

Scotland, Church of, its position before the Disruption, and that

of the Church in Gregory's time, compared, 302, 303.

Secret society, the, and Rienzi's address to, 423, 424;

the conspiracy carried out, 425-427.

Silvia, 124, 128.

Simony, 188, 224, 230;

crusade of Leo IX. against, 196-199;

Hildebrand's hatred of, 211, 232;

condemned by the first Lateran Council, 236;

Gregory VII. a martyr to his hatred of, 303, 304.

Sismondi quoted, 390.

Sistine chapel, 575;

completion of, 601.

Sixtus IV., his pedigree, 569;

his purposes and achievements, _ib._, 570;

rebuilds the narrow and tortuous streets, 570;

builds a bridge over the Tiber, 571;

reconstructs the hospital Santo Spirito, 572, 573;

his violent temper, 573;

all Rome pervaded by his work, _ib._, 574;

restores the aqueducts, 574;

painters employed by, for the Sistine chapel, 575;

his varied aims and activities, 575-577;

reinstates Platina and his fellow-scholars, 577;

enlarges the Vatican library, _ib._;

his taste in art, _ib._;

his favourites, 578-580.

Soldiers of Fortune, 487;

Rienzi procures the services of, 489;

how he raised money to pay them, 501.

States of the Church, Innocent III. regains possession of, 324,

325;

secured by Julius II., 587;

part of them lost again, 596.

Stefano, Cardinal, 215.

Tasso, 263.

Taxes imposed by Rienzi, 501.

Tedeschi, the, 325, 389.

Thebaid, the, 15.

Theodolinda, Queen, 151, 156, 159.

Thierry, quoted, 21, 26, 84, 93, 96.

Thomas of Sarzana. _See_ Nicolas V.

Toulouse, 358.

Trajan and the widow, effect of the story upon Gregory, 143.

Tuscan League, 325, 326.

Tuscany, interference of, in the election of the Popes, 203,

204, 216, 217.

Utrecht, Bishop of, 260.

Vatican, its reconstruction begun by Innocent, 376;

enlarged and adorned by the Popes, 544;

additions built to, by Nicolas, 545;

library of, founded by Nicolas, 546;

and enlarged by Sixtus, 577.

Venice, drives a bargain with the Crusaders, 353.

Venturino, Fra, his reception in Rome, 394, 395.

Vertolle, Conte di, 448.

Vespasiano the bookseller, 523, 524.

Vico, Giovanni di, 436, 437, 453.

William the Conqueror, his invasion of England sanctioned by

Hildebrand, 221, 222.

Women, friendships between religious zealots and, 49, 50;

harshly spoken of by Catholic teachers, 49;

their success in the art of government, 202;

take part in the election of a Pope, 227;

form part of a council called by Gregory VII., 233, 234.

Women, Roman, their artificial life, 7;

influence of the conflicting religions upon their actions, 9,

10;

Jerome's description of different types of, 60-62.

_See_ Marcella, the Society of.

Worms, Council of, 190, 253-255.

Zara, capture of, by the Crusaders, 353.